TRAFFIC STUDIES 4.

Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway requirements, maximum grades, lane

Introduction
 Previous discussion provides the basic
information necessary for meaningful
planning, design, and analysis of highways
and other road transportation infrastructures
 The manner on how to obtained those data
II.
is another method and generally involves
time, effort and may cost much. Hence, it is
necessary to plan carefully all data
collection efforts.
VOLUME STUDIES
Volume studies are conducted to determine the
number, movements, and classifications of
III.
roadway vehicles and/or people that pass at a
specified point on the highway system.
These data can help identify:
 Critical flow time periods
 Determine the influence of large
vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular
traffic flow; or
 Document traffic volume trends
TYPES OF VOLUME
I. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
-This is the average 24-hour counts collected every
IV.
day in a year. It is used for:
1. Estimation of highway user revenues
2. Computation of accident rates
3. Establishment of traffic volume trends
projects widths, and so forth.
2. Capacity analyses, with respect to
5. Development of freeway and major arterial street
passenger-car equivalents of trucks
systems
3. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by
6. Development of improvement and maintenance machines
programs 4. Structural design of highway pavements,
bridges, and so forth
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
Types of Data Collected
-This is the average 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than 1 but less than a year. a) Mid-Block Counts
ADTs may be used for:  These are used for preparing traffic flow
maps and determining trends.
1. Planning of highway activities
2. Measurement of current demand
3. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
Hourly Traffic or Peak Hour Volum (PHV)
-This is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a
point on a highway during a period of 60
consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for:
1. Functional classification of highways
2. Design of the geometric characteristics of a
highway, for example, number of lanes,
intersection signalization, or channelization
3. Capacity analysis b) Directional Counts
4. Development of programs related to traffic  These are used for determining
directional distribution for capacity
operations, for example, one-way street
systems or traffic routing analysis, signal timing, justifying traffic
5. Development of parking regulations control, and the likes.
c) Turning Movement / Intersection Counts
Vehicle Classifications (VC)
 These are used for signal timing
-This records volume with respect to the type of designing or improving geometry of
vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle intersection, planning turning
trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in: prohibition, and analyzing high accident
intersections.
1. Design of geometric characteristics, with
particular reference to turning radii

d) Classification Counts
 These are used for determining modal
split, estimating effects of heavy
vehicles on capacity, determining
correction factors for automatic counts.
e) Cordon Counts
 These are used to determine the number
of vehicles and/or people entering and
leaving an enclosed area.
f) Screen Line Counts
 These are classified counts taken at
some points along a line that bisects a
given area.
 When Traffic count of very long duration is
required, one may resort to automatic counters
through the use of detectors
C. Using Video Cameras
 Video cameras may be used to take footage of
the traffic flow. Counts may then be carried out
later through either tally or manual method
while watching the video.
PRESENTATION OF TRAFFIC VOLUME
Variations
TIME OF STUDIES
 Twenty-four-hour counts from midnight to
midnight
 Sixteen-hour counts from 6 Am to 10 PM
to represent most of daily flow, including
evening traffic. Flow Maps
 Twelve-hour counts from 6 AM to PM to
cover most of daytime traffic.
 Peak Period counts from 7AM to 9AM, 5
PM to 7 PM, or other time intervals
corresponding to very high level of traffic
volume.
 Short counts about one hour or less with
intervals of 5-15 minutes to analyze
characteristics of peak hours.
METHODS
Intersection Diagrams
A. Using Manual Methods
 This is a mechanical device useful when there is
a high volume of traffic
B. Automatic Counters

