Research Methods and Statistics

Prof. (Dr.) Anubhuti Sharma

 Unit I

Scientific Research, Research- Nature

and Type, Purpose and Dimensions of
research, Level of measurements.
Research problem, Hypothesis,
Variables and their control.
 Meaning Of Research
Research may be very broadly defined as
systematic gathering of data and information and
its analysis for advancement of knowledge in any
subject. Research attempts to find answer
intellectual and practical questions through
application of systematic methods.
Research is an investigation or experimentation
aimed at :
✔ the discovery and interpretation of facts,
✔ revision of accepted theories or
✔ laws in the light of new facts, or
✔ practical application of such new or
✔ revised theories or
✔ laws
It is actually a voyage
of discovery.
 Types
of
Research
Types of research can be classified in many different
ways. some major ways of classifying research
include the following.

•Descriptive versus Analytical Research

•Applied versus Fundamental Research
•Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
•Conceptual versus Empirical Research
 Descriptive versus Analytical
Research
Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to
ascertain the nature of something as it exists. Descriptive
research classifies, describes, compares, and measures data.
For example, take numbers on the changing trade deficits
between the United States and the rest of the world in
2015-2018.

Meanwhile, analytical research focuses on cause and effect.

Here we look at why and how the trade deficit has
changed. Special statistics and statistical controls help
ensure the results are meaningful.
 Applied versus Fundamental Research
Applied research is carried out to find answers to practical
problems to be solved and as an aid in decision making in
different areas including product design, process design
and policy making.
Example:
An investigation into the ways of improving employee
motivation in hotel industry.

Fundamental research is carried out as more to satisfy

intellectual curiosity, than with the intention of using the
research findings for any immediate practical application.
Example:
A study of how stress affects labor productivity.
Studying the best factors of pricing strategies.
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
Qualitative research studies such aspects of the research
subject which are not quantifiable, and hence not subject to
measurement and quantitative analysis.
The hair colors of players on a football team, the color of
cars in a parking lot, the letter grades of students in a
classroom, the types of coins in a jar, and the shape of
candies in a variety pack.

In contrast quantitative research make substantial use of

measurements and quantitative analysis techniques.
An example of quantitative research is the survey
conducted to understand the amount of time a doctor takes
to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the
hospital.
 Conceptual versus Empirical Research
Conceptual research is involves investigation of
thoughts and ideas and developing new ideas or
interpreting the old ones based on logical reasoning.
The most famous example of a conceptual research is
Sir Issac Newton. He observed his surroundings to
conceptualize and develop theories about gravitation
and motion.

In contrast empirical research is based on firm

verifiable data collected by either observation of facts
under natural condition or obtained through
experimentation.
Finding out whether listening to happy music promotes
prosocial behaviour
 Examples of types of researches
1-Market research, because by examining consumption patterns, strategies
can be developed for the development of new products and marketing
campaigns, etc
(Applied)
2-Investigating how the public census of influential government officials
differs between urban and non-urban areas.(Analytical)
3-Examining the effects of sleep deprivation on mood.(Qualitative)
4-Randomised controlled trial studies for measuring the effectiveness of
new pharmaceutical drugs on human subjects.(Empirical)
5- Instances of road accidents (Descriptive)
6- why the value of the Japanese Yen has fallen. (Analytical)
7-A critical assessment of the role of organizational culture in facilitating
management-employee communications. (Fundamental)
8-Principal of population.(Conceptual)
9-Research on weights of new born babies(Quantitative)
10- A study on ways to increase student involvement in the classroom.
(Applied)
11-A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing
communication channel. (Exploratory)
 Few more researches
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the
research questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive
solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted
to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet. Conducted in
order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not
intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better
understanding of the problem. “exploratory research is the initial research,
which forms the basis of more conclusive research.

Ex:- An advertising company got an account for a new coffee containing

chicory, the company started the investigation process with exploratory
research in order to identify the situation. The researchers found that
virtually no one had heard about chicory. It wasn’t being used, and no-one
seemed to know how to put it to use. This resulted in the hypothesis that
the advertising could depict the chicory ingredient in whatever way the
customer desired.
 Longitudinal research

Longitudinal research focuses on how certain

measurements change over time without manipulating
any variables.
For instance, a researcher may examine if and how
employee satisfaction changes in the same employees
after one year, three years and five years with the same
company.
 Cross-sectional research

Cross-sectional research studies a group or subgroup at

one point in time. Participants are generally chosen based
on certain shared characteristics, such as age, gender or
income, and researchers examine the similarities and
differences within groups and between groups. The group
is often used as a representation of a larger population.
Similar to longitudinal research, researchers observe
participants without altering variables.
For example, a company may research the sales techniques
of its top 10% of salespeople and compare them to the
techniques used by its bottom 10% of salespeople. This can
help provide the company insights into the most successful
and least successful sales methods.
 Objectives/Purpose of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through

the application of scientific procedures.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights
into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory
or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this object
in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Nature of Research

