DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

BOOK TO BE REVIEWED: Bandopadhyay, A. Ed, Nature, Knowledge,

Development: Critical Essay on Environmental History of India, Primus Books, Delhi, 2016

PART 1- SUMMARY OF THE BOOK (TOTAL PAGES-193)

PART 2- DEALS WITH THREE IMPORTANT

QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT IN YOUR OPINION, IS THE CENTRAL ARGUMENT OF THE BOOK AS

DRAWN FROM THE SUMMARY YOU HAVE MADE?
2. WHICH PART OF THE ARGUMENT DO YOU SEE AS PERTINENT TO
UNDRSTANDING THE DYNAMICS OF KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIETY?
3. FROM THE RANGE OF PERSPECTIVES DEALT THUS FAR IN THE COURSE,
OFFER TWO POINTS OF CRITICISMS TO THE CENTRAL ARGUMENT.

SUBMITTED TO: PROF. MADHULIKHA BANERJEE

SUBMITTED BY: HARSHITA GUPTA
M.A. (POL. SCI.), FINAL
KIRORI MAL COLLEGE, 1957105
19036724017 (EXAMINATION ROLL NO.)
harshitagupta261999@gmail.com
SUBMITTED ON: APRIL 8th, 2021 (THURSDAY)
 Bandopadhyay, A. Ed, Nature, Knowledge, Development: Critical Essay on
Environmental History of India, Primus Books, Delhi, 2016.
PART I- SUMMARY OF THE BOOK BASED ON PARAGRAPHS

CHAPTER- 1 INTRODUCTION OF NATURE, KNOWLEDGE AND DEVELOPMENT by

Arun Bandopadhyay (TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 15 ), pp- 1-6.
PARA 1: The book deals with various issues ranging from environmental criticism of
modern science, philosophical evaluation of deep ecology to social scientific studies on
forest and tribal rights from pre- colonial to post colonial in Indian context.
PARA 2: Authors here investigates two fundamental questions one is Why should we
research for environmental history? And how the relationship establishes between
nature, knowledge and development through interdisciplinary perspective.
PARA 3: Author here highlights the politics not just in terms of state politics and policies
but politicization of conflict from pre colonial to post colonial period.
PARA 4: Instance: critical discusions on conflict between state, companies and people for
resources in post colonial period are the result pre-colonial policies.
PARA 5: It also reflects perception, ideas, livelihood, struggles and movement of
indigenous and primitive people critical of Western Development Policies and Models
while locating the root cause of post-colonial India’s problem in colonial legacy.
PARA 6: Impact of colonial legacy on India’s transformation and destructuction of nature,
has been evolved throughout the period of time and become more complex and inter-
disciplinary analysis. It brings legal history and issues of rights at the centre of research.
PARA 7: T.K. Chattopadhtyay criticizes the modern science for understanding the nature
from dominant rational perspective where reductionist nature of western science in
relation with capitalism comes incontrast with holistic nature of ecology.
PARA 8: Priyambada Sarkar critically evaluate the notion of deep ecology as a movement
and philosophily while referring to the Indian ancient text.
PARA 9: Arun Bandopadhyay analysis the forest policies in colonial and post colonial times
in the context of social history of the environment.
PARA 10: Biswamoy Pati writing from socio-historical perspective present the case study
of Kalahadi famine in 1800-1950 which unleashed the terror that haunt the people of
Kalahadi even today and locate the root problem in pre-colonial times.
PARA 11: Sanjukta Das Gupta presents the case study Singbhum where she holds earlier
agriculture and dependence on forest complement each other but during colonialisation,
settled cultivation made the life of tribal people unstable and forced them to migrate.
PARA 12: V. Damodaran focuses on wild resources & inter- connection between ecological
change, famine and poverty and uncovers how sustainable economy of the tribal peoples
and old aged resistance to drought and famine had become distrupted by colonialisation.
PARA 13: Raj Shekhar Basu writing from socio-economic perspective linked the
evironmental issues with marginalised groups in his case study on Andhra Pradesh
Watershed Management.
 PARA 14: He uncover the influential role of NGOS in implementing water management
policies to eliminate poverty in Andhra Pradesh.
PARA 15: All over the book raises the voice of voiceless South Asian issues of
environmental history from inter-related and inter-disciplinary perspective and associates
facts and ideas with NATURE, KNOWLEDGE AND DEVELOPMENT.

CHAPTER- 2 MODERN SCIENCE: AN ECOLOGICAL CRITIQUE by Tapan Kumar

Chattopadhyay (TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 48 ), pp- 7-23.

SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT ARE TOOLS IN THE HANDS OF MODERN STATE THAT
LEGITIMIZES IMMENSE SUFFEREING AND SCARIFICES OF COMMON PEOPLE.
SUBHEADINGS:
A. CONGENITAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT (NUMBER OF
PARAGRAPHS: 4)
PARA 16: Development always seen as economic growth, measured in terms of GDP which
only possible through high industralization and calls for application modern science and
technology to increase the productivity of labour.
PARA 17: Thus, Claude Alvares holds that the relationship of science and development is
congential (inherited) which originated with the industraliztaion as many laws of science
originally out of Industrial experience.
PARA 18: Instance:Second Law of Thermodynamics is the result of industrial
advancement.
PARA 19: The criteria of efficiency keeps mechanized capitalist intensive production at
superior position and tradition cottage production at inferior despite of being eco-friendly
and labour friendly as it based on notions of decentralization.
B. HIGH-STATUS COMMODITIES VS LOW-STATUS COMMODITIES (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPH:
1)
PARA 20: Modern state uses the tool of science to create division between high status
commodities (produced in modern industry seen as scientific) and low status commodities
(produced locally by non-modern measures seen as unscientific thus of low value). For
example: white sugar vs Gur.
C. DEIFICATION OF MODERN SCIENCE (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 1)
PARA 21: RELIGIOUS IMAGERY (Irrationality of a rational): Despite of being critical of
religion and superstitions, modern science has created new faith that is: modern science
locates salvation of all earthy problems in miracles of technology however it could not
prove anything, thus abstract and irrational.
D. MODERN SCIENCE AND ENLIGHTMENT RATIONALITY (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 8)
ANTHROPOCENTRICISM VS BIOCENTRICISM: REJECTION OF DUALISM
PARA 22: The idea of modern science traced back to Enlightment rationality in Western
Europe which keeps human at the centre of value thus poses anthprocentric view in
contrast of ecological perspective.
 PARA 23: It gives mastery to human world over non-human world through the idea of
rationality. The whole idea is to uncover the secrets of nature by alevating the level of
technology to the philosophy and create knowledge based on rational ideas.
PARA 24: This alevation of technology to the level of philosophy led to the extreme
formulation of dualism of spirit/matter, mind/nature, and object/subject where material
world is completely seperated from one’s own self. (Descartes).
PARA 25: Here, matter being non-rational seems dead like machine a that feel no pain.
The notion of dualism here gives moral support to immoral and violent action and
legitimize illegitimate phenomenas and occuring.
PARA 26: Thus, Biocentrism of ecologism is come up as a reaction of anthropocentrism of
modern science which gives only instrumental value to nature.
PARA 27: Biocentrism is the strong sense of respect for nature in its own rights which
believes that whole Biotic community has an intrinsic value.
PARA 28: It claims for equal rights of all life to live and blossom.
E. MODERN SCIENCE AS REDUCTIONIST (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 6)
PARA 29: REDUCTIONISM VS HOLISM: TOWARDS MORE INTER-RELATED APPROACH
PARA 30: Modern science uses analytical method to gain knowledge as a result the focus
remains of parts and the linkage between them leads to neglection of understanding
whole.
PARA 31: The idea is essence of any pheneomenon is to be found in understanding of its
constitutents. Here, reality percieved as fragments and not dynamically integrated.
PARA 32: Thus it fails to percieve the truth in case of living organism including man as idea
here is not whole as a sum of all parts but parts are so inter-related that isolating any part
distorts the perception of the whole.
PARA 33: Holism comes as a reaction to reductionist approach, rejects the object/subject
dualism and emphasises the superiority of whole over parts.
PARA 34: They see all phenomenon not as a fragmented reality but independent and
inter-related to each other.
F. SCIENCE’S CONTRIBUTION TO WAR (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 2)
PARA 35: MILITARY AS MAINSTREAM IN WESTERN SCIENCE: Military dynamics and
defence always remain as a focal point of scientists and mainstream in Western Science.
PARA 36: INSTANCE: Galileo’s knowledege of falling objects used more accurately in
hitting human targets. Thus the tendency of western science is emphasis on research of
weapons based on idea of gaining power and superiority over others.
G. NUCLEAR ENERGY AND THE ATOM BOMB (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 8)
PARA 37: Relationship between Western Science and State Developmental Purposes.
PARA 38: The notion of Development legitimizes immoral and violent action- example-
Indira Gandhi legitimizes the first nuclear test of India by claiming it as a development
project.
PARA 39: An atom for peace is a disastrous nuclear weapon that legitimizes the
construction of nuclear plants.
 PARA 40: Here, language used in such a way that it hides the reality and construct it in a
particular way where destructive nuclear weapons show as innocuous.
PARA 41: Also, nuclear power plant are more accident prone, short live and generate non-
recoverable chain reaction which cause more damage than benefits for all living kind.
PARA 42: Thus Nuclear power plant for genrating electricty is unsafe and threatening as
their implications haunts the generations.
PARA 43: Example: Chernobyl explosion, Chennai Power Plant Case 1999, Narora Atomic
Power Plant Case, 1993.
PARA 44: Simillarly, Pokhran nuclear test legimized the ecological destruction and hides
nosebleeding, skin disorders, renal disorders experienced by nearby villagers in the name
of development and progress.
H. WESTERN SCIENCE AND CAPITALISM (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPH: 1 )
PARA 45: Dependency of growth and development on high funds gives power to private
sector to control and mold the scientific research in its own interest and the interest is
power and profit. Thus capitalism and western science are sides of same coin.
I. WESTERN SCIENCE AS UNSUSTAINABLE (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 9- FURTHER
SUBDIVIDED)
• AGRICULTURE (5 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 46: Western Science is unsustainable as it take cares the interest of some on the
behalf of all.
PARA 47: Green Revolution destroyed indigenous crops which were more sustainable and
adapted to Indian weather.
PARA 48: Introduction of HYV of seed created ecological and regional imbalances and
minimize the prduction of crops like bajra and jowar consumed by poorer classes.
PARA 49: For example- Vandana Shiva uncovers how the traditional agricultural practices
and crops based prey- predator relationship and natural competition maintain the balance
between plants and their pests where ants play important role in improving agricultural
practices.
PARA 50- Contrary to traditional crops, use of chemical fertilizers upset the natural
balance and proved disastrous to human health beautifully expressed in Silent Spring.
• SCIENCTIFIC FORESTRY (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 51: Science maintains afforestation by eucalyptus Planting as it is fast growing
species however this is false assumption as eucalyptus being HYV as more water
consuming non-resistance to pest, not Indian climate friendly.
PARA 52: In contrast to bamboo, it is not a good soil binder, thus a symbol of monoculture
and industalization as it is a good raw material for moder paper and pulp industry.
The example show illegitimate legitimized relationship between -> INDUSTRALIZATION-
>DEVELOPMENT->WESTERN SCIENCE
• HEALTH CARE (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 53: Medicine is the new profit making industry, a product of capitalism and western
scientific knowledge, and nothing else.
 PARA 54: INSTANCE: disease caused by improper diet like diarehhea become a problem
that can be cure only through medicines/drugs which has many side effects on human
body , thus focus shifted from human health to profit making.
J. THE VIOLENCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 5- FURTHER
SUBDIVIDED)
• THE VIOLENCE OF BIOTECH (INTRODUCTION: 1 PARAGRAPH)
PARA 55: Biotechnology is the product of western science, has two aspects genetic
engineering and cellular biology which used to shape novel life forms result in various
unknown risks and biological hazards.
• THE ICE MINUS CASE (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 56: In a try to make plants more tolerant to frost, biotechnologists come up with
ice-minus bacteria by isolating a gene which triggers ice nucleation in plant cells to
displace the natural occuring of ice fromation.
PARA 57: It was not permitted as preventing bacteria might swept into the upper
atmosphere, affect local weather pattern and in long run alter the global climate.
• THE BOVINE SOMATOTROPIN CASE (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 58: BST is a protein harmone produce by cow naturally, however geneticaly BST
increases the milk production to 17% but reduce the immunity of cow, against the animal
rights.
K. PROBLEM OF CENTRALIZED RESEARCH (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 2)
PARA 59: MODERN RESEARCH BEING CENTRALISED AND INSTITUTIONALISED: doesn’t see
ground realities rather focus on fullfilling its own interest as a result environment
degrading day by day and disastorously affected small farmers, tribals and poor classes.
PARA 60: For example use of HVY seeds creates homogenity in plant and animal species
and destroy traditional genetic diversity which were more suitable to the Indian climate
conditions, eco friendly and farmer’s pocket friendly.
L. TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGY (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPH: 1)
PARA 61: Western knowledge as source of domination, traditional knowledge as source of
emanicipation: Winin Pereria holds our traditional science is more liberative than western
science as it is developed by ordinary people and spread free of cost for the benefit of all
and not for personal gains. Thus not dominative but emanicipatory.
M. CONCLUSION (NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 2)
PARA 62: The idea is not to go back to the traditional knowledge system and completely
reject the western science as we have walked so far that we cannot jump back, if we go
we might fall, but we can take a turn from where we are standing.
PARA 63: Thus the approproiate technology is not just which fulfill basic needs of people
but which is eco-friendly which is constituted of collaborative efforts of modern scientist
and local people and their traditional knowledge.