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
 These are conducted to estimate the speed of
vehicles in the traffic stream at a particular
location on a highway. Usually expressed in
mph or kph.
 The objectives of conducting spot speed studies
are to:
 Determine the range and magnitude of
speeds as a basis for formulating design
standards
 Establish maximum and minimum speed
limits
 Determine the need for posting advisory
speed signs
 Determine the need for school zone
protection
 Evaluate the performance of a geometric
improvement or traffic control device
through a “before-and-after” study.
Location
 It should represent different traffic conditions on
a highway for basic data collection.
 It should be located at the mid-blocks of a street
or highway
 Upon doing the survey, it should be selected to
achieve the following:
 Unbiased data
 Drivers be unaware
 Equipment concealed from the driver
 Surveyors must not be clearly visible
Time of Study
 The period during which speeds are measured
depends on the purpose of the study
 Abnormal conditions such as adverse weather
condition or unusually heavy traffic condition
should be avoided
 Recommended when traffic is free-flowing and
during off-peak hours.
 The duration of the study should be around one
hour. Short study period will often lead to bias
towards faster vehicles
Size of Samples
 The speed of at least 50 vehicles- preferably
100- should be measured
 To cover al representative vehicles,
measurement of every nth vehicle may be
applied. In this way, possible bias that may be
attributed to the following may be avoided:
 Selecting mostly leaders of the solution
 Selecting mostly one particular type of
vehicle
 Selecting faster vehicles
METHODS
A. Trap Length Method
 This is very useful and less expensive way of
conducting spot speed studies.
1. In this method, two lines, 30-50 meter apart,
are drawn transversely on the pavement
2. A surveyor holding a stopwatch will click it
when the bumper of a vehicle enters the “trap
line”
3. When the bumper of the vehicle approached
the next “trap line”, the flagman will raise
his/her flag to indicate that the surveyor
holding the stopwatch needs to click it again.
4. The length of the trap is divided by the travel
time to estimate the speed.
B. Radar Speed Method
 This is very convenient way of conducting spot
speed studies.
 Radar may be difficult to use when the volume
of traffic is high
 These are often used by the police authorities
for apprehending over speeding drivers
 Layout of survey site depends on:
 Capabilities of radar unit
 Minimum angle of incident
  Concerning Unit
C. Pneumatic Road Tubes
 This method is done by laying a pneumatic rube
across the lane in which data are to be collected.
The principle is when a moving vehicle passes
over, an air impulse is transmitted to the counter
which then reads that a vehicle passes through a
certain point.
1. Two Tubes are placed across the lane,
2m apart
2. An impulse is recorded when the front
wheels of a moving vehicle pass over
the first tube
3. A second impulse is recorded when the
front wheels pass over the second tube
4. The time elapsed between two impulses
and the distance between the tubes are
used to compute the speed of the
vehicle
D. Induction Loops
 A rectangular wire loop buried under the
roadway surface. It operates on the principle
that a disturbance in the electrical field is
created when a motor vehicle passes across it.
E. Video Recording – Manual and Automatic
 Video Cameras may also be used to take footage
of the traffic flow. Markings on the pavement
may be drawn before the video is taken and then
you can watch it later to record the speed of the
vehicles.
 Automatic speed recording camera uses a
machine-vision system. It detects the presence
of vehicles and compute traffic characteristics
such as volume, queues, and headways.
Speed Characteristics
 Average speed is the arithmetic mean of all
observed vehicle speeds.
 Median Speed is the speed at the middle value
in a series of spot speeds that are arranged in
ascending order.
 Modal Speed is the speed that occurs most
frequently in a sample of spot speeds
 The ith-percentile spot speed is the spot speed
value below which i-percent of the vehicles
travel.
 Pace is the range of speed-usually taken 10 mph
intervals that has the greatest number of
observations.
 Standard deviation of speeds is a measure of
the spread of the individual speeds.
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF SPOT
SPEEDS
Spot Speed data are usually summarized in a
frequency table. Data are normally grouped together
in predetermined class intervals, and distributions
are calculated.
There are no strict rules in deciding the number of
speed class intervals. However, the Sturgess formula
may serve as a guide in determining the initial
number of class intervals.
TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES
Travel time studies normally give information on
the performance of a particular roadway.
Independent measurements of stops and their
observed reasons may also be included to give
information on delays.
METHODS
A. Test Car Technique
The method makes use of a test vehicle that is
driven over the road section under study.
  Average-car Technique: test vehicle travels
according to the driver’s judgement of the
average speed of the traffic stream
 Floating-car Technique: driver “floats” with
the traffic attempting to safely pass as many
vehicles as possible
 Maximum-car Technique: test vehicle is
driven at the posted speed limit unless
impeded by actual traffic conditions or safety
considerations.
B. Licensed Plate Method
 The method basically consists of observing and
recording license plates of vehicles and time of
arrivals at two points or more on the road where
the vehicles are expected to pass.
 The plate numbers are then matched manually,
or encoded in the computer for automatic
processing.
 It may be convenient to divide the time of
observation into 5- or 10-minute intervals.
Within each interval the license plates of
vehicles passing the point of observation are
recorded.
 For heavy volume traffic, it is more practical to
just record the first letter and the last number of
three digits.
C. Moving Observer Method
 One of the most common survey methods for
obtaining information on traffic volume, speed,
and density of a given section of road. the
method consists of one or two test cars traveling
back and forth within the section. A team is
composed preferably of at least two observers
and one timer.
1. One observer counts the number of vehicles
moving in the opposite direction
2. Another observer counts the number of
vehicles that pass them as well as the
number of vehicles that they pass.
3. The timer notes down the time it takes to
traverse the section.
D. Direct Observation Method
 Observers are situated at an elevated
vantage point which they can measure travel
time directly between two points with
known distance apart.
 The method requires good visibility and is
not suitable for sections greater than ½ mile
in length.
E. Interview Method
 Selected Individuals who are willing to
cooperate may provide a satisfactory
sample from which to obtain travel times
and delays without the use of a test vehicle
or observers
 These persons are asked to record their
start and end times for designated
routes. They also record the times
and durations of delay.
 This is a variation of the average car
method, except that in place of a single test
vehicle, there are multiple test vehicles.
 This method is useful when a large amount
of data is needed in short time.
 The interview method requires some
training and equipment for the subjects
 The reliability of the test results may not be
the same with the other methods.
Time of study
 Agencies usually study travel time and delay
during the peak hours in the directions of the
heaviest traffic flow.
 It may also be desirable to compare travel times,
speeds, and delays between peak and off-peak
periods or between sets of other condition.
 Some of these other conditions include good
versus adverse weather and commuter versus
special event traffic
Application
 Identifying the efficient of a route
 Identifying locations with a relative high
delay
 Determining the causes for delays
 Evaluating performance before and after
improvements
 Identifying travel times on specific links
 Collecting data for economic studies
READING MATERIAL 3: TRAFFIC
TRAFFIC – refers to the movement of persons
goods, or vehicles either powered by combustion
system or animal drawn, from one place to another
for the purpose of travel
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LAND
TRANSPORTATION
TRANSPORTATION
- Refers to the movement or conveying of
persons and goods from one location to
another
NOMAD
- “To pasture”, was originally used to refer to
pastoralists – group that migrate in
established pattern to find pasture lands for
their domestic livestock
 - However, the term has been generalized to o Horse  Roman carpentum
include all non-settled populations o Camel  Italian cocchio
o Yak
3 TYPES OF NOMADS ROADS
 Wind power – man realized the energy from the
1. Foraging populations mass of moving air and learned to utilize such 3000 BC – Civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
2. Pastoral nomads powers to lift rather than to drag the Indus valley develop roads first for animals and
3. Gypsies o Ancient Chinese Kite then wheeled vehicles
o Davinci’s Ornithopter
Romans – were the major road builders in ancient
o Montgolfier Balloon
world. The romans road network reached a total of
- It is believed that early human beings o Siemen’s Rocket Plane
about 50,000 miles (80,000kkms), with feeder roads
traveled to places by foot, carrying their o Lilienthal Glider branching out of the main highways
loads on their backs or on their heads, while o Santos Dumont’s Airship
other pulled crude sleds o Wright Brother’s Flying Machine 1717 – John Metcalfe, built about 180 miles of
o Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis roads in Yorkshire, England (even though he was
blind). His well drained roads were built with three
layers; large stones, excavated road materials, and a
layer of gravel
VARIOUS ANCIENT MODES OF