Characteristics of research determine whether a research is free of

biases, prejudices, and subjective errors or not. The terms are very
commonly used in research and the success of any research depends
on these terms. They can be summarized as:
1. Generalized.
2. Controlled.
3. Rigorous.
4. Empirical.
5. Systematic
6. Reliability.
7. Validity.
8. Employs hypothesis
9. Analytical & Accuracy.
10. Credibility.
11. Critical
1. Generalized: The researcher usually divides the identified
population into smaller samples depending on the resource
availability at the time of research being conducted but
ensures that the findings are representative of entire
population.

2. Controlled: The concept of control implies in exploring

causality in relation to two variables (factors). Laboratory
experiments as in pure sciences like chemistry can be
controlled but any study that involves societal issues cannot
be controlled.
3. Rigorous: One must be careful in ensuring that the
procedures followed to find answers to questions are
relevant, appropriate and justified.

4. Empirical: The processes adopted should be tested for the

accuracy and each step should be coherent in progression.
5. Systematic: The procedure or process being developed to
undertake a study should be carefully drafted to ensure that
resources utilization is optimized.

6. Reliability: It is the extent to which an experiment, test,

measuring procedure, research, research instrument, tool or
procedure yields the same results on repeated trials. If any
research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with
similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to
be a reliable research.
7. Validity & Verifiability: The validity of a measurement tool
(for example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree
to which the tool measures what it claims to measure. The
findings of a study should be verifiable by the researcher as well
as anyone else who wants to conduct the study on similar
guidelines/ under similar conditions.

8. Employs Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an idea around which

one starts working before it is actually converted to research. A
question is what forms the base and is later termed as hypothesis
and it may or may not draw a logical outcome. Hypothesis may
prove to be wrong or null or void after the study is conducted.
9. Analytical & Accurate : A research should be focused not
only about what is happening but also on how and why a
particular phenomenon, process draws certain conclusions.
Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process,
instrument, and tool is related to each other. Accuracy also
measures whether research tools have been selected in best
possible manner and research procedures suits the research
problem or not.

10. Credibility: The extent to which an analysis of finding can

be treated to be trustworthy is termed as credibility.

11. Critical: The process adopted and the procedures used must
be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Dimensions
of
Research
A- The Purpose of the study
i)Exploration
ii)Descriptive
iii)Explanation
B- Idiographic and Nomothetic
C- The use of research
i)Basic (Fundamental)
ii)Applied research
a)Action research
b)Social impact
c)Evaluation research
D-Time dimension in research
i)Cross sectional research
ii)Longitude research
a)Time series
b)Panel study
c)Cohort analysis
The idiographic approach often focuses on the micro, while the nomothetic
approach is used to understand the macro. One would typically use qualitative
methods like participant observation, interviews, and focus groups to conduct
idiographic research.
Quantitative methods such as large-scale surveys and statistical analysis of
demographic or historical data would be used to conduct nomothetic research.
Research Process
 Scientific Research

A scientific research definition is that it is the process

by which scientists study various phenomenon using
systematic methods of collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data. It is often referred to as a creative
process because it involves novel ways to test ideas that
can lead to new ideas and information.
How did scientists know that penicillin could be used to
treat bacterial infections? How do therapists know how
to treat depression? How do nutritionists know which
foods to recommend to promote health? These
discoveries were brought to us by scientific research.
Classification of Scientific Research

A- How the data is collected

(i) Observational research
(ii) Experimental research

B- How data will be applied

(i) Clinical research
(ii) Laboratory research

C- Purpose of the research

(i) Exploratory
(ii) Descriptive
(iii) Explanatory/ Cause Effect
Measurement and
scaling concept
 MEASUREMENT SCALE

A measurement scale is used to qualify or quantify data

variables in statistics. It determines the kind of techniques
to be used for statistical analysis.
There are different kinds of measurement scales, and the
type of data being collected determines the kind of
measurement scale to be used for statistical measurement.
These measurement scales are four in number,
namely; nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale, and
ratio scale.
The measurement scales are used to measure qualitative and
quantitative data. With nominal and ordinal scale being
used to measure qualitative data while interval and ratio
scales are used to measure quantitative data.
 Levels of Data Measurement
The level of measurement of a given data set is determined by
the relationship between the values assigned to the attributes of a
data variable. For example, the relationship between the values
(1 and 2) assigned to the attributes (male and female) of the
variable (Gender) is "identity". This via. a nominal scale
example.