CHAPTER- 3 DEEP ECOLOGY AND SOME ANCIENT INDIAN TEXT: AN OVERVIEW by

Priyambada Sarkar (TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 64) pp- 24-40.
 SUBHEADINGS:
A. INTRODUCTORY PART (4 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 64: Deep ecology is the environmental philosophy that emerged as a reaction to
ecological crisis, climate change, destruction an extinction of Biodiversity. It makes human
introspect and rethink on the ecological imbalances.
PARA 65: Ecology literally defined as science of the habitat coined by Ernst Haeckel to
relflect the man inter-dependence with nature and not in isolation.
PARA 66: Deep ecology is non-anthropocentric which holds that nature needs to be
protected for the sake of nature only not for the future of homo sapiens.
PARA 67: Prof. Sarkar here provide a philosophicl back to the movement of deep
ecologists. The essay further divided into three essential parts:
B. PART I (8 PARAGRAPHS )
PARA 68: Ecological perspective deals with environmental problems but reflects
anthopocentric views in the interest of few rich countries.
PARA 69: Here, the concern is self- centered and not ethical or for the benefit of
environment as a whole.
PARA 70: Here the root of anthropocentrism lies in Civilization: medieval latin Christanity
that has made humankind as superior to all other creatures on earth.
PARA 71: There is need to rethink and offer new environmnetal ethics in the form of deep
ecology which emphasises on Biocentric egalitarianism and believe in the principle of live
and let live.
PARA 78: Naess presents 8 points that elaborates deep ecology perspective.
PARA 79: Biospheric egalitarianism and the rejection of anthropocentricism,
PARA 80: Symbiosis and diversity of all life forms,
PARA 81: Ecosophy.
C. PART II BIOSPHERIC EGALITARIANISM (18 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 82: In second part the author explored the conception of deep ecology in ancient
Indian text.
PARA 83: SOME OF THE TEXTS: Atharveda, Manusamhita, Arthashastra and various
Samhita and Puranas.
PARA 84 & 85: Ample of evidence found in ancient Indian text that elaborates the
relationship of human with non-human living world based on biospheric egalitarianism.
PARA 86: For example in Aitraye Upanishad we found same reality is present everywhere,
origin of everything be it living or non-living is the manifestations of the same Brahman.
PARA 87: Contrast to this in Bible view of creation keeps man at the centre and other
creatures and non-human living is subordinate to man.
PARA 88: In the bible man uses of others as means to his end is morally justified.
PARA 89: Contrary to this, In manusamhita we found life in all creatures of this world
equally worthy based on its physical action.
PARA 90: It presents speciesist argument that moral order of universe doesn’t disciminate
with any species, it is equal for everyone.
 PARA 91 & 92: Also the reincarnation of god in any living forms, worship of tress reflect
biospheric egalitarianism that no body is below or above in this Universe.
PARA 93: In the Universe everything is equally important, interconnected and inter-
dependent to each other thus must be respected and worshipped, as contrast to Western
philosophy.
PARA 94 & 95: In Prithvi Sukta we have found Earth has given the status of mother for
whom all creatures plants, animals and human belong to her family equally.
PARA 96: Vedas advocates to build a harmonious relationship among each other in order
to maintain ecological balance as earth is not object of exploitation but an object of
reverence.
PARA 97: One of the important concept in ancient India text is Panca Mahayajana which
reminds house holder(Grihi) to owes his fruitful existence by giving debts to his gods,
parents, neighbours as well as plants and animals.
PARA 98: The aim is not to pay all debts but an attempt to do so, so that one owes his very
existence to everything in this world.
PARA 99: Panca Mahayajana values overall intergrity of the environment.
D. SYMBIOSIS AND CARING FOR THE RICHNESS AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE FORMS (TOTAL 29
PARAGRAPHS- SUB DIVIDED FURTHER)
• PLANTING OF TRESS AND ITS IMPORTANCE (3 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 100, 101, 102: In Matsya Purana, Atri Samhita, Manu Samhita planting treees
ascribed as purta karma which is actually to encourage afforestation. Thus the practice of
palnting trees is as old as 1500 years.
• WILDERNESS PRESERVATION (1 PARAGRAPH)
PARA 103: Ancient Indian Scriptures strongly supported preservation of wilderness in
Ancient India. Example: Kautilya’s Arthashastra categorically mention different types of
forest and need for their conservation.
• PUNISHMENT FOR DEFORESTATION (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 104 & 105: Deforestation in ancient India considered to be a punishable offence.
Manu has said who is in the need of fuel axes down a green tree is committing a sin of
killing conscious being and deserve similar kind of punishmnent, even in Arthashastra it
has written that those who set fire to forest should be thrown in fire etc.
• POSSIBLE OBJECTIONS (4 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 106: It has been argued by sociologists and historians that in early vedic period
people used to perform yajanas or sacrifices which destroyed forest for wood.
PARA 107: Also in reference to Kandhavadhana in Mahabharata: whole forest set on fire
in order to satiate the god of fire. Thus ancient people not only protect but destruct the
forest in the name of sacrifices.
PARA 108: COUNTER ARGUMENT: However there was a counter argument that riped
woods were taken for deep forest, cutting of new tress in the name of sacrifices were
prohibited.
 PARA 109: Moreover the fire to burn a forest was controlled burning in order to protect
the diversity of habitat and prevent forest fires.
• ANIMAL SANCTUARIES (4 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 110: In ancient texts we have found that building of animal sanctuaries, deep parks
to protect animals was the duty of state.
PARA 111: Many government servants appointed in order to take care of animals.
PARA 112: They not only protect them but also ensure the well being of domesticated
animal for example ploughing with eight bulls seen as virtuous and two bulls were seen as
a sin of killing them. Also there was time limits for ploughing.
PARA 113: The idea is to nurtured with the nature and non-human living and not against
them. (pp33)
• PUNISHMENTS FOR ANIMAL KILLINGS (4 PARAGRPHS)
PARA 114 & 115: In Arthashastra, there were ranging punishment for killing an animal.
PARA 116: There were not only punishment for killing but also for ill-treating them.
PARA 117: For example in manusamhita whole chapter devoted against meant- eating or
animal killing. (pp34)
• POSSIBLE OBJECTIONS (6 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 118- 124: However there are objection that in Ancient times people killed goat,
horse in the name of sacrifices which is continuing even today. However it has been
agrued that scarifices conducted in order to make a balance in ecosystem. But the point is
why did man kill other species to ensure the stablility the ecosystem? Why was man’s
well being above than other creatures living in the ecosystem? It has been argued though
that there were various sacrifices and animal sacrifices were the emergence of priestism.
But in anyway we could not justify and equate animal killing by modern man with these
sacrifices as modern man kill animals and different species for its taste, luxuries and
comfort while sacrifices used to offer on specific occassions. Moreover myths and rituals
of ancient people also exhibit a deep ecology harmony for example on durga pooja Gods,
Human Beings, Plants and Animals all treated as a family member.
• ECOSOPHY (7 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 125- 132: Ecosophy signifies as ecological wisdom, according to Naess ecology is the
ultimate norm of self relaization, which is not a narrow egoistic self but large
comprehensive self which embrace all forms of lives on planet or elsewhere. The idea is to
expand the sense of identification by extensioning our care and affection towards
everyone and everybody constituing our environment, as universe is nothing but an
extension of ourselves, and has inherent worth which needed to be respected and
revered. Upanishads are greater source of such deep ecologist thought. Upanishads
teaches us that in order to solve the problem of environntal crisis, there is need to think
internally, there is need to contemplate our inner self, into our own deep spirits by
making it free from jealousy, hatred and violence. (svetasvatara upanishads)pp.37. Also
according to the ancient people there is homogeneity between human life on one hand
and rest of the universe on the other.
E. PART III OBJECTIONS TO DEEP ECOLOGY MOVEMENT (TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS:
6)- SUBDIVIDED
• OBJECTIONS FROM FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 133: Feminist criticizes this large comprehensive self to be masculine and egoistic as
it failed to give nature its due respect independent from human interest.
PARA 134: However the author has been argued that ancient Indian texts are free from
gender division for example Mahavakya: tat twam asi that thou art, you are the ultimate
reality or brahman is applied to all beings irrespective of women and men.
• OBJECTION FROM A THIRD WORLD CRITIQUE (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 135: Here, Prof. Guha criticizes the movement of deep ecology for being an
imperialist American notion, rational, against poor people by capturing wilderness of third
world countries’ poor people and do not take their interest in account.
PARA 136: However, ancient text doesn’t distinguish between values, for them all values
are equally valuable as they originate from same source or reality. Thus no value superior
than others hence no imperalistic character of deep ecology.
• FINAL OBJECTION (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 137: Another objection is deep ecology as utopian vision as it doesn’t provide moral
ground for biocentric egalitarianism like how value of Rabindranath Tagore is as equal as a
Virus.
PARA 138: However what we can utmost do is maintaining an attitude of reverence to all
things and beings of the ecosystem in order to prevent any detrimental activity against
environment and to maintain balance and harmony of our ecosystem.