TRANSPORTATION HISTORY OF WHEELS, ROADS AND
 Manpower – early man, who had no VEHICLES 1722 – modern traffic control in response “the great
domesticated animals, carried his own burdens inconvenience and mischiefs which happen by the
WHEEL
o Carrying pole disorderly leading and driving of cars, carts,
o Backload and tumpline - Was invented in western Asia coaches, and other carriages over the London bridge
o Sledge rollers - The invention was a milestone and a great 18th century – advancement in engineering paved the
o Sledge on runners step forward in transportation way for the construction of modern roads and
o Travois - Enabled man to transport burdens beyond streets. Also, during this period, the introduction of
 Animal power – the domestication of animals the capability of man or animals to carry or road toll fee was developed for road construction
greatly increased the potential power available drag
- Wheels, crude carts and wagons began to 1824 – the first road use of “asphalt” was utilized
for transportation. Pack animals were introduced
as conveyances mainly to save labor appear in Tigris Euphrates valley about
1838 – Kirk Patrick Macmillan, a Scottish
o Ox 3500 BC and later in Crete, Egypt and
blacksmith, made the first machine with pedals,
o Reindeer China
which were attached to and drove the rear wheel by
o Dog EARLIEST TYPES OF WHEELED CARTS means of cranks
o Donkey
 Solid wheels on fixed axle 1860’s to 70’s – Frenchman Etienne Lenior,
o Llama
 Sumerian chariot with flank wheels introduction of motorized carriages (internal
o Elephant combustion engine)
 Greek quadrica with spoke wheels
1888 – John Boyd Dunlop, introduced wheels
inflated by air (pneumatic tires)
19th century – the invention of bicycle served as the
nursery of automobile builders
Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb Daimler – pioneered the
manufacture of gas engines, and later Daimler
became a successful automobile manufacturer
Rudolf Diesel – a German engineer who developed
an internal combustion engine which is similar with
the gasoline engine but requires no electrical
ignition system or carburetor and uses other form of
liquid fuel, the DIESEL fuel
1908 – Henry Ford, introduced the model T, which
becomes popular by 1914
1956 – a German mathematician who developed an
advanced type of engine, named after him, that
operates very differently from gas and diesel
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LAND
TRANSPORTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
1910 – few motor vehicles were seen operating in
the public highways in Manila suburbs, better means
of transportation were invented and introduced in
the country. Gradually the Filipinos learned to use
cars, trucks jeeps and other types of vehicles. The
means of transportation became better and powerful
and the laws governing land travel became more
formal and sophisticated
February 6,1912 – Legislative Act No. 2159 was
enacted to regulate motor vehicles in the Philippine
islands and to provide for the regulation and
licensing of operators. This was the first formal law
on land transportation. This law was created an
automobile section under the administrative division
of the bureau of public works. The section was
tasked to take charge of motor vehicles and drivers
services. Later on, Legislative Act 2159 was
amended by 2256,2389,2587,2639 and 2925
1922 – Act No. 3045 was passed into law compiling
and incorporating all laws governing motor vehicles.
The automobile section was upgraded to the
Automobile Division still under the Bureau of
Public works
January 1, 1933 – Act No. 3992 otherwise known as
the “revised motor vehicle law” was enacted
amending Act No.3045. the automobile division was
renamed division of motor vehicles. The chief of the
division was called the superintendent of division of
motor vehicles. Act No. 3992 was amended by
commonwealth Act Nos. 123,548,556,652 and
Republic Act No. 314,587 and 2383
June 2,1945 – department order no.4 was issued by
the department of public works and highways
reorganizing the division. This took effect after the
liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese
invasion
1947 – Executive Order No. 94 was promulgated
reorganizing the different executive department,
bureaus and offices. Under Section 82 of this E.O
the Division of Motor Vehicles was upgraded into
the Motor Vehicles Office (MVO) with the category
of the Bureau. The chief of the MVO enjoyed the
rights and privileges of a Bureau Director
June 20,1946 – R.A No. 4136 – otherwise known as
the “land transportation and traffic code” was
enacted abolishing the motor vehicle office and
creatin the land transportation commission. This law
likewise partially repealed act no. 3992. The code
provided that the land transportation commission
shall “control as far as they apply, the licensing of
owners, dealers, conductors, drivers and similar
matters”. to effectively carry out its mandate, the
land transportation commission established regional
offices in various parts of the country
July 23,1979 – Executive Order No. 546 was
promulgated creating the Ministry of Transportation
and Communication (MOTC). This marked another
reorganization. The Land Transportation
Commission was renamed as The Bureau of Land
Transportation and was absorbed by MOTC
March 20,1985 – Executive Order 1011 was
promulgated. This Executive Order nullified the
Board of Transportation and established the Land
Transportation Commission. The defunct BOT and
BLT were merged and their powers, functions and
land responsibilities were transferred to the land
Transportation Commission (LTC) headed by a
chairman assisted by four commissioners. The LTC
was tasked to perform functions such as registering
motor vehicles, licensing of drivers and conductors,
franchising of public utility vehicles and enforcing
land transportation rules and regulations
January 30,1987 – the land transportation
commission was abolished and the two offices were
created, namely: Land Transportation Office (LTO)
and the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB). The LTO took over the
functions of the former Build Lease and Transfer
(BLT) and the LTFRB took over the function of
Build operate and transfer (BOT). the Ministry of
Transportation and Communications (MOTC) was
likewise renamed as the Department of
Transportation and Communications (DOTC). All of
these changes took effect with the promulgation of
executive order no. which was later on amended by
executive order no.125-A dated April 13,1987 and
226 dated July 25,1987
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
 Roadway – refers to the part of the traffic way
over which motor vehicles pass
 Shoulder – refers to either side of the roadway,
especially along highways
 Traffic – refers to the movement of persons,
goods or vehicles either powered by combustion
system or animal drawn, from one place to
another for the purpose of travel
o Trafique (obsolete French)
o Traffico (old Italian)
o Trafficare – to carry on trade
 Traffic way – refers to the entire width between
boundary lines of every way or place of which
any part is open to the use of the public
purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right
or custom
MAJOR CAUSES OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION
 Physical inadequacy
 Poor control measures
 Human errors
 Poor maintenance
SCOPE OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1. All public surface facilities traversing and
parking all types of conveyances for the
movement of persons and things
2. All agencies having responsibilities for
ascertaining traffic flow requirements,
planning, approving, funding, construction
and or maintaining these public facilities for
such movements
3. All agencies responsible for licensing,
approving, restricting, stopping, prohibiting
or controlling the use of these facilities
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT
 DOTC
 City or Municipal Engineer’s Office
 Legislative
 Philippine national police
 Academic institution
 Courts
 Public information offices
 Citizen support groups
 Media
THE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC
1. Traffic engineering
2. Traffic education
3. Traffic enforcement
4. Traffic ecology or traffic environment
5. Traffic economy
1. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
- It is the science of measuring traffic and
travel the study of the basic laws relative to
the traffic law and generation; the
application of this knowledge to the
professional practice of planning, deciding
and operating traffic system to achieve safe
and efficient transportation of persons and
goods
FUNCTIONS OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 Fact finding, surveys and recommendations of
traffic rules and regulations
 Supervision and maintenance to the application
of traffic control devices
 Planning of traffic regulations
AGENCIES UNDER TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 DPWH – its scope is national which
includes the responsibility of determining
traffic law, pattern, draw origin and
destinations, studies of persons and things,
planning, approving, funding, and
construction of:
o National roads
o Yearly maintenance and repair
 Provincial government – municipalities w/in
the province
 Municipal governments – streets and roads
w/in barangays
 Chartered cities – streets and roads w/in
cities
OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
 To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of
traffic
 To prevent traffic accident
 To simplify police enforcement actions and
performance
 To show that good police actions and
performance makes engineering plans
effective
 To present the close relationship of the
pillars of traffic in the improvement of
traffic problems
2. TRAFFIC EDUCATION
- It is the process of training and practice in
the actual application of traffic safety
knowledge
AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF - It is the process of training roads user in the
EDUCATION URBANIZATION OF TRANSPORTATION avoidance and prevention of traffic related
accidents
 Schools  Noise
 Public information programs  Vibration ROAD SAFETY
 Citizen support groups  Air pollution