By knowing the different levels of data measurement,

researchers are able to choose the best method for statistical
analysis. The different levels of data measurement are: nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio scales
 Characteristics of a Measurement Scale

Identity
Identity refers to the assignment of numbers to the values of each variable in
a data set. Consider a questionnaire that asks for a respondent's gender with
the options Male and Female for instance. The values 1 and 2 can be
assigned to Male and Female respectively.
Arithmetic operations can not be performed on these values because they are
just for identification purposes. This is a characteristic of a nominal scale.
Magnitude
The magnitude is the size of a measurement scale, where numbers (the
identity) have an inherent order from least to highest. They are usually
represented on the scale in ascending or descending order. The position in a
race, for example, is arranged from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd to the least.
This example is measured on an ordinal scale because it has both identity and
magnitude.
 Equal intervals
An interval scale is any range of values that have a meaningful
mathematical difference but no true zero. In a race, the 1st position may
complete the race in 20 secs, 2nd position in 20.8 seconds while the 3rd
in 30 seconds.
A variable that has an identity, magnitude, and the equal interval is
measured on an interval scale.

Absolute zero
Absolue zero is a feature that is unique to a ratio scale. It means that there
is an existence of zero on the scale, and is defined by the absence of the
variable being measured (e.g. no qualification, no money, does not
identify as any gender, etc.
Levels of measurement
Research Problem
FORMULATING THE
RESEARCH hypothesis
 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that
will be tested by research. Before formulating your research
hypothesis, read about the topic of interest to you. From your reading,
which may include articles, books and/or cases, you should gain
sufficient information about your topic that will enable you to narrow
or limit it and express it as a research question. The research question
flows from the topic that you are considering. The research question,
when stated as one sentence, is your Research Hypothesis.

In your hypothesis, you are predicting the relationship between

variables. Through the disciplinary insights gained in the research
process throughout the year, you “prove” your hypothesis. This is a
process of discovery to create greater understandings or conclusions. It
is not a strict proof as in logic or mathematics.
 Points to remember for formulation
hypothesis:
1. Be sure to read on the topic to familiarize yourself with it before
making a final decision. You need to make certain that the topic is
researchable in an interdisciplinary sense, meaning that there is
sufficient published material on the topic.
2. As noted, a research hypothesis is more than just a topic. It has two
elements (variables) that are in relation to each other. Hypothesis is
what you propose to “prove” by your research. As a result of
research, you will arrive at a conclusion, a theory, or understanding
that will be useful or applicable beyond the research itself.
3. Avoid judgmental words in your hypothesis. Value judgments are
subjective and are not appropriate for a hypothesis. You should strive
to be objective. Therefore the use of personal opinion is to be
avoided.
HYPOTHESIS
 Research Hypothesis
• When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be
tested by scientific methods, it is termed as a research
hypothesis.
• The Research Hypothesis is a predicative
statement that relates an independent
variable to dependent variable.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
Following are the characteristics of hypothesis:
The hypothesis should be clear and precise so as to consider
it to be reliable.
If the hypothesis is relational hypothesis, then it should be
stating the relationship between variables.
The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for
conducting more tests.
The way of explanation of hypothesis must be very simple
and it should also be understood that simplicity of
hypothesis is not related to its significance.
 Sources of Hypothesis

Following are the sources of hypothesis:

Resemblance between the phenomenon.
Observations from past studies, present day
experiences, and from the competitors.
Scientific theories.
General patterns that influence the thinking process of
people.
 Types of Hypothesis

There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:

Simple hypothesis
Complex hypothesis
Directional hypothesis
Non-directional hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Associative and casual hypothesis
Simple Hypothesis
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a
single independent variable. For example – If you eat more
vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more
vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the
dependent variable.
Complex Hypothesis
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent
variables and two or more independent variables. Eating more
vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, reduces
the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high blood
pressure, and some cancers.
Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a
particular outcome. The relationship between the variables can
also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years
eating proper food over a five year period are having higher IQ
level than children not having a proper meal. This shows the
effect and the direction of effect.
Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that
a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting
the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.
Associative and Causal Hypothesis
Associative hypothesis occurs, When there is a change in one
variable resulting a change in the other variable. Whereas,
Causal hypothesis propose a cause and effect interaction
between two or more variables.
Null Hypothesis & Alternative Hypothesis
It provides the statement which is contrary to hypothesis. It’s
a negative statement, and there is no relationship between
independent and dependent variable. The symbol is denoted
by “H0” and the alternative hypothesis as “H1”.
If we are to compare method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both
methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as
the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the
method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then
stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis.
 Examples of Hypothesis