CHAPTER 4- THE COLONY LEGACY OF FOREST POLICIES IN INDIA by Arun Bandopadhyay

(TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS 42) PP- 41- 64.
INTRODUCTION (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 139: Forest policies today is a subject matter across the disciplines but its discussion
restricted to post colonial times thus ahistorical in nature.
PARA 140: The aim is to study forest policies in India with in a comparative historical
framework from colonial to post-colonial era. The whole essay divided into four inter-
connected parts.
SUBHEADINGS:
A. PART I (3 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 141: The state views towards forest policy had been radically changed during
colonial era and become more commercialised which influenced even post colonial
developmental projects in India.
PARA 142: In post colonial world, Indian legislations and forest policies focused in
creating a balance between rights of state and local communities over forest.
PARA 143: The growth of forest policies was extraordinarily slow as the scientific
european knowledge was confined to the members of medical profession.(Stebbing the
forest of India)
B. PART II (13 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 144- 155: Here, author presents the two case studies of colonial forestry and
people’s participation in Bengal and Madras. The forest act of 1865 empowered colonial
state to acquire monopolistic control over India and categorised forest into reserved and
unreserved. All states implemented the provision of this act except Madras on the ground
that it violates communal rights and privileges of the people. These policy debates
identifies as annexionist, pragmatic and populist (Guha). The bill continued to regulate
forest legislation of Madras where forest seen as public property managed by the state for
public welfare. The main theme of legal debate here is nature of people’s right where
Bandis object the Bill on the ground that forest rights are inherently natural based on how
much forest produce on the other hand Governor of Madras object the Bill on the ground
of Private Rights, In 1881 GOI along with Bandis drafted a forest legislation that exclude
place for village forests. Forestry seen as new business which not only focusing on
Silviculture but extraction of fuel and fodder. As a result Forest Act of 1882, has given
power to Madras government over forest as state property and exclude the land of
dominant zamindars from exemption.
C. PART III (16 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 157- 172: The section focus on village forestry in South Asian with reference to
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Here, Author focuses on historical study of shifting in forest
policies in post colonial India which reflects social change not only in terms of ecological,
technological and particiaptory change but also in terms of poverty and equity. All these
issues are not complex but also overlapped and interdpendent. Scientific forestry failed to
stop commercialization of forest, colonial administrative infratructure was inadequate in
post independence era both from institutional and ideological perspective. The more
focus in post independence era was renewed social and economic development in the
context of rapid growing population, and a balance between deforestation and
development. Here, madras government argued to arouse consciousness among the
masses regarding value of trees which are important to enrich earth. However it was not
successful due to lack of people’s participation: over dependence of eucalptus was
ecological degrading, commercialization of bamboo was not successful, private companies
went onto liquidation and lack of dessemination of market intelligence in terms of price
and product. Thus history of village forestry is important not from ecological or
technological point of view but also based on people’s participation.
Due to increasing population, rural need of fuel threatened the very existence of state
forest as a result conflict between vilagers and state arose. Various committess held in
order to settle the conficts. The role of women in conservation of forest was a paradox as
women were the primary and fequent users of forest thus they played important role in
conservation as well as exploiation of the forest. Prof. Chatterjee argued that as women
were the primary users of forest resources thus there is need to involved women in forest
management to make them more responsible. Women played very important role in
household industry but their role was low paid and many times not recognized
 (Madhumanti Dutta and Mansi Adhikari). Local also played efficient role in management
of resources. All over Joint Forest Managment played very imporyant role not from
greenery perspective but in terms of People’s Participation.
D. PART IV (9 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 173- 182: Centralised role played by state for a quick production of raw material for
industrial use. Science forestry legitimized the centralised role played by state and the
commercialization and industralisation of forest resources. However, with the advent of
JFM, people’s participation enhanced and social and political changes took place.
There were 3 issues of post colonial village forestry-
1. Ecological-For example planting of eucalyptus down due to its less sustainable and
profitable nature.
2. Technological- here the idea is to reduce the degradation, here the issue is not just about
productivity but also persistent gaps between perspective of technologist and resource
users also high priority to commercialization tend to ignore the perspectives of CPR.
3. Participatory- it highlights the ground democratization of resource management and
development process and it influences on ecological and technological aspects of change
in forest management where local and indigenous people played important role in
determining appropriate ecological knowledge and technology. However, participatory
development only work responsible in the favourable political space.
Community in relation with conservation has focused on two aspects:
1. Community as shared understanding
2. Community as social organisation
Though the notion of community and particiaption has always been contensted and
remain answered for which historical study of forest legislations is important.
E. CONCLUSION (1 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 183: Author came up with two brief conclusions: it is important to study forest
policies in larger social histotrical context of environment and it is needed to be
understood in comaparative terms (eg MADRAS AND BENGAL) in order to have holistic
and intellectually productive analysis.
CHAPTER 5- EVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL HISTORY, Kalahandi 1800-1950 by Bisawamoy
Pati (TOTAL NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 49) pp- 65-80.
PARA 184 & 185: Pati here examines the pre-colonial and colonized social history of
Kalahandi Famine which haunts the people even today.
PARA 186 & 187: Geographical location and size of Kalahandi- north-west portion of
Orissa, originally a feudal state stretches over 11835 sq km. It was known from different
names in the past, however not much historical known about it.
PARA 189- 192: Umrao system based on customary laws of pre-colonial times reflects not
only complex process of peasantization or hinduization but also the way rulling pre-
colonial class seek legitimacy from tribals population by marriaging their daughter and
paying their debts. This legitimacy allow them to have control over the resources of
various tribes and in order to create brahaminical order which co-existed with umrao
system.
PARA 193: The process of peasentization of tribals was legitimized by giving them land
grants which was necessary for development feudal order and social stratification.
PARA 194 & 195: Brahmins migrated from Raipur-Sambalpur belt to Kalahandi due to
availability of attractive agriculture space.
PARA 196- 210: Being industrious the aim was to establish feudal order led to creation of
BRAHMIN-KSHTARIYA- KULTA alliance which extended their power over tribals for
clearance of land for agricultural use.
PARA 211: Kandhas tribe resisited to the changes loss of land cleared due to agriculture,
desertions in to hills and scarcities.
PARA 212: Kandhas made human sacrifices as a appeasement to nature for which they
charged by zamindars.
PARA 213: The suppression of mariah sacrifices provided the basis for colonial alliance.
PARA 214: Tribals rebelled against the changes, in a terror burning and plundering of
grains lead to food scarcity and clearing of land by the colonial allaince ultimately lead to
migration of tribals.
PARA 216: In 1867, Kalahandi came under direct control of britishers which again
distrupted the life of Kandhas as the motives of capital proliferation, profits by exporting
the crops also the cause of food scarcity in the region.
PARA 217: Modernity proved to be doom for people of Kalahandi. They migrated from
plains to hills and performed dongarchas(shifting cultivation) as they do not have other
alternatives which lead to change in their diet.
PARA 218: Scarcity of water in hilly areas shift their diet from rice to dry crops. Diet
become less nutritious affect their health and weak their immune system.
PARA 219: Loss of land legitimized in the name of railway construction resulted in the
migration of Kandhas as a result good lands were transfered to Brahmins and Kultas.
PARA 220: Also, poorer people forces to work under degraded conditions and low wages
for the construction of railways.
PARA 221: The social stratification originated in pre-colonial phase where power flow
from top-bottom. Though recuriment of forced labour abolished in 1923 but state had
monopoly rights over commondities ranging from forest products to grains.
PARA 222: Export increased, as a result 50000 tons paddy transferred from Kalhandi to
Bengal in the name of famine. Innumerable nistar (forest cess) impose on the tribal
people was a strategy to extract money.
PARA 223: With the time the percentage of taxed increased. Here the domination took
place from two sphere one is external domination by British administrators and other is
internal domination (indigenous exploiters within the society) were Brahmins and Kultas.
PARA 224: Groantias were landed elements, had power to collect taxes, reclaim waste
land, takeover land from ejected peasants, and monopolised water system land. Occupy
tenants has no rights they recruited as forced labourer.
 PARA 225: Working conditions were hazardous in any way, women were paid less than
male, and food scarcity forced them to get loan for their survivals. As a result they went
into vicious debt trap or migrate to far off place where they identified as criminal tribes.
PARA 226: The feudal colonial system led to the creation polarizing classes where rajas,
zamindars, goantias dominated and agricultural labourers, poor peasants and shifting
cultivators subordinated and fed up by feudal/colonial system.
PARA 227: Food scarcity resulted in increase in theft crimes. The structure of power and
heirarchy flow from top to down comouflaged the real datas. As a result Kalahandi
isolated from the national movement of 1947.
PARA 228: Even when Kalahandi became the part of Orissa in 1948, and goantia system
abolished in 1956, the goantias restructured and consolidated their power and came up as
Oriya landlords who are dominating even today.
PARA 229: The wages were rs 4 per day in 1975 and rs 8- 10 today thus the exploitation
continues, domination continues hence crisis continues, originated in pre-colonial times,
crisis of Kalahandi elevated with the evolution of colonization and degradtion of forest.
PARA 230: Crisis continues till date as a result landlessness, migration, food scarcity,
robberies, debts, suicides, drunkeness, famine, drought and scarcity even continue till
date.
PARA 231: Even today Kalahandi and most of the part of Orissa remain underdeveloped
old irrigation strategies are replaced by new one which is again not sustainable.
PARA 232: Also the main focus of the politicians, economist and officials in the area is
industralization and not improving agriculture resulted in unpredictable devastation of
the region and local people.