- it refers to reduced risk of accidents or
 Dirt
injury on the roads achieved through
 Visual intrusion multidisciplinary approaches involving road
 Loss of privacy engineering traffic management, education
3. TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT  Changes in amount of light and training of road user, and vehicle design
- Deals mostly on the implementation and  Neighborhood severance A. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ACCIDENTS
enforcement of traffic laws and rules and  Relocation - Research studies in the United Kingdom
regulations  Distraction during planning and have shown that human factors contribute to
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRAFFIC construction 95 percent of accidents, road factors to
ENFORCEMENT  Accident experiences about one quarter of a percent and vehicle
 Pedestrian journey factors to fewer than 5 percent
 LTO – responsible for:  Congestion 1. Human errors include:
 Vehicle registration o Going too fast or excessive speed
 Vehicle inspection LAWS AND STATUTES CONCERNING o Failing to give at junctions
 Driver’s licensing TRAFFIC ECOLOGY
o Following too closely
 Public to police on stolen or
 PD 1181 – providing for the prevention, o Overtaking improperly
wanted vehicles
control and abatement of air pollution from o Misperceiving or misjudging the
 Legislative bodies – responsible for passing
motor vehicles road station ahead
and amending laws
 LOI No. 551 – directing the law o Intoxication of alcohol or drug
 Police traffic enforcement
enforcement agency to implement the o Lack of skill
 PNP -TMG (TRAFFIC
pollution control program 2. Road deficiencies that are main
MANAGEMENT GROUP)
 RA 8749 – “clean air act”. Providing for the contributory factors are:
 MMDA
regulation of motor vehicles emitting toxic  Poor design of layout and control
 Police Auxiliaries
gases like the use of diesel and leaded conjunctions
 LTO flying squad
gasoline  inadequate signing, road marking, lighting
4. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY OR TRAFFIC  slippery roads
5. Traffic economy  obstructions on the road such as parked
ENVIRONMENT
- Deals with the benefits and adverse effects vehicle, ongoing road construction etc.
- Study of potentially disastrous population
of traffic to the economy 3. main vehicle factors are:
explosion, changes in urban environment
due to the scale and density of new urban TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION  defects in tries, brakes and lights
concentration and new activities carried out,  absence or non-using of seat belts
air pollution water pollution and crowding  poorly maintained motor vehicles
B. THE THREE (3) PRINCIPLES
- Have been emphasized as effective in the
prevention of traffic accidents known as the
(3) “E” s or pillars of traffic. Recently,
however traffic environment and traffic
economy were added to complete the 5
pillars of traffic
1. Engineering (traffic engineering)
 Effective construction and maintenance of
traffic facilities which does not only
expedite the movement of traffic but also
prevent the occurrence of traffic accidents
 Successful treatment has included:
o Changes in layout at junctions to
define priorities more clearly (use
of roundabouts, or traffic circles)
o More wide use of road markings to
delineate traffic lanes and waiting
areas for turning vehicles
o Improvement in skidding resistance
of wet roads
o More uniform street lightings
o More highly visible and legible
direction, information and warning
signs
2. Education (in traffic safety)
 When road user is informed of the traffic
laws, rules and regulations, accident is
likely prevented. Further, there are strong
suggestions, accidents of benefits from
preschool schemes involving parents, a
from road safety education in school where
is in integral part of the school curriculum.
Included are:
o New approaches to training and
educating young drivers
o Training in hazards perceptions
o Changing of attitudes  This is highly unsystematic and is usually
3. Enforcement (of traffic rules) carried out in the home through parental
 One of the causes of accident is blatant non education and in kindergarten and nurseries.
compliances of motorist and pedestrians of This is how necessary to make it systematic
traffic laws, rules and regulations. To to lessen the number of children fatalities
minimize the occurrence of accident due to and injuries
noncompliance of road user, enforcement 1. Elementary – pupils are usually
must be conducted. The following high educated by stressing on traffic safety
recommended in areas of traffic and guides, and classroom discussion of
enforcement: accident and other traffics safety rules
o Strengthening and simplifying the 2. Secondary – this level initiate driver
application of the law education program because students
o New technology to aid enforcement have the reached the age to drive, hence,
o Enhanced publicity proper driving habits should be stressed.
o Educations of teenagers in school It also includes the establishment of
o The development of rehabilitations school safety organizations
3. High educations – some universities and
course like seminars for apprehend
colleges offer and conduct courses to
traffic violators
private and public agencies regarding
4. Ecology / environment
traffic safety subjects
 People should be educated regarding the
E. TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION FOR
adverse effect of traffic to our environment
ADULTS
hat directly or indirectly affects the
 Traffic safety education for elder pedestrian
populations health
and drivers is relatively easier compared to
5. Economy
the education designed for younger children
 People should teach us to develop schemes
since the former group is in a better position
that do not only lessen expenses but also
to understand what is being taught to them
accident free
F. DRIVERS EDUCATION
C. LEVELS OF TRAFFIC SAFETY
 In general driver instruction aims primarily
EDUCATION:
to teach the rudiments of driving. Secondary
1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic
aims are as follows:
safety
o To install awareness of ones legal
2. Training and practice in the actual
application of traffic safety application of and moral responsibilities in traffic
traffic safety knowledge o To teach the abilities required foe
3. Developing traffic safety morality one to be eligible for driver’s
D. TRAFFIC SAFETY FOR CHILDREN license
G. FOUR (4) BASIC TYPE OF INSTRUCTION
METHODS USED IN DRIVERS’
EDUCATION PROGRAM:
 Comprehensive
 Traditional instruction
 Commentary driving method
 Simulated conditions
- This method places the student into real life
of driving situations from the beginning
- This type of instructions depends on
instructor student communications
- The student driver accompanied by an
instructor. As the student driver drives, the
instructor has to give commentary on his
driving
H. ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF DRIVING
- On and off the road training. The premise of
simulated conditions training is that the
behavior of the driver – subject placed in
conditions will be relatively analogous to
normal behavior.
- SIMULATOR – is a static machine with all
the important features of a car used in
driving method or driving training. There
are 3 methods of simulations presently
adopted:
o Partial simulation method – this
method has the specific aim of
training for the “sustask” of the
driving task
o Global simulation – training,
I. BIORHYTHM
simulated in traffic situations and
condition, with the used of
simulation
Simulators are most commonly used for the
following types of Training
1. Training in basic car control skills
2. Perceptional training
3. Emergency training
o Classification of films
 The analytical film which
provides an “objective”
analysis of the driving
situation presented to the
student
 The didactic film which
aims to shown good driving
behavior
 The simulations film which
may offer “visual realism”
to driving situations and
therefore a good aid in
actual practice
TASK
 Driver’s educations include:
1. Collection of information which
includes:
a. Perceptual scanning and
b. Identification
2. Processing of information which
includes:
a. Predicting
b. Decision making
3. Action which is focused on:
a. Motor skill and control vehicles
b. Knowledge and subjective
interpretation
 It is the theory which asserts that man
exhibit a constant variations of life energy
and mood state. Mans theorized cycles and
interpretations rhythm is peculiar
characteristics of most natural phenomena
like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and
darkness
2. The four seasons
3. Our wet and dry season the waxing and
waning of the moon
J. IMPORTANCE OF BIORHYTHM
 In the field of study, it should be borne in
mind that biorhythm does not predict what
actually will happen. All it does is to give us
a hint on how we will tend to feel in a
certain day
K. SAFETY CAMPAIGN
 This is a mass publicity aimed make road
users behave more safely. These focus on
public information attitudes and particular
or specific behaviors or combination of
these
SAFETY CAMPAIGN
 It is also known as road propaganda which
may be intended simply to inform him or it
may be felt that the public is already aware
of the recommended behavior by need to
persuaded into adopting it
1. Safety campaign classifications
a. According to purpose – may be
categorized as informal attitudinal
and behavioral
b. According to kind appeal – used to
reason by simply feeding the public
with authenticated factual data
2. Safety campaign design
a. Initial campaign planning
b. Final campaign design
c. Campaign evaluation
3. Private and government entities responsible for
safety campaign:
a. Newspaper
b. Radio broadcasting networks INTERSECTION
c. Television broadcasting networks
d. Public information agencies - Is the area where two or more streets join or
cross at grade
- Includes area needed for all modes of travel:
pedestrian bicycle, motor vehicle and transit
- Defined as encompassing all alterations to
the otherwise typical cross sections of the
intersecting streets
- Are key feature of streets design in for
respects:
o Focus of activity
o Conflicting movements
o Traffic control
o Capacity

