Electronic Configuration

Many of the general properties can be explained by the electronic configuration or the arrangement of the extranuclear electrons. A simple picture of the atom is to regard the extranuclear electrons as being contained in shells rather like the layers in an onion. The outer layers or shells become progressively larger further away from the nucleus thus hold more electrons. The shells are called K, L, M, N etc. There is a more comprehensive system of classifying electrons by shells and sub-shells (s, p, d, f) but for our purposes the simpler system will suffice. K shell maximum 2 electrons M shell maximum 18 electrons L shell maximum 8 electrons N shell maximum 32 electrons

However although the M and N shells can hold many more than 8 electrons they initially only hold 8 electrons and the remaining electrons are only added when shells further from the nucleus have been partly filled. The electronic configurations of the first 20 elements are given below.
K L M H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 1 2 N

Mg 2 Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Table 1. Electronic configurations.

Points to note: elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outermost shell, e.g., Li 2.1, Na 2.8.1, K 2.8.8.1, Rb 2.8.18.8.1, Cs 2.8.18.32.1 and F 2.7, Cl 2.8.7, Br 2.8.18.7, I 2.8.18.18.7, are to be found in the same column in the periodic table, non-metals have more than three electrons in the outer shell, metals usually have less than three electrons in the outer shell an outermost shell of eight electrons (two in the case of He), or closed shell configuration, corresponds to unreactive elements or a very stable electronic arrangement. chemical properties of the elements can be explained in terms of the electronic configuration. main group elements with only one or two electrons in their outer shell, e.g., Li and Be groups, tend to lose those electrons to form cations with a closed shell electronic configuration, e.g., Na 2.8.1 Na+ 2.8 and Ca 2.8.8.2 Ca2+ 2.8.8, main group elements which are one or two electrons short of a closed shell, e.g, O and F groups, tend to gain electrons to form anions with a closed shell electronic configuration, e.g., F 2.7 F - 2.8 and S 2.8.6 S22.8.8 (F- is known as fluoride ion and S2- as sulphide ion), non-metals can also share electrons to obtain a closed shell configuration by forming electron pair or covalent bonds.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1. 2. Write electronic configurations for the following ions Li+, Mg2+, Al3+, Cl-, O2- and N3-. Research and write the electronic configurations for the following atoms Rb, Ba,Br and Kr. What group does each element belong to and how many electrons is in the outer shell of each atom?

Chemical Bonding
Chemical reactions involve the breaking of old bonds and the formation of new bonds between atoms. There are three sorts of chemical bonds: ionic or electrovalent bonds covalent or electron pair bonds metallic bonds. One way to explain bonding is by looking at examples, and simple examples are chlorine gas Cl2 (covalent bond), sodium metal Na (metallic), and sodium chloride (ionic bond). The chlorine atom with the electronic configuration 2.8.7 is one electron short of a closed shell electronic configuration (2.8.8) and the atom has an unpaired electron. Two chlorine atoms come together, in the chlorine molecule Cl2, by mutual sharing of the unpaired electrons, in an electron pair or covalent bond. Each chlorine atom will have a full share in 6 electrons and a half share in 2 electrons, i.e., each chlorine has a part share in a "closed shell" of 8 electrons. The electron pair bond is often represented by a line between two atoms, e.g., Cl-Cl. In covalent compounds the bonding is within the molecule and not between molecules and thus the molecules are not held together strongly and covalent molecules are often liquids or gases. The covalent bonds within a molecule are usually strong.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of chlorine molecule Cl2. In some covalent compounds the covalent bonds extend in three dimensions, e.g., in diamond, to give a covalent giant molecule. Giant molecules usually have high melting points and boiling points. In diamond each carbon atom is to covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, each of which is bonded to another four carbon atoms etc. to give an infinite lattice of carbon atoms which is very hard and strong.