CHAPTER 6- ACCESSING NATURE: AGRARIAN CHANGE, FOREST LAWS AND THEIR

IMPACTS ON AN ADIVASI ECONOMY IN COLONIAL INDIA by Sanjukta Das Gupta (TOTAL
NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 46- FURTHER DIVIDED INTO SUBHEADINGS) pp- 81-108.
SUBHEADINGS:
A. INTRODUCTION (4 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 233-237: In recent researches the concern of agrarian history come into contrast
with environmental history where agrarian history focuses on settled peasant tracts,
arable heartlands and overlooks forest and mountains which are the focuses of
environmental history. Here, Gupta present a case study of SINGBHUM, focuses on the
inter-related and inter-dependent relationship of agriculture and forestry in adivasis
economy. Emphasis on, how it distrubed by colonial interventions, their capitalist revenue
policies, expansion of agrarian land through sedentarization of marginal groups,
modernization and departure from traditional livelihood & land use patterns based on
climate and topography of that region. The essay further divided into four parts:
B. LAND USE PATTERN IN COLONIAL SINGHBHUM (7 PARAGRAPHS)
 PARA 238- 245: In early 19th century, Singhum was thickly populated by diverse ethnic
groups, well cultivated, covered by dense jungle and controlled by indigenous rulling
dynasties.
Forest and settled cultivation were inter-dependent as when tribals found pressure over
land they move from village to forest and consequently village revert back into forest
when abandoned. Thus, the relationship of tribal and nature based on mutual respect and
dependence, thus less suspectible to famine. They treat forest as sacred, fear andworship
it which is their part of social and cultural ceremonies. Thus, Forest both feared and
revered.In 1837, the moment it came under the direct control of British Administration
plough cultivation and artificial irrigation replaced old traditional sustainable agricultural,
Settled agriculture replaced shifting cultivation, that disturbed the ecological balance of
the region. Practice to fell the tress and clearance of forest increased. Remains of felled
down burnt and mix with the soil to enhance its fertility but in long run it degrades the
land. However, colonial government was against shifting cultivation not because it
degrades land but because it was not profitable enterprise. However, shifting cultivation
was sustainable as clearance of forest was not immense but followed a cycle of one two
years which give time for land to recover.
C. FOREST RESTRICTION UNDER COLONIAL RULE (16 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 246- 248: With the advent of British government production commercialised. Forest
clearance increased, affect the lives of the people, controlled the decisions on forest and
agriculture produce as conrast to pre-colonial government.
PARA 249: The British through forest policies alienated tribals from the forest on which
their livelihood depended in the name of conservation and preservation of the forest and
its produce like TIMBER.
PARA 250: With the better communication and transportation Singhbhum become more
valuable thus it was not for the reservation but for settled agriculture state controlled
forest. Railway construction resulted in felling down of 20,921 trees.
PARA 256: However with forest act of 1878, forest divided into reserved, protected,
private, village and waste forests where villagers have access to village and waste forest.
However, their activities came under the strict control of the British government.
PARA 257: Here, irony is colonial forest administration came as protagonist by making
local tribal as antagonist of the forest.
PARA 258: The truth has been created by devaluing other truth, the knowledge created by
devaluing other knowledge. Commercialization of timber was profitable thus legitimized
by the scientific forestry set for the forest preservation.
PARA 259-261: Forest laws controlled the access of forest through regualtion and license.
This controlling and regulating behaviours of colonial government created unrest in Hos.
However their grievance silenced by the authorities resulted in robbery, illegal grazing and
removal of firewoods etc.
 PARA 262: Outsiders were not new to the tribals even in the pre-colonial time but this
time the idea of outsider was not confined to sustainence but exploitation,
commercialization and based on state’s needs.
PARA 263-264: Land Acquisition Act, 1894 prohibited the transfer of tribals land to non-
tribals however state abled to acquire village land in the name of industrial development
for public welfare.
PARA 265: Restrictions to the use of forest affected the traditional agricultural practices
of Hos as the system changed from non-competitive to competitive.
D. EXTENSION OF THE ARABLE FRONTIER UNDER COLONIAL RULE (12 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 266: One of the notable change in colonial Singhbhum was expansion of cultivated
land.
PARA 267: This expansion was legitimized in the name of civilizing influence by the British
Government.
PARA 268: The idea was to creating superiority and legitimizing the exploitation by making
other race ignorant and wild.
PARA 269: The civilised has duty to protect forest from uncivilized and wild. As a result
wasteland given to outsiders by the regional authorities thinking that outsiders were
more energetic in clearing waste land than Hos.
PARA 270: But the real reason for the expansion of cultivation was increasing population.
Local administration argued that land was slipping ut of the hand of Hos and given to
outsiders who were non-agriculturalist.
PARA 271: Cultivation land increased by converting uplands into rice lands and gradually
turn into bad lands.
PARA 272: As a result bad land become rain – dependent and bera land prone to drought.
This change in land utilization accopained by change in cropping patterns affected land
and rainfall patterns.
PARA 273: Drought and famine had became more frequent. However other needs for
intensification like new irrigation facilities, loan for land improvement and important
capital investment were lacking.
PARA 274: Famine distress affected day labourers than cultivators as the exchange
entitlement of labourers were far less.
PARA 275: Scarcity was not given but created by large exporting and trading of grains, and
also due to lack of local knowledge in grain distribution where bigger cultivators had more
stock than local grain dealers.
PARA 276: The worse condition of Kohan rose up with the time.
E. AGRARIAN CRISIS AND THE SEARCH FOR NEW PASTURES (6 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 277: Upheveals of colonial period and agrarian crisis led to emigration. The
phenomena of migration was not new, when people displaced they migrated to other
place, Chotanagpur witness seasonal migartion.
PARA 278: But in colonial period nature of migration changed to INTERNATIONAL SLAVE
TRADE and become forceful by the colonisers.
 PARA 279: There were several other factors that forced people to migrate one is economic
deprivation and other is institutional (indebtedness) forced peasant to emigrate to
another place.
PARA 280: However landlordlism does not apply to Kolhan as there rulling class started
working as Government state under British rule.
PARA 281: All over British rule marked as doomes to the tribes of Singhbhum where
cultivation land increased but not the necessary development took place like irrigation
facilities, land improvement, loans and capitals for peasants.
PARA 282: As the main focus was exploitation and not collaboration and development.
Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 restricted the transfer of land to outsiders, but frequent
famine and crop failure made the tribals to migrate.
F. CONCLUSION (A PARAGRAPH)
PARA 283: One of the important ways to get a control and legitimized its action, the
colonial state expand the cultivation in the name of civilizing, however this distrubed the
whole ecological balance: famine, drought, and food scarcity became frequent. Export
legitimized in the name of development and create their superiority by devaluing the
tribals and livelihood which were inter-dependent and complementary with nature.

CHAPTER 7- FAMINE IN A FOREST TRACT: ECOLOGICAL CHANGE AND CAUSES OF THE

1897 FAMINE IN CHOTANAGPUR, NORTHERN INDIA by Vinita Damadoran (TOTAL
NUMBER OF PARAGRAPHS: 62- FURTHER DIVIDED INTO SUBHEADINGS) pp- 109- 141.
SUBHEADINGS:
A. INTRODUCTION (6 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 284: Chotangapur faced an unprecedented famine owing to exploitation of the
forest at the hands of an elite outsider.
PARA 285: Majority of studies on famines failed to highlight the importance of ecological
basis of varied economies and the role of private capital and modernization in the
disruption of traditional economies.
PARA 286: The 1897 famine broke Chotanagpur apart. Besides cholera, the decreased
immunity of labouring classes against fever attacks and other ordinary diseases is to be
blamed, as per Andrew Forbes of the Famine Enquiry Committee.
PARA 287 & 288: The fact that the 1897 famine is known as the killer famine is particularly
because of its spread throughout the region, comprising the southern districts of Ranchi
and Singhbhum, unlike the antecedent periods of 1860s, wherein the famine was limited
to the northern region.
PARA 289: The consequences of the 1897 famine were severe: Rising prices, increased
beggary, increased interest rates and population growth contributed to the severity for
the poor.

B. THE FOREST ECONOMY OF TRIBAL PEOPLE IN CHOTANAGPUR (13 PARAGRAPHS)pp- 112-

118
PARA 290: Chotanagpur is a series of hills, occupying the southern part of Bihar, spread
over 44,000 sq. mi. and is divided into various districts such as Ranchi, Hazaribagh etc.
 PARA 291: In earlier times, the forests of Chotanagpur were inhabited 33 tribes such as
Mundas, Santhals etc.
PARA 292: The business of moneylending hastened with the advent of the Britishers. The
traditional patterns of life were further destroyed by the introduction of The Railways in
the 1850s. Local economy largely based Mahua tree.
PARA 293: Valentine Ball noted that several tribes were heavily dependent on jungle
products. For example: The Keriahs of the Jolhari hills , relied on jungle for the supply
of fruits, leaves and roots.
PARA 294: Adivasi tribes of Chotanagpur were rich in technical knowledge of the forest;
varies from names of plants with economic importance, precise nature of wild food
resources, identifying wild species of the plant and its value and uses to cure diseases. For
Example: leaves of asan tree boiled and used for curing Jaundice.
PARA 295: Some foods eaten up only in the time of scarcity by poorest like beir and
jamun. Their diet was nutritious, healthy, wholesome but suatainable and seasonable.
PARA 296: Skill of collecting wild foods protected the tribals in the time of food scarcity.
Santhal Parganas noted that Santhal manage to live even when a rat would starve.
PARA 297: Other sources of food were fishing and hunting which had ecological and
communal reasons and consumed to sustain the lives. Hunting was closely associated with
the dynamic of community life.
PARA 298: Thus these Tribals abled to produce food even in times of famine and drought
as said by Valentine Ball.
PARA 299: These local food strategies helped in minimizing the risk of drought while living
in a nutritious friendly environment.
PARA 300: Bengal famine 1770s affected hilly areas less than low land areas as cultivation
on Plateau were primitive than the lowland where cultivation was more settled.
PARA 301: Relationship between people and forest was symbiotic in Chotanagpur, people
were close to nature, they worship it and even activities like hunting, fishing, gathering,
and sacrifices were the part of rituals and ceremonies to celebrate natural world.
PARA 302: They thought that spirits resided in forest and Rituals and sacrifices made to
assuage the sprits disturbed by human intervention. These sacred groves even play
important part in organising local festivals.