INTERSECTION USERS

 Pedestrians
key elements affecting intersection performance for
pedestrians are:
1. The amount of right of way provided for the
pedestrian including both sidewalk and
crosswalk width
2. The crossing distance and resulting duration
of exposure to motor vehicle and bicycle
traffic
3. The volume of conflicting traffic
4. The speed and visibility of approaching
traffic
 Bicyclists
key elements affecting intersection performance for
Bicyclists are:

READING MATERIAL 4: INTERSECTION 1. The degree to which pavement is shared or

DESIGN used exclusively by bicycle
 2. The relationship between turning and
through movements for motor vehicles
3. Traffic control for bicycles
4. The differential in speed between motor
vehicle and bicycle traffic
 Motor Vehicles
key elements affecting intersection performance for
motor vehicles are:
1. the type of traffic control
2. the vehicular capacity of the intersection,
determined primarily from the number of
lanes and traffic control;
3. the ability to make turning movement
4. the visibility of approaching and crossing
pedestrians and bicycle
5. the speed and visibility of approaching and
crossing motor vehicles
 Transit
1. Transit operation usually involve the
operation of motor vehicles (buses), and
therefor share the same key characteristics
as vehicles as outline above
2. Transit operations may sometimes involve a
transit stop in an intersection area, thereby
influencing pedestrian, bicycle and motor
vehicle flow and safety
3. The unique characteristics of light rail
transit must be taken into account
INTERSECTION DESIGN PROCESS
DEFINITION AND KEY ELEMENTS
Major streets – is typically the intersecting street
with greater traffic volume, larger cross section and
higher functional class.
Minor street – is the intersecting street likely to
have less traffic volume, smaller cross section and
lower functional classification than the major street
Intersection – encompasses not only the area of
pavement jointly used by the intersecting streets, but
also those segments of the intersecting streets
affected by the design
Two geometric features are common to all
intersection regardless of their level of complexity. Auxiliary lane – are lanes of traffic added at the
intersection to accommodate left turning motor
Angle of intersection – is formed by the intersecting
vehicles
streets centerlines
Channelizing islands – may be added to an
Skewed intersection – when the angle of intersection
intersection, to help delineate the area in which
departs significantly more than 20 degrees from
vehicles can operate. Island can also provide for
right angles
pedestrian refuge
Intersection Legs – are those segments of roadway
Turning roadway – is a short segment of roadway
adjacent to the intersection
accommodating a right turn, delineated by
Approach leg – or simply approach, the side of the channelizing islands. When right turn volumes are
leg used by traffic approaching the intersection very high and where skewed intersection would
otherwise create a very large pavement area
Departure leg – the side used by traffic leaving
Traffic control devices – assign right of way to both
Sidewalks, crosswalks and wheelchair ramps – are motorized and non-motorized traffic and include
considered to be withing the intersection traffic signal, STOP signs and YIELD signs
Pavement corner – is the curve connecting the edges
of pavement of the intersecting streets
USER CHARACTERISTICS
PEDESTRIANS
Pedestrian requirements must be fully considered in
the design of intersections. There are several
important features to consider including:
  Crossing and wheelchair ramp’s location - Is the type of vehicle expected to be - Is an expansion of the typical cross section
 Walking speed accommodated on the street of the street (main, cross or both)
 Pedestrian flow capacity o Most important attribute of design - Is often done to accommodate a left turn
 Traffic control, yielding and delay vehicle is their turning radius lane, so that left turning bicycles and motor
o Lane width, another feature related vehicles are removed from the through
BICYCLISTS to the design vehicle traffic stream for reasons of capacity at high
Bicyclists’ needs must be integrated into the design volume locations, and safety on higher
VEHICLE TURNING TEMPLATE speed streets. Right turn lanes, less
of intersections. Important considerations for
bicycle accommodation include: frequently used than left turn lanes are
usually response to large volumes of right
 Cross section TRANSIT CHARACTERISTICS turns
 Operating speed - This approach is effective in increasing
 The design vehicle appropriate for most
 Bicycle Capacity types of transit service is the CITY BUS as
capacity at isolated rural or suburban
 Traffic control settings in which lengthy widening beyond
define by AASHTO
the intersection is not needed to achieve the
MOTOR VEHICLES INTERSECTION TYPES AND desired level of service, feasible due to
Important characteristics of motor vehicles and CONFIGURATION nearby constraints or desirable within the
associated design features are considered in context of the project
Intersection can be categorized into four major
intersection design: types:
 Design vehicle  Simple intersections
 Design speed - maintain the streets typical cross section and
 Motor vehicle capacity number of lanes throughout the intersection
 Traffic control on both main and minor streets
DESIGN MOTOR VEHICLE - are best suited to locations auxiliary
(turning) lanes are not necessary to achieve
the desired level of service, or are infeasible
due to nearby constraints
- provide the possible minimum crossing  Channelized intersections
distances for pedestrians and are common in - Used raised islands to designate the
low volume locations intended vehicle path. The most frequent
use is for right turns, particularly when
accompanied by an auxiliary right turn lane
- At skewed intersection channelization
islands are often used to delineate right
turns, even in the absence of auxiliary right
turn lanes
 Flared intersections
- At intersections located on a curve
channelization island can help direct drivers
to and through the intersection
- At large intersections, short median islands
can be used effectively for pedestrian refuge
- Channelization islands are also used in
support of left turn lanes, forming the ends
of the taper approaching the turn bay, and
 Roundabouts
often the narrow “separator” island
- A channelized intersection with one way
extending to the intersection
traffic flow circulating around central
- At T types intersection as referred to in the
island. All traffic through as well as turning TYPICAL INTERSECTION CONFIGURATIONS
top row “intersecting street configuration
enters this one-way flow
and nomenclature”, with a left turn lane, a  most intersections have three or four legs,
- Can be appropriate design alternative to
channelization island opposite the left turn but multi leg intersection (five or even six
both stop controlled and signalized
lane can guide oncoming traffic to the right leg intersection) are not unusual
controlled intersection
of the left turn lane
- Are also considered as traffic calming TRAFFIC CONTROL
devices in some location since all traffic is
slowed to the design speed of the one-way - traffic control devices are often controlling
circulating roadway the entry of vehicles into the intersection
- should also provide at intersection of
Roundabouts differ from “traffic circle” or rotaries important private driveways with public
in three aspects: streets
1) All approaches to the circulating lane are yield TRAFFIC CONTROL MEASURES
controlled in contrast to the varying controls
used in rotary forms - are necessary to assign the right of way to
2) Roundabouts splitter islands direct approaching potentially conflicting users
traffic into a merge with circulating traffic at an - the decision to use traffic signals should be
angle of merge less than 90 degrees an guided by the “signal warrants” specified in
alignment that differs sharply from the right- the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
angle intersecting of traffic streams in rotary Devices (MUTCD)
forms
types of intersection traffic control include:
3) the diameter of the inner circle is keyed to the
selected design speed in contrast to the often- a) no control – where sufficient visibility is
arbitrary sizing of circles in rotary forms provided in low volume situations, some
intersections operate without formalized
traffic control
 b) yield control – with traffic controlled by
YIELD signs on the minor street
approaches. Major street traffic is not
controlled
c) two-way stop control
– the term “two ways stop control” is
typically applied to T intersection, even
though there may be only one approach
under stop control
– with traffic controlled by STOP sign on
the minor street approaches. Major street
traffic is not controlled
d) all way stop control – with traffic on all
approaches controlled by STOP signs
e) traffic signals – controlling traffic on all
approaches
TRAFFIC SIGNAL WARRANTS
