Psychology 8th Edition Gleitman Test

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CHAPTER 9: Thinking

CONCEPT MAP

I. Mental Representations—Contents in the Mind Standing for Some Object or State

of Affairs
A. Mental Images—analogical representations preserving an object’s visual
characteristics
B. Propositions—symbolic statements relating a subject and a predicate
i. Nodes—individual symbols within a network of propositions
ii. Associative Links—connections specifying the relationships between nodes
iii. Spreading Activation—as a proposition is considered, activation travels
to associated nodes via the links.

II. Judgment and Reasoning—Drawing Conclusions from Experiences and Implications

from Beliefs
A. System I Thinking—a fast, automatic type of thinking; sometimes error-prone
i. Availability Heuristic—assumption that what comes to mind easily
is frequent in reality
ii. Representativeness Heuristic—assumption that each member of category
is a typical example
iii. Confirmation Bias—tendency to give more credence to evidence consistent
with our beliefs
B. System II Thinking—a slow, effortful type of thinking; less error-prone
i. Syllogisms—contain two premises and a conclusion; task is to determine
whether conclusion follows logically from premises
ii. Selection Task—involves choosing the correct cards to confirm a rule
iii. Concrete Content—often improves performance on reasoning problems
like syllogisms and the selection task

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 Thinking

III. Decision Making—Choosing among Options

A. Influences on Decision Making
i. Framing—expressing options in terms of potential gains or potential losses.
We take risks to avoid losses.
ii. Affective Forecasting—we inaccurately predict our emotional reactions
to the outcomes of our decisions
iii. Too Many Options—an excess of options leaves us unsatisfied with
our decisions
B. Satisficing—making a satisfactory, but not necessarily ideal, choice

IV. Problem Solving—Finding a Sequence of Steps from an Initial to a Goal State

A. Types of Problems
i. Well-Defined—the solver has a clear idea of the goal state and how
to reach it
ii. Ill-Defined—the solver has only a vague idea of the goal and how to reach it
B. Obstacles to Problem Solving
i. Mental Set—specific perspective or set of assumptions constraining
the approach to a problem
C. Strategies to Improve Problem Solving
i. Means-Ends Analysis—reducing the difference between the initial and goal
states by dividing the problem into subproblems
ii. Making Analogies—relating the problem to a similar problem or experience
iii. Restructuring—finding an alternative perspective on the problem
iv. Incubation—setting the problem aside for a while; may lead to illumination,
the key insight into its solution
v. Developing Expertise—building an extensive knowledge base for use
in solving problems

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