C. LAND ALIENATION, DEBT BONDAGE AND THE EROSION OF FOREST RIGHTS IN THE 19 TH
CENTURY (4 PARAGRAPHS)pp- 118-120
PARA 303: People of chotanagpur lived undisturbed life, they did not have any concept of
individual ownership of property rather they have joint ownership. However this lifestyle
was threatened in 6th century.
PARA 304: Rajas became hinduized started granting land to rajputs and brahmins who had
assisted them they consolidated their power even in medieval time by introducing Hindu
settlers.
PARA 305: Further colonial intervention alienated tribals from their traditional rights by
introducing new system of taxation, commercialization, and developed trade with the
help of new class of middle men.
 PARA 306: Loans were granted but the rent demand were too high, kept the farmers, poor
peasants and tribals indebted, landlordism resulted in large scale movement by the tribals
of Palamau and Hazaribagh led to migration to Ranch and Singhbhum.
D. AGRARIAN RELATION IN NORTEHRN DISTRICTS (7 PARAGRAPHS) 121-123
PARA 307: Distress in Santhal Parganas caused by debt bondage, heritage bondage,
unparalled corruption of the police, impossibility to redress in courts resulted in agrarian
tension and built agararian relation accordingly.
PARA 308: The agrarian relation was based on heirarchy of domination and subordination
between Mahajans and Santhal as a result undemocratic relationship resulted in Santhal
Rebellion 1851 which was crushed by British Troops.
PARA 309: In Hazaribagh Kherwar descendants were not able to hold their own land
against bhabhan landlords and bania moneylenders as a result life of kherwar shattered
and reduced to Poverty.
PARA 310: Indigenous people and landless labour and lower class hindu immigrants were
exploited by zamindars. Attack on common rights to property alienated tribals.
PARA 311: Kamiaouti system developed where debt bondages become hereditary plus no
chance of employment led local zamindars and moneylenders converted the tenants and
indebted to the slaves.
PARA 312: Rapid loss of land and collapse of general economies of tribals was the
elements in the origins of their migration to coal mine. Coal mines found cheap labour
thus exploited them.
PARA 313: Outside intervention change the life of Ranchi and Singhbum region; taxation
imposed, rent increased,land shifted from tribals to zamindars & outsiders in the name of
development, traditional agriculture replaced by settled cultivation in order to increase
the production.
E. FOREST RIGHTS IN 19TH CENTURY (11 PARAGRAPHS) (pp. 124-128)
PARA 314: Indigenous rights had always been vested in village communities, where they
clear land for domestic and agriculture purpose.
PARA 315: Transfering of authority of their land breached the traditional rights of tribals.
PARA 316: Tribals have to pay taxes for execrising their traditional rights, situation
worsened when timber commercialised and used for profit and not for sustainance.
PARA 317: Zamindars, landlords successcively established their right over jungle and its
produce violates the righst of tribals.
PARA 318: They only survived by resisiting to extinguish these rights altogether.
PARA 319: Encroachment of landlordism on the traditional rights accompained by
destructuion of forest.
PARA 320: Government and forest department made exclusionary policies and reservation
rights transferred to landlords eliminate peasants from their common property rights.
PARA 321: Only in 1914 settlements reports recognizing the importance of customary
rights.
 PARA 322: Most of forest area taken by state in the name of reserved or protetced forest
which was later destructed in the name of railway development.
PARA 323: Capturing of land in the name of development had a catastrophic affect on
mental and physical lives of indigenous people.
PARA 324: Outsiders had no respect to spirits of the forest, they treated them just woods,
ancient spirits of forest left their homeland by listening the piercing whistle of railways.
F. THE FAMINE, 1896-7 (21 PARAGRAPHS) (pp 128-137)
PARA 325: People living in village jungles face less distress of famine and food scarcity
then people who lived in open cultivated area. For example: In Ranchi distress of several
droughts was not sufficient to famine despite of rapid economic and ecological changes.
PARA 326 In Chotanagpur price of rice rose to the unprecendentated rate but no food
scarcity took place except one ot two region.
PARA 327: Gazetteer issued a report holds that the claim that region was immune from
famine is false there have been three famines caused by destruction of forest and its
produce.
PARA 328: Traditional economy could not able to cope up with failing economy and
periods of scarcity casued by deforestation, demograpic pressure, changing of land use
and exploitation by new landlord class.
PARA 329: Rice price rose to the unprecendented rate.
PARA 330: relief works undertaken but they could not attract labour as people preferred
to support life on a diet of jungle products without working than obtaining ration in the
exchange of their physical energy.
PARA 331: Development was the main concern of the State over British famine.
PARA 332: British state legitimized the helplessness and avoiding of modern reliefs in the
name of non-intervention in the social- cultural order of tribes.
PARA 333: Fear of grain looting and crimes made zamindars to organise reliefs.
PARA 334: Areas which were more deforested were more prone to famine, resulted in
food scarcity. Food scarcity was also created by the zamindars who saved for themselves
and sold outside districts even during famine.
PARA 335: This exporting of stocks to the outsiders in the times of famine leads to crimes
and grain looting in many regions.
PARA 336: Scarcity heavily affected to low hindu castes people, tribal labourers and
agriculture labourers such as chamars and others. It changed their lives and reduced them
to poverty even to those who were once earning good livelihood.
PARA 337: As scarcity progressed, death recorded from starvation, the reason was not
only famine related diseases but weakened immune system as traditional nutritious
sources exhausted (Andrrew Forbes).
PARA 338: Relief projects barely compensated to their expenditure of physical energy.
PARA 339: Reliefs were illusions as many times worked stopped in the name of money
shortage when rice present in the abundance to make payements, kitchen reliefs seen
wasteful for the state as it welcomes all the beggars.
 PARA 340: Despite of warning that closing of relief works will increase the starvation
Andrew Forbes reduce the works and pieces of rates by half worsened the conditions of
peasants and left to fend for tehmselves.
PARA 341: Recovery from famine were slow and painful though the paesant economy
improved but the fear of famine did not die. Agrarian misery continued to deepen due to
frequent incident of scarcity.
PARA 342: Changing of forest and economic policy in colonial period destabalized the
relationship between environment and people.
PARA 343: In pre-colonial times people relianced on diversity of forest products ensured
that drought did not cause famine.
PARA 344: Due to deforestation, commercialization,exploitation of indigenous people,
private capital, landlordism, the lowlands of Chotanagpur disastrously prone to famine
during colonial times.
PARA 345: A sustainable economy of tribals resisiatance to drought and famine immensly
distrupted and alienated them from their homelands forever.

CHAPTER 8- MARGINAL GROUPS AND WATERSHED PROGRAMMES IN SOUTHERN INDIA:

THE CASE STUDY OF ANDHRA PRADESH by Raj Sekhar Basu (TOTAL NUMBER OF
PARAGRAPHS: - 56 FURTHER DIVIDED INTO SUBHEADINGS) pp- 142- 166
SUBHEADINGS:
A. PART I (24 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 346: Vision 2020, drawn by the CM of Andhra Pradesh Chandrabau Naidu to
eradicate poverty led to more poverty in Andhra.
PARA 347: US consultancy firm consulted to draw a plan to achieve desired objectives
based on IT, Biotechnology and Construction.
PARA 348: Vision 2020 hoped to modernize the food production system, mechanize the
agriculture, use of fertilizers and chemical, construction of roads and transport system for
which big corporate agencies consulate.
PARA 349: Ordinary people remain outside the discussion on the guildlines of
modernization who had to bear the burnt of these policies.
PARA 350: VISION 2020 based on neo- liberal policies, privatization and industralization
counter the realities and history of Andhra where livelihood of the people based on
agriculture and small scale farming and production guided by local markets.
PARA 351: According to the industralised plan local markets replaced by global markets
and state emerges as a market for genetically modified and commercial seeds.
PARA 352: The implementaion of VISION 2020 proved to be disastrous for rural livelihood
as agriculture dependent economy replaced by industalization resulted in loss of land and
deprive them of their cash income.
PARA 353: Lack of humane approach to development and blind imitation of western
modernization without studying the historical context of the region reduced dalits,
adivasis into the state of misery.
PARA 354: Much of the VISION 2020 programme receded in the wake up of drought in
2003 which resulted in failure of standing crops, agriculture crisis, debate over water,
starvation, deaths and 80% of the victime came under the line of poverty.
PARA 355: Advent of disel engines made pumping out of water easy led to scarcity of
water as a result people started fetching water from deep wells caused lowering down of
water table, starting of irrigation facilities by rich farmers resulted in new crisis.
PARA 356: New watershed model emphasis on equity, gender, culture, food security and
sustainable agriculture address the needs of poor in 1990s.
PARA 357: New model based on old principles of soil and water conservation but explicitly
for Dalit, the Idea was to relocate control over agricultural processes and food production
in the hand of disdavantageous.
PARA 358: But these new watersheds programme were questioned on the notion of
equity as it hardly benefitted poor lands and very efforts were made to find out real
beneficiaries of such programme.
PARA 359: In conventional watershed cases, poor peoples’ failed to realize the increasing
value of land resulted in high loss.
PARA 360: At the same time incremental improvemnet of land hep them.
PARA 361: Watershed programme also challanged in terms of ecology as use of chemical
increase in agriculture degrade the quality of water, land and food, monoculture replaced
crop diversity, chemicals replaced earth friendly soil nutrients.
PARA 362: Expenditure increased made farmers to get loans and in case of crop failure
poor farmers they trapped in the vicious cycle of indebt. Individualistic technological
strategy led to neglection of water bodies.
PARA 363: Land market dominated by rich and absence of text on agriculture give them
opportunity to convert their black money into white.
PARA 364: There was claims by NIRD that much of land assigned for poor passed to
ineligible cateogaries, large part of land continued to be in the hands of landlords. Crores
of acres land which handover to dalits families were waste and deforested land.
PARA 365: Hi-tech agriculture sretches the disparities with between regions farmers and
agricultural labour which were woven into complex and overlapping gender, caste and
class issues.
PARA 366: Dalit landholdings were government assigned lands developed by Dalit women
assigned to non-dalits.
PARA 367: Common land and community water resources had great potential to lead
equitable rights like generation of employement, higher agriculture production and
availability of biomass, fuel and fodder.
PARA 368: Imapact of watershed development must be understood in terms of social and
ecological relationships. There should be an efforts to understand the concentration of
land based on heirarchy, patriarchy and environmental considerations.
 PARA 369: There have been emphasis on different approaches to deal with issues of
equity,also on non-land activities that support poor people and give decision making
power to them. However, little emphasis given to equitable acces to water sharing.
B. PART II (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 370: NGOs and Panchayti raj institution played an important role in implementing
the WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME at ground level and make in efficient for
poors.
PARA 371: In 1990s state emerged as model state in Andhra Pradesh, implemented the
policies of Watershed Development Programme, rulling groups also supported as the
programme implemented in a unique way based on top-down plus bottom up approach.
C. PART III (12 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 372: Andhra pradesh experiences low rainfall relatively, the region that get least
and untimely rainfall in Andhra is Rayalseema due to which frequent drought prone to
that area made the irrigational activitites difficult.
PARA 373: Main source of irrigation was ground water accessed to open bore wells.
PARA 374: Absence of state initiatives encouraged control of private institution in place of
community based programmes, as result rich farmers implemented by capital intensive
technology. Poor left their land due to rising cost of cultivation.
PARA 375: Here introduction of waterprogramme aiming to conserve flora, fauna,
improve land quality are preventing soil erosion caused by water and wind and availability
of moisture in soil and air increased the productivity of land.
PARA 376: However it proved to be beneficial for rich peasant houselhold, landlessness
and inequalities affected the dalits, poor peasants and poor women. But crop failure
affected both rich and poor farmer created the trend of migration.
PARA 377: In 1990s, GOI implemeted the WASTERSHED DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT(WDM)
Policies district wise and given to project directors from multidiscipline, however locals
were more vocal where NGOs groups were in lead.
PARA 378: ANDHRA PRADESH RURAL LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMME , emphasis not only WDM but
also dairy farming, horticulture, convergence of top-down, bottom up in bringing issues
related to gender, equity and initiated participatory technology development.
PARA 379: New technology introduced, relief provided to farmers construction of check
dam undertaken to recharge the agricultural well but slow functioning of panchayati raj
due to lack of awareness about new technology made the implementation difficult.
PARA 380: State government constituted 15 member water conservation mission to tackle
the drought.
PARA 381: Rajender Singh one of its member highlighted the concern that caimpaign for
water harnessing in Andhra failed as concentration was on expanding the project and not
on the Livelihoods of the people, on engineering & quantitative analysis and not
qualitative.
 PARA 382: Government came up with WDM but various NGOs provided their own
community based rain water harvesting schemes which is more participatory, building
network of cooperation with panchayats and deals with diversity of issues.
PARA 383: Dalits or other social advantageous group faced discrimination while
implementation of watershed development schemes and benefit based on contribution
however, involvement in horticulture generated an element of equity.
D. PART IV (7 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 384- 391: WDP has mixed impact, being land based activity it benefitted landed
households whereas landless less benifitted, they beneffited in terms of employement
and increasing wages which improve their economic conditions as they abled to pay debt.
Watershed programme increased the amount of water and lower down the migration at
the same instability occurs due to uncertain rainfall impact both landed and landless
farmers and structural imbalance over rule the claim of equity.The reason behind ensuring
more inequitable distribution of watershed development schemes is that they
implemented on private lands and not on common property lands. However RDT
programmes, dairy activities, horticulture helped in economic alleivation of poor sections.
Success and popularity of watershed programme is depend upon self help group and
NGOs that helped in dealing with other issues like literacy, nutrition level, better wages
and facilities in order to have holistic success of WDP. There is need to create watershed
committiees to expand its knowledge and exposure. There were some inconsistencies
with WDP like territotial limitation, conflict between land and water rights, difficult in
implementation, inequitable distribution, lack of participation negation of bottom up
approach.
E. PART V (2 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 392: Suggestion offered by both governement and non-government agencies that in
order to implement WDP it is necessary to accelerate the role of NGOs and intehrate stat
and distric level institution would form a provincial level network.
PARA 393: Also there is need to deal with equity issues not in terms of technology but it
terms of social and institutional aspects, common pool of resources needed to be
managed and encouragement of horticulture and diary farming assume significant.
F. PART VI (9 PARAGRAPHS)
PARA 394: Since 20th century Andhra Pradesh witnessed dynamic reform in irrigation
facilities based on based on neo-liberal economic reforms and market oriented policy
agenda where state played important role.
PARA 395: However, implementation remain a difficult task as it was based on
technicality, human behaviour, socio-economic conditions and society these issues
needed to be manage simultaneously.
PARA 396: Due to scarcity of water political contest take place at different levels ranging
from
PARA 397: Irrigation reforms were part of institutional modernization programme based
on political factors (represenation & political support), socio-economic constraints
(budgetary constraints, stagnating economic development), sector specific factors (poor
production).
PARA 398: However, WDP cannot be understood independent of VISION 2020, Which
focus on technological and institutional forces and neglect the comlex and diversified
livelihood of rural poor and their rights to ownership of resources.
PARA 399: VISION 2020 favoured by UK Departmentof International Development
advocate to deal with issue on sustainable livelihood and focus on people centered
approach.
PARA 400: People centered approach based of participation and empowerment but is
some ways exclusionary as institutional bias reflect domination of one particular
knowledge and devaluing other knowledge and value system.
PARA 401: CAPITAL INTENSIVE, THUS DISCRIMINATORY: In Andhra Pradesh rulling elite
dominated the reforms whereas ordinary people were ignorant of it due to lack of capital
resources and social discrimination which eliminates poorer from daily participation.
PARA 402: RICH AND MIDDLE MEN benifitted as they had capital to invest wheeas
situation contrasted in the case of Dalits and poor who did not have capital, howerver the
management of water system was democratic under WATER USER ASSOCIATION.
TOTAL NUMBERS OF PARAGRAPHS IN THE WHOLE BOOK- 402
TOTAL NUMBERS OF LINES IN THE WHOLE SUMMARY- 810-830 (as one paragraph
summarized in 2-3 lines)

PART II- DEALING WITH THREE SIGNIFICANT QUESTIONS:

QUESTION 1. WHAT IN YOUR OPINION, IS THE CENTRAL ARGUMENT OF THE BOOK AS
DRAWN FROM THE SUMMARY YOU HAVE MADE
ANSWER 1. The book is the collection eight essays produced by different scholars brought
together by Professor Arun Bandopadhyay. As it’s title comprised of three relevant,
political and dynamic words Nature, Knowledge and Development, thus the main
argument is based on the way in which particular knowledge system has been created and
influenced the road to development and adversely impact on the natural non-human as
well as non-living world. The book on one hand reflects the deep connection between
colonialism, western scientific knowledge and capitalist interventions on our environment
on the other hand it emphasis on the importance comparative inter-disciplinary studies.
The main argument of the book is that there is need to historicize the developmental
process in post-colonial India which has its roots in colonial past. It reflects the colonial
process in which the particular knowledge has been created, legitimized, universalized,
naturalized and made it unquestionable by devaluing other knowledge systems.
Heirarchial, anthropocentric and exploitative nature of colonial policies immensly
impacted on India’s environment by destroying traditional sustinable livelihood of the
indigenous people that the consequences of it, haunts the people even in post colonial
times.
It argues that the colonial policies based on modern scientific centralised knowledge in
order to legitimize the action of the state. It elaborated the inter-connection between
science, development and emergence of centralised modern state and how they
converges on a same point. It shows the parallel line between capitalism and modern
science based on efficiency.
It argues how the post- colonial India state carries the colonial legacy of modern scientific
and how state uses the tools of science and development to legitimze the suffering of the
common people.
The book agrues to study environmental history of India through inter-disciplinary
perspective in order have holistic knowledge of the phenomenas that construct the
developmental process in India.
The book challenges the rationality and objectivity of modern science by presenting the
religious imagery attached with modern science which reflects irrationality of a rational.
Despite of being critical of religion and superstitions, modern science has created a new
faith that is: modern science locates salvation of all earthy problems in miracles of
technology however, it could not prove anything, thus abstract and irrational. Thus, It
questioned the positivist ontology and espistemology.
This irrational abstract knowledge proves deterimental to the environment, traditional
living and lives of various communities in India. Thus the book argues for the biocentric
approach towards environment to live in harmony with the nature. It also agrues that the
western scientific notion of development is dominating our mindset to the extent that we
are not able to move out of this vivious circle, we are not looking at other sustainable
knowledge from our ancient text. For example principles of biocentrism and deep ecology
are not new phenomenas rather they are very much a part of ancient Indian knowledge
system, our very living and a way to be alive.
It rejects the one dominant path to truth and hence to development as well. Rather, it
argues for multiple paths to achieve the development and to reach at truth. In order to
move faster by adhering to the notions of sustainability, justice and equity we need to
follow different path to development rather blindly carry forward colonial legacy based on
centralised western scientific model.
The book sees the scientific knowledge as the language of domination and traditional
knowledge as the language of emanicipation. It argues power is the ladder on which
knowledge has been created. Centralisation of power through institutionalization of
everything is the colonial legacy which needs to be questioned by historicizing the issue. It
locates the real freedom of the people and their harmonious relationship with
environment in the traditional living and decentralization of power.
It argues that the notion of Development legitimizes immoral and violent action- example-
Indira Gandhi legitimizes the first nuclear test of India by claiming it as a development
project. Here, author present post structuralist view and question the stockpile of nuclear
weapons via language. For example an atom for peace is a disastrous weaponary language
that legitimizes the construction of nuclear plants. Here, language used in such a way that
it hides the reality and constructs it in a particular way where destructive nuclear
weapons show as innocuous.
QUESTION 2. WHICH PART OF THE ARGUMENT DO YOU SEE AS PERTINENT TO
UNDERSTANDING THE DYNAMICS OF KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIETY?
ANSWER 2. There were many turns and twist in the book which according to me
important to understand the dynamics of knowledge in society.
The very important argument that the book is making to understand the dynamic of
knowledge in society is the way in which colonial legacy created the knowledge system
based on modern science and rationality and made it unquestionable adversely
influencing the natural world and developmental process in post- colonial India. The
impact of colonial legacy on India’s transformation and destructuction of nature, has been
evolved throughout the period of time and become more complex and inter-disciplinary.
Colonial policies based on scientific knowledge distrurbed the livelihood of indigenous
people and devalue their traditional knowledge which was more sustainable, healthier
and harmonious with nature. For example: Modern state uses the tool of science to create
division between high status and low status commodities where commodities produced
in modern industry seen as scientific and of high value and commodities that been
produced locally with non-modern measures seen as unscientific and of low value. For
example: white sugar being produced in mill, despite of causing harmful effects on
human health is of high value and consumed by higher classes on the other hand gur
produces locally by using agriculture waste despite of being nutritious is of low value and
consume by lower classes.
Here, irony is colonial forest administration came as protagonist by making local tribal as
antagonist of the forest. The truth has been created by devaluing other truth, the
knowledge created by devaluing other knowledge. Commercialization of timber was
profitable thus legitimized by the scientific forestry set for the forest preservation.
Another example is from Sanjukta Das Gupta, One of the notable change in colonial
Singhbhum was expansion of cultivated land. This expansion was legitimized in the name
of CIVILIZING INFLUENCE by the British Government the idea was to creating superiority
and legitimizing the exploitation by making other race ignorant and wild. As the civilised
has duty to protect forest from uncivilized and wild.
Here power play important role in creating and legitimizing the knowledge. The state
views towards forest policy had been radically changed during colonial era and become
more commercialised which influenced even post colonial developmental projects in
India. In post colonial world, Indian legislations and forest policies focused in creating a
balance between rights of state and local communities over forest. The growth of forest
policies was extraordinarily slow as the scientific european knowledge was confined to
the members of medical profession.
In the 19th century the forest suffered vast destruction. Gun licensing was freely given by
the state and the destruction of wild animals was encourage by the rewards, over
cultivation to commercialise the produce dried up lands. Destruction of forest took place
not only Chotanagpur but extended to Bengal districts lying below.
Areas pf 14 of jungles reduced to 11%, 1882-4 survey of Chotanagpur resulted by
exploitative nature of landlord and commercial attitude of state, sale of forest to
contractors for suppley of railway sleepers affect fertility, climate and rainfall. Felling and
clearance impoverished the forest.
In Chotanagpur private capital played instrumental role in the felling of thousands of
magnificent trees(pp126). Tax imposed on villagers for accessing forest produce where as
sale of timber to outsider, further exacerbated the destruction of the jungle. However,
colonial administration justified the destruction by calling traditional old practices of
villagers like shifting cultivation, protective fires, grazing as destruction. Howvever it was
too little in comparison of private interest. Here paradox is destroyer were coming as
protector of the forest by creating a domination of scientific knowledge and devaluing
other knowledge system particularly traditional knowledge system. Governemnt and
forest department made exclusionary policies and reservation rights transferred to
landlords eliminate peasants from their common property rights.
Modern science uses analytical method to legitimize scientific knowledge as a result the
focus remains on parts and the linkage between them leads to neglection of
understanding whole. Here, reality percieved as fragments and not dynamically
integrated. Thus it fails to percieve the truth in case of living organism including man as
idea here is not whole as a sum of all parts but parts are so inter-related that isolating any
part distorts the perception of the whole. As a result, Holism comes as a reaction to
reductionist approach of colonial times, rejects the object/subject dualism and
emphasises the superiority of whole over parts. They see all phenomenon not as a
fragmented reality but independent and inter-related to each other brings ecological
wisdom. Modern science created knowledge in the laboratory based on mathematics and
logic and separate it with natural environment despite, that ultimately it needs to work in
natural environment. Thus gaining knowledge irrespective of the natural environment
from where its coming and has to go, western science provides incomplete knowledge and
reality but greatly influence the dynamics of knowledge in the post-colonial society.
WISDOM IS THE ABILITY TO IDENTIFY THE CRUCIAL ISSUES OF OUR TIME, ANALYZE THEM FROM MANY
DIFFERENT POINT OF VIEWS AND PERSPECTIVES, AND THEN CHOOSE THE ONE THAT CARRIES OUT SOME
NOBEL GOAL AND PRINCIPLE. IN OUR SOCIETY, WISDOM IS HARD TO COME BY.
“AS ISAAC ASIMOV ONCE SAID: THE SADDEST ASPECT OF SOCIETY RIGHT NOW IS THAT SCIENCE GATHERS
KNOWLEDGE FASTER THAN SOCIETY GATHERS WISDOM”.
QUESTION 3. FROM THE RANGE OF PERSPECTIVES DEALT THUS FAR IN THE COURSE,
OFFER TWO POINTS OF CRITICISMS TO THE CENTRAL ARGUMENT.
ANSWER 3. One of the criticisms to the central argument is coming from feminist
perspective, the book reflects the religious imagery of science, by having blind faith in
Science as a solution of everything and its impact on nature but failed to recognize the
sexual imagery that how scientific knowledge is gender biased by creating division
between masculinity and feminity. It fails to recognize women’s role in particular in
conserving the nature. Being close with nature the relationship between women and
nature is harmonious. This harmonious relationship has been disturbed with the advent of
British Scientific Knowledge System. Feminist historicize the issue and reflects on
gendered participation in the practice of science. Modern science excludes the
participation of women from various fields. For example the mainstream of modern
science is defence research which is more malestream, based on patriarchy,
power,rationality and war thus needed to be dominated and sees women as peaceful,
calm, irrational, giver whose life based on scarifices as nature thus needed to be altered,
subordianted by men. Here, modern state come up as an advocater of science and
technology in order to legitimize, naturalise and universalise its patriarchal and heirarchal
nature. The most variables of science are rationality and objectiving, based on relationship
of domination and subordiantion, naturalised the gender relation.
They criticize modern science for working and analysing without giving more attention to
the social context in which realtionships of power and knowledge are hidden.
Another criticism is from Post- structuralist that the book has failed to recognize the role,
nature, function and dysfunction of language in creating one particular knowledge as
dominant and how it creates space for heirarchial relationship between human being and
nature and among themselves. Language in itself entirely holds the suffering, struggling
and success of humanity. Thus there is need to descontruct the knowledge and
reconstruct it based on language. However it is not the just the language but whole
concept of science is based upon domination. For example the logic of nuclear stockpile in
the name of security in 21st century is another face of capitalism and commercialization.
As earlier nuclear weapons were made to fought a war but today war conducted to make
and sell the weapons. Also the words on which science is based are dominating like
rationality, power, and efficiency. All are holding in themselves the cause of domination
and subordiantion. Thus the very basis of science begin with the domination based on
language which need to recognize in its fullest forms and figures.
INSIGHT:
The book focus on traditional knowledge as a way to empanicpation but talk less about
how? It gives prominence to the inter-disciplinary nature of the issue but do not tell the
means to solve the problem. It challenges the positivist epistemology but do not talk
about how to deconstruct and reconstruct it.
Because we have travelled a long journey and reached at a point from where it is difficult
to go back, if we go back we might fall. Modern Science, Rationality, Capitalism,
Commercialization and Materialism all are part and parcel of the life of 21 st century
Man/Woman. Thus there is need to go further in a more radically evolutionary way. There
is need to have collaboration between modern science and traditional knowledge,
between scientists, economist and local people. It doesn’t mention the collaborative
efforts of Modern Science and Local People in contemporary times.