 traffic signals should be installed only
where the intersection meets warrants in the
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD)
Key features of the MUTCD warrants are:
 Warrant 1: 8-hour vehicular volume, met by
-500-600 per hour on the major street and
150-200 vehicles on the minor street. A
variation (interruption of continuous traffic)
warrant is met with 750-900 vehicles hourly
on major streets and 75-100 vehicles hourly
on the minor streets
 Warrant 2: 4-hour vehicular volume, met on
two lane streets when the volume
approaching the intersection on both major
street approaches combined plus the higher
of the minor street approaches is around 900
vehicles hourly for 4 hours daily
 Warrant 3: peak hour, met on two lane
streets when the column approaching the
intersection on both major street approaches
combined plus the higher of the minor street
approaches is around 1200 vehicles in a
single peak hour
 Warrant 4: pedestrian volume, met with
intersection or midblock pedestrian crossing
volumes of at least 100 for each of four
hours, or 190 during any one hour, in
combination with fewer than 60 hourly gaps
of adequate length to allow pedestrian
crossing when the volume criteria are
satisfied
 Warrant 5: school crossing, met with a
minimum of 20 students crossing in the
highest crossing hour, and less than one
acceptable gap in the traffic stream per
minute during the highest crossing hour
 Warrant 6: coordinated traffic signal system,
where existing traffic signal spacing does
not provide the necessary degree of
platooning(grouping) of traffic, as needed to
provide a progressive operation
 Warrant 7: crash experience, met when
crash data indicates a problem remediable
by traffic signals
 Warrant 8: roadway network, met when the
street has importance as a principal roadway
network or is designated as a major route on
an official plan
PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL AT TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic signal design should encompass the
following principles for accommodating
pedestrians:
 In general, the walk indication should be
concurrent with the vehicular red signal
 Timing of pedestrian intervals should be in
accordance with the vehicular red signal
 Timing of pedestrian intervals should be in
accordance with MUTCD requirements
 Pedestrians should be given the longest
possible walk time, consistent with
maintaining a reasonable level of traffic
service, with motor vehicle flow and delay
balanced with pedestrian service
 Signals should be timed to accommodate
the average walking speeds of the type of
pedestrian that predominantly uses the
intersection
 Signal cycles should be as short as possible.
In general, short signal cycles reduce delay
and therefore improve level of service for
pedestrians and motor vehicles alike
 Simple two-phase signal minimize
pedestrian waiting time and are therefore
preferable for pedestrian service
 Leading pedestrian interval (LPI) can give
pedestrians an advance walk signal before
the motorists gets a green signal, giving the
pedestrian several seconds to start in the
crosswalk where there are vehicular turning
movements across the crosswalk
 Good progression through a series of signals
for motor vehicles can be obtained over a
wide range of vehicle speeds
 In many cases a pedestrian phase should be
incorporated intro each signal cycle. Rather
than on demand through a push button
  Call button used should be limited to only
those locations with traffic actuated signals
 Where call buttons are used, a notification
sign should be provided
 Pedestrian call actuation should provide a
quick response, particularly at isolated
signals, at midblock crossings and during
low traffic periods
 Pedestrian actuated call buttons should be
placed in locations that are easy to reach
facing the sidewalk and clearly in line with
the direction of travel
 Pedestrian actuated call button and the
ACCESSIBLE PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL SYSTEMS
signals they activate should be maintained
in good repair
Two Types of supplemental indications can be used
with pedestrian signals
1. An audible indicator
- often a “chirp” sound
- timed to coincide with the walk phase, helps
vision impaired pedestrians
2. digital “countdown”
- displays the remaining seconds of safe
INTERSECTION CAPACITY AND QUALITY OF
crossing time
SERVICE
- is helpful to pedestrians by providing the
exact amount of crossing time remaining,
thereby allowing them to make their own
informed judgment on initiation a crossing,
rather than simply following the WALK/
DON’T WALK phase
LOCATING PEDESTRIAN CALL BUTTONS
Pedestrian signal call buttons are used to initiate a
pedestrian crossing phase at traffic signals. Where
needed, pedestrian call buttons should be located to
meet the following criteria:
 the closest call button to a crosswalk should
call the pedestrian signal for that crosswalk
 an arrow indicator should show which
crosswalk the button will affect
 the call button should align with the
crosswalk and be visible to a pedestrian
facing the crosswalk unless space
constraints dictate another button placement
 the call button must be accessible from the
level landing at the top of the parallel curb
ramp or from the lower landing of a parallel
curb ramp
 at signalized intersections, people with
vision impairments typically rely on the
noise of traffic alongside them as a cue to
begin crossing.
 The effectiveness of this technique is
compromised by various factors, including
increasingly quiet cars, permitted right turns
on red, pedestrian actuated signals and wide
streets
 CAPACITY
- of a for any of its users is the maximum rate
of flow of that user that can be
accommodated through the intersection
- is defined for a particular user group
without other user groups present
 MULTI MODAL CAPACITY
- is the aggregate capacity of the intersection
for all users of the intersection
- the maximum multi modal capacity may be
obtained while some individual user flows
are at less than their individual optimum
capacity
 LEVEL OF SERVICE
- is defined by the highway capacity manual
for each type of intersection user
- for each user LOS is correlated to the
amount of control delay encountered by the
user at the intersection
 CONTROL DELAY
- a result of traffic control devices needed to
allocate the potentially conflicting flows at
the intersection, reflect the difference
between travel time through the intersection
at free flow, versus travel time under the
encountered conditions of traffic control
- level of service is somewhat correlated to
capacity in those levels of service declines
as capacity is approached
PEDESTRIAN FLOW CAPACITY
- pedestrian walkway with uninterrupted
flow, will carry a maximum volume 1380
pedestrian hourly for each foot of walkway
width
- an 8-foot crosswalk, would have a capacity
of 5500 pedestrians hourly, assuming they
have the use of half (4feet) of the crosswalk.
12-foot crosswalk would carry a maximum
volume, in half its width, of 8300 hourly
pedestrians
BICYCLE FLOW CAPACITY
- a bicycle lane (4-6feet in width) can, with
uninterrupted flow, carry a volume of 2000
bicycle hourly
- at signalized intersection, bicycle lanes
receive the same green signal time as motor
 vehicles, typically 20-35 percent of total  Signals with numerous phases (5 -6 or
time. more), where the walk phase is constrained
- The hourly capacity of a bicycle lane at by the green time needed for vehicles on
signalized is therefore 400-700 bicycles other approaches permitted during walk
hourly phase
 Where buses and other transit vehicles stop
MOTOR VEHICLE CAPACITY
for passenger loading / unloading in a lane
- At unsignalized intersection, motorized of traffic approaching or departing an
vehicle capacity is governed by the ability intersection
of motor vehicles under stop control or yield  Where exceptionally large volumes of
control to enter or cross the stream of pedestrians crossing an approach require a
moving motor vehicles on the major street walk phase time greater than the green
- At signalized intersection, motorized signal time needed for motor vehicles
vehicle capacity is governed by the number permitted to move during such walk phase
of lanes approaching the intersection, the
LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)
number of receiving departure lanes, and the
amount of green signal time given to the  Is one measure of user satisfaction with an
approach intersection. For all users of the street, level
- CRITICAL LANE VOLUME – Defined as of service is linked to the average delay
the maximum sum of conflicting movement experienced by a typical user
that can be moved through the intersection
- At roundabouts, motor vehicle capacity is
governed by the ability of entering traffic to
merge with the stream of motor vehicles in
the circulating roadway
MULTI MODAL CAPACITY
Under some combinations of users and intersection
configuration, achieving a desired flow for one user
group diminishes the capacity for another group.
Typical situation include:

 Wide intersection approaches, where the

walk phase is constrained by a long flashing
don’t walk requirement and the green time
needed to process parallel motor vehicle and
bicycle traffic
 streets, in turn establishing the location of all other
intersection elements
 Horizontal alignment – the angle of intersection
of the centerlines of the intersecting streets, as
shown in table, is a major factor in the ability of
approaching motorists to see motor vehicles as
well as pedestrians and bicyclists approaching
from other directions

 Minor street profile

LEVEL OF SERVICE GUIDELINES

 Vertical alignment
GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS Two elements of influence the vertical alignment of
an intersection:
Intersection alignment – guidelines control the
centerlines and grades of bot the major and minor  Major street Profile
PAVEMENT CORNER RADIUS
 The curve connecting the edges of
pavement of the intersecting street, is
defined by either the curb or where there is
no curb by the edge of pavement
 Is a key factor in the multimodal
performance of the intersection
The method for pavement corner design can vary as
illustrated and described below:
 Simple curb radius – is the preferred design
for the pavement corner
 Compound curves or taper// curve
combinations – here encroachment by AUXILIARY LANES
largely motor vehicles must be avoided
where turning speeds higher than minimum Three types of auxiliary lanes design elements:
are desirable or where angle of turn is
1) Left turn lane design elements
greater than 90 degrees
- Removed stopped or slow moving left
 Turning roadways – a separate right turn
turning motor vehicles from the stream
roadway usually delineated by
through traffic, eliminating the primary
channelization islands and auxiliary lanes,
cause of rear end crashes at intersections
may be appropriate where right turn
volumes are large, where encroachment by
any motor vehicle type is unacceptable,
where higher speeds turns are desired or
where angle of turn is well above 90
degrees
 TWLF – two way left turn

4) Auxiliary through lane design elements

- Short segment of additional through lane
can be effective way of increasing
intersection capacity at relatively isolated
intersection
3) Criteria for right turn and left turn lanes

2) Right turn lane design elements

- Are used to remove decelerating right
turning motor vehicles from the traffic
stream and also to provide an additional
lane for storage of right turning motor
vehicles
CHANNELIZATION ISLANDS
Channelization islands are used to:
 Delineate the area in which motor
vehicles can operate
 Reduce the area of motor vehicle
conflict
 Bring motor vehicle merging into a
safer angle of merge, and
 Provide pedestrian refuge
 Right turn channelization island
- A small channelization island can delineate
a right turn lane at a simple intersection.
This type of channelization is appropriate
for large radius corner
 Divisional islands
- Are useful in dividing opposing directions
of traffic flow at intersections on curves or
with skewed angles of approach
 Left turn lane delineators islands
- Resembles a short section of median island,
with triangular striping to guide traffic
around it.
The key design element of a roundabout is its outer
diameter, inscribed circle
 Inscribed circle
- The diameter of the inscribed circle is
derived from the design motor vehicle
ROUNDABOUT GEOMETRIC DESIGN
ELEMENTS
Key elements of geometric design or roundabouts:
 The circulating roadway, which carries
motor vehicles and bicycles around the
roundabout in a counterclockwise direction
 The central island, defining the inner radius
of the circulating roadway around it
 A core area within the central island from
which motor vehicles are excluded
 An apron area on the outer perimeter of the
central island traversable by large motor  Width of circulating roadway
vehicles - The width of the circulating roadway is
 The inscribed circle defined by the outer established from the turning path of the
edge of the circulating roadway design motor vehicle plus a margin to allow
 Splitter islands, on all approaches separating for normal operating contingencies
the entering from the existing traffic  Central island
 Crosswalks across approach and departure
- The diameter of the central islands is
roadways
derived from the diameter of the inscribed
 circle less the width of the circulating road
way
 Entry and exit curves
- Entry radius can be varied as desired to
achieve the desired entry speed. Curvature
is limited only by the need to provide
sufficient clearance for the design motor
vehicle
- Entrance roadways are designed so that the
continuation of the inside of the entry curve
joins tangentially to the central island, while
the outside of the entry curve joins smoothly
and tangentially to the outside edge of the
circulating roadway
- Exit curves join tangentially to the inner and
outer diameter of the roundabout in the
same manner as the entry curve.
 Splitter islands
- Are formed by the separation between the
entry and exit lanes
INTERSECTION MEDIAN OPENINGS
Two factors control the design of the ends of
medians at intersections:
1. The turning path of motor vehicles and
bicycles making a left turn from the minor
street into the major street controls the
location and shape of the end of the median
in the departure leg of the major street
2. The left turn from the major street into the
minor street determines the location and
configuration of the median end on the
approach leg of this movement
 Design vehicles for median openings
 Permitted encroachment at median openings
 Median and design controls
 Design element, median openings
PEDESTRIAN CROSSWALKS
- Crosswalks are critical element of
intersection design
- Are essential for designating the appropriate
path of travel for a pedestrian through the
intersection
Crosswalks are defined by pavement markings:
 Cross walk pavement markings
 Vehicular stop bar placement
 Methods to reduce pedestrian crossing
distance
 Improving the visibility of pedestrian
crossing
 Pedestrian facilities for extraordinary
circumstances
 - Allow pedestrians to cross fewer lanes at a the corner. Appropriate only for retrofit projects
time, reducing exposure time at existing intersections
- Provide refuge so that slower pedestrians
can wait for a break in the traffic stream
- Allow pedestrians to focus on traffic from
only one direction at a time
- Reduce the total distance over which
pedestrians are exposed to conflicts with
motor vehicles and
- Provide easily accessible location pedestrian
signal push buttons
TEXTURED CROSSWALKS