Figure 2. Diagram of diamond. The sodium atom with the electronic configuration 2.8.1 has one electron more than a closed shell electronic configuration (2.8). In sodium metal there is a lattice of sodium cations Na+ (2.8) and the outer electrons are delocalized as a mobile "sea" of electrons. The metallic bond arises from the mutual electrostatic attraction between the positively charged sodium cations and the negatively charged electrons. The mobile electrons are responsible for the electrical conductivity of metals and the lustrous (shiny) appearance (the electrons 3

absorb and then immediately re-emit most of the light that falls on a metal). Because the cations can be regarded as spherical "billiard" balls and because the electrons are mobile it is possible to deform a metal without breaking, i.e., pure metals are malleable (can be hammered out into sheets) and ductile (can be drawn out into wires) and are not brittle.

Figure 3. Diagram of sodium When sodium metal burns in a chlorine atmosphere a white crystalline solid, sodium chloride, is formed. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2Na+Cl-(s) Sodium chloride, an ionic compound, comprises a lattice of sodium cations Na+ (2.8) and chloride anions Cl(2.8.8) by complete electron transfer from the sodium atoms (2.8.1) to chlorine atoms (2.8.7). The ionic bond is the mutual electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. In sodium chloride each sodium cation is surrounded by six chloride anions and each chloride anion is surrounded by six sodium cations.

Figure 4. Diagram of sodium chloride. Ionic compounds have strong three dimensional electrostatic bonding. This means that ionic compounds are all solids at room temperature with high melting points. Ionic compounds are insulators as solids but are ionic conductors in the fused (molten) state or when dissolved in solution because the charged ions are free to move in an electric field. Ionic compounds are brittle. This is evident when ionic materials are deformed and undergo cleavage (splitting). Deformation causes ions of the same charge sign to be brought close together and resultant strong repulsions cause the crystals to split into small cubes. Sodium chloride cleaves. A quick summary of properties associated with each sort of bonding. Ionic substances: high melting points, often water soluble, often colourless unless either or both ions are coloured, conduct electricity in solution or in molten state, crystals transparent, brittle. Examples sodium chloride (rock salt), calcium carbonate (limestone), calcium fluoride (fluorspar). Metallic substances: lustrous, good conductors of heat and electricity, not soluble in water (some react with water), malleable, ductile, crystals opaque. Examples: sodium, iron, mercury, brass (alloy), cupronickel (alloy). 4

Covalent molecular substances: low melting point solids or liquids or gases, insulators of heat and electricity, usually not very soluble in water. Examples: methane, water, chlorine, benzene, cholesterol. Covalent giant structures: high melting and boiling points, insoluble in water, usually electrical insulators, brittle. Examples diamond, graphite and silicon,

Dot and Cross Diagrams for Covalent Compounds

A dot and cross diagram for a covalent compound shows the arrangement of the electrons in the outer shells of all the atoms present in the compound. For example, for methane

and for phosphorus trichloride

Note the lone pair of electrons in the outer shell of the phosphorus atom

Dot and Cross Diagrams for Ionic Compounds

A dot and cross diagram for an ionic compound shows the number of electrons present in the outer shell of the atoms from which the compound was made.

For example, the dot and cross diagram for sodium chloride shows that the outer shell of the sodium (E.C.(Na) = 2, 8, 1) is empty when it has been converted to a sodium ion (E.C.(Na+) = 2, 8). It also shows that the outer shell of the chlorine (E.C.(Cl) = 2, 8, 7) contains eight electrons when it has been converted into a chloride ion (E.C.(Cl-) = 2, 8, 8). Here are two more examples of dot and cross diagrams for ionic compounds.

Note the use of round brackets to indicate when 2 or 3 ions of one type are needed to balance the charges and form a neutral compound. Also note the use of dots to indicate the number of electrons that were originally present in the outer shell of the non-metal atom and crosses to indicate the number of electrons that have been transferred from the metal atom (or atoms) to fill the outer shell of the non-metal.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES Draw dot and cross diagrams to show the bonding in H2Se, AsH3, Rb2O and BaS.