Following are the examples of hypothesis based on

their types:
Consumption of sugary drinks everyday leads to
obesity is an example of simple hypothesis.
All lilies have same number of petals is an
example of null hypothesis.
If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel
less fatigue than if he sleeps less.
 Functions of Hypothesis

Following are the functions performed by the

hypothesis:
Hypothesis helps in making an observation and
experiments possible.
It becomes the start point for the investigation.
Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
It helps in directing the inquiries in the right
directions.
Research variables
and control
 Variables

The purpose of all research is to describe and explain variance in

the world. Variance is simply the difference; that is, variation
that occurs naturally in the world or change that we create as a
result of a manipulation. Variables are names that are given to
the variance we wish to explain.
A variable is either a result of some force or is itself the force
that causes a change in another variable. In experiments, these
are called dependent and independent variables respectively.
When a researcher gives an active drug to one group of people
and a placebo , or inactive drug, to another group of people, the
independent variable is the drug treatment. Each person's
response to the active drug or placebo is called the dependent
variable. This could be many things depending upon what the
drug is for, such as high blood pressure or muscle pain. Therefore
in experiments, a researcher manipulates an independent variable
to determine if it causes a change in the dependent variable.
 What are variables?

Variables are things you measure, manipulate and

control in statistics and research. All studies analyze a
variable, which can describe a person, place, thing or
idea. A variable's value can change between groups or
over time. For example, if the variable in an experiment
is a person's eye color, its value can change from brown
to blue to green from person to person.
 Types of variables

1. Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that
the other variables in your experiment cannot change.
Age is an example of an independent variable. Where
someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise
are not going to change their age. Independent variables
can, however, change other variables. In studies,
researchers often try to find out whether an independent
variable causes other variables to change and in what
way.
 2. Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by
other components. A grade on an exam is an example of a
dependent variable because it depends on factors such as
how much sleep you got and how long you studied.
Independent variables can influence dependent variables,
but dependent variables cannot influence independent
variables. For example, the time you spent studying
(dependent) can affect the grade on your test
(independent) but the grade on your test does not affect
the time you spent studying.
When analyzing relationships between study objects,
researchers often try to determine what makes the
dependent variable change and how.
 3. Intervening variables
An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a
theoretical variable the researcher uses to explain a cause or
connection between other study variables—usually dependent and
independent ones. They are associations instead of observations. For
example, if wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a
dependent variable, the researcher might hypothesize that access to
quality healthcare is the intervening variable that links wealth and life
span.
4. Moderating variables
A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship between
dependent and independent variables by strengthening or weakening
the intervening variable's effect. For example, in a study looking at the
relationship between economic status (independent variable) and how
frequently people get physical exams from a doctor (dependent
variable), age is a moderating variable. That relationship might be
weaker in younger individuals and stronger in older individuals.
 5. Control variables
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that
are constant and do not change during a study. They
have no effect on other variables. Researchers might
intentionally keep a control variable the same
throughout an experiment to prevent bias.
For example, in an experiment about plant
development, control variables might include the
amounts of fertilizer and water each plant gets. These
amounts are always the same so that they do not affect
the plants' growth.
6. Extraneous variables

Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable

but that the researcher did not originally consider when designing
the experiment. These unwanted variables can unintentionally
change a study's results or how a researcher interprets those
results.

For example, a study assessing whether private tutoring or online

courses are more effective at improving students' Spanish test
scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence
the outcome include parental support, prior knowledge of a foreign
language or socioeconomic status.
 7. Quantitative variables
Quantitative variables are any data sets that involve numbers or
amounts. Examples might include height, distance or number of
items. Researchers can further categorize quantitative variables
into two types:
• Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count,
such as the coins in your wallet or the money in your savings
account.
• Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish
counting, such as time.
 8. Qualitative variables
Qualitative, or categorical, variables are non-numerical values or
groupings. Examples might include eye or hair color. Researchers
can further categorize qualitative variables into three types:
• Binary: Variables with only two categories, such as male or
female, red or blue.
• Nominal: Variables you can organize in more than two
categories that do not follow a particular order. Take, for
example, housing types: Single-family home, condominium, tiny
home.
• Ordinal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories
that follow a particular order. Take, for example, level of
satisfaction: Unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied.
 9. Confounding variables
A confounding variable is one you did not account for that can
disguise another variable's effects. Confounding variables can
invalidate your experiment results by making them biased or
suggesting a relationship between variables exists when it does not.
For example, if you are studying the relationship between exercise
level (independent variable) and body mass index (dependent
variable) but do not consider age's effect on these factors, it becomes
a confounding variable that changes your results.
10. Composite variables
A composite variable is two or more variables combined to make a
more complex variable. Overall health is an example of a composite
variable if you use other variables, such as weight, blood pressure
and chronic pain, to determine overall health in your experiment.
THANK YOU