- Textured or colored crossings of

intersection, using nonslip bricks or pavers
raise driver and bicyclist awareness of
crosswalks through increased noise and
vibrations.
- Colored pavers can increase the visibility of
DESIGN ELEMENTS OF A CURB RAMPS
the intersection
 Ramp section – max ramp slope 1:112 with a
RAISED CROSSWALKS / RAISED
cross slope of no more than 1:50
CURB RADIUS INTERSECTIONS

- The pavement corner radius should no - Eliminate grade changes from the pedestrian
larger than that needed to accommodate the path and give pedestrians greater
design motor vehicle prominence as they cross the street

CURB EXTENSIONS PEDESTRIAN CURB RAMP DESIGN

- Sometimes called curb bulbs or bulb outs
- They shorten the crossing distance provide
additional space the corner and allow
pedestrians to see motor vehicles and be
seen by motor vehicle drivers before
entering the cross walk
CROSSING ISLANDS AND MEDIANS
ELEMENTS
Types of curb ramps
1. Perpendicular – ideally the curb ramp is
oriented so that the fall line of the ramp is both
parallel to the crosswalk and perpendicular to
the curb
2. Diagonal – diagonal ramps are single
perpendicular curb ramps located at the apex of
 Landings – min 4 feet long and at least the same
width as the ramp itself
 Flares – max slope of the curb ramp flare shall
be 1:10. If the landing depth at the top of a curb
ramps is less than 4 feet then the slope of the
flared side shall not exceed 1:12
BICYCLE LANES AT INTERSECTIONS
INTERSECTIONS WITH BUS STOPS
 - Where there is a bus or other transit stop,
either near side or far side, the 6-inch solid
line should be replaced by two inch foots
separated by 6-foot spaces for the length of
the bust stop
SIMPLE AND UNCONTROLLED
INTERSECTIONS
FLARED INTERSECTIONS
- Right turn lanes should be used only were
justified by a traffic study since they force
right turning vehicles and through bicyclists
to cross paths
The bicycle lane should not be placed to the left or a
right turn lane in three circumstances:
1. Heavy right turn volume
2. T intersections
3. Optional right/straight and right turn only
lanes
BICYCLE LANES AT ROUNDABOUTS
 Low speed (approximately 12-15 mph) and
single lane roundabouts allow for safe mixing of
bicyclists and motor vehicles within the
roundabouts
 On the perimeter of roundabouts, there should
be a shared bicycle pedestrian path of sufficient
width and appropriately marked to
accommodate both types of users
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
 Important for intersection design are described
in the following section including:
 Sight triangles
 Spacing
 Bus stop
 Additionally other types of roadway crossing
are describe including:
 Midblock path crossings
 Highway railroad grade crossings
INTERSECTION SIGHT TRIANGLE
- Is a triangular shaped zone, sufficiently
clear of visual obstruction to permit drivers
entering the intersection to detect hazard or
conflicts and react accordingly
- Defined by its legs along both the major
street and the minor street
Five categories of sight triangle computation:
 Case A – intersection with no control to any
approach
 o Where intersection movements are not
controlled by a traffic control device
to see motor vehicle and bicycle
approaching on the major street from
either direction are sufficient distance to
allow crossing or turning maneuvers
from the minor street at acceptable level

 Case C – intersections with yield control on the

minor street
o Drivers approaching the intersection  Case D – intersections with traffic signal control
 Case B – intersections with stop control on the
o Neither approach nor departure sight
minor street must be able to see along the major
o The drivers on the minor street, when streets in order to gauge the extent of triangles are relevant at intersection
slowing necessity of stopping with traffic signal control
stopped at the intersection must be able
 Case E – intersection with all way stop sign  With respect to intersection, bus and other
control transit stop may be either
o No sight distance criteria apply to the  Nearside, located on the approach leg of the
intersection with all way stop control intersection or
 Far side, located on the departure leg of the
intersection
INTERSECTION SPACING
 Bus and other transit stop at intersections, while
- Is to minimize the possibility of conflicts in advantageous for bus service, create challenge
traffic operations between adjacent for the flow other vehicles as well as non-
intersections motorized travel:
 If the bus stop is in its own lane, it must
SPACING BETWEEN PUBLIC STREET reenter the traffic stream after completing a
INTERSECTION stop
 At far side stop a stopped bus may cause
following vehicles to back up through the
intersections
 At near side stops, where the stopped bus is
outside the traffic stream, the reentry of the
bus into the traffic stream is likely to occur
at a pedestrian crosswalk
 These challenges associated with bus stops at
intersection are addressed through the following
design guidelines:
 Far side bus stops are generally preferable
to near side stops
 Bus loading areas should be separate from
moving lanes to traffic
 Parking should be restricted for a distance
SPACING BETWEEN SIGNALIZED of 60 feet from the beginning of the
INTERSECTIONS pavement of corner radius
TRANSIT STOP CONSIDERATIONS

 From the point of view of bus operations, it is

desirable to have bus stops located near
intersections, so that the bus riders can approach
easily from both the street carrying bus route
and from the minor streets