350 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES [A magnetic field can exert force only ona moving charge. From experiments, it is found that the magnetic force F, experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity win a magnetic field B is Fu = Qux B 482) “This clearly shows that F,, is perpendicular to both w and B. From eqs. (8.1) and (8.2), a comparison between the electric force F_ and the magnetic force F, ean be made. We see that E, is independent of the velocity of the charge and ean perform work on the charge and change its kinetic energy. Unlike F,, F,, depends on the charge velocity and is normal to i, However, Fy cannot perform work because itis at right angles to the direction of motion of the charge (F." dl = 0)s it does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge. ‘The magnitude of F,, is generally small in comparison to F, except at high velocities. For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on the charge is given by, F= QE +uxB) 63) ‘This is known as the Lorents force equation.' It relates mechanical force to electrical force. Ifthe mass ofthe charged particle moving in E and B fields is sn, by Newton's second law of motion, Fo mots QE + u xB) 4) de ‘The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles, in E and B fields. We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy can be transferred only by means ofthe electric field. A summary on the force exerted on a charged particle is given in Table 8.1 ince ey, (82) is closely parallel to eq, (8.1), which defines the electric field, some authors and instructors prefer to begin their discussions on magnetostatics from eq. (8.2), just as discussions on electrostaties usually begin with Coulomb’ force law. B. Force on a Current Element “To determine the force on a current element I dl ofa current-carrying conductor due to the ‘magnetic field B, we modify eg, (8.2) using the fact that for convection current [see eq (5.7) pu 85) " after Hendeik Lorena (1853-1928), who fist applied the equation of motion i lactic lds8.2 Forces due to Magnetic Fields 351 TABLE 8.1 Force on a Charged Particle State ofPartide EFidd Field Combined E and & Fields Satonary or = ar Moving ae, WuxB Qe tax) From eq. (75), we recall the relationship between current elements Idi = Kas = Jdv (86) Combining eqs. (8.5) and (86) yields Idl = pudv = dQu dQ al Alternatively, Il = “Ted = dQ = dQu Hence, Tdl = dQu (37) This shows that an elemental charge dQ moving with velocity w (thereby producing con- veetion current clement dQ u) is equivalent to a eonduetion current elensent J dl. Thus the force om a current element I dl in a magnetic field B is found from eq. (8.2) by merely replacing Qu by Idk that is, dF = 11x B (38) the current is through a closed path L or circuit, the force on the cireuit is given by (39) In using eq. (8.8) or (89), we should keep in mind that the magnetic field produced by the current clement I dl does not exert force on the element itself, just as a point charge does not exert force on itself. The B field that exerts force on 1 al must be due to another clement. In other words, the B field in eq. (88) or (8.9) is external to the current element TL. If instead of the line current element I dl, we have surface current elements K dS ora-volume current element J dv, we simply make use of eq, (8.6) so that eq. (8.8) becomes dB =KdSXB or dF=JdyXB (ss') while eg, (8.9) becomes pe [aisxm or ba [raxe s)352 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES From eg, (88) “The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element. Alternatively, B may be defined from ¢q, (8.2) as the vector that satisfies Fy/q =u B, just as we defined electric field E as the force per unit charge, F./q. Both these definitions ‘of B show that B describes the force properties of a magnetic field. C. Force between Two Current Elements Let us now consider the force between two elements I, dI, and J, dl,. According to Biot Savart’ lav, both current elements produce magnetic fields. So we may find the force A(dE,) on element I, dl, due to the field dB, produced by element J, dl, as shown in Figure 8.1, From eq, (88), d(dF,) = 1, dl, x dB (8.10) But from Biot-Savart’s lav, (uy Hence, Hoh dl, X (Indl, X ae,) aCar,) (a2) ‘This equation is essentially the law of force between two current elements and is analogous to Coulomb law, which expresses the force between two stationary changes. From eq. (8-12), we obtain the total force E, on current loop 1 due to current loop 2 shown in Figure 8.1 as a X a) (8.13) FIGURE 8.1. Force benween two current loops: nA8.2 Forces due to Magnetic Fields 353 Although this equation appears complicated, we should remember that it is based on £4, (8.10). It is eq, (8.9) oF (8.10) that is of fundamental importance. ‘The force F: on loop 2 due to the magnetic fied B, from loop 1 is obtained from q, (8.13) by interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. It can be shown that F, = ~F, thus F, and F, obey Newtonis third law that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is worthwhile to mention that eq, (8.13) was experimentally established by Gersted and Ampére; Biot and Savart (Ampére colleagues) actually based their law on it A charged particle of mass 2 kg: and charge 3 C starts at point (1, =2,0) with veloc 4a, + 3a, m/sin an electric field 12a, + 10a, W/m. At time ¢ = 1, determine (a) ‘The acceleration of the particle (b) Its velocity (©) skinetic energy (d) ts position Solution: (a) Thisis an initial-value problem because initial values are given. According to Newton's second law of motion, F QE where a is the acceleration of the particle. Hlenee, (12a, + 10a,) = 18a, + 15a, m/s? ud Am ilo te) = 18a, + 15a, (b)Equating components and then integrating, we obtain du, FER 18 ua ire A (1) du, a (12) du, i (8.13) where A, B, and C are integration constants. Butat = 0, u = J =4 404A of ARS =0>0 O+B or B u(t=0)=333=¢354 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Substtting the values of A,B, and Cinto eg. (8.11) to (8.1.3) gives WC) = (uate) = (184 4158 3) Hence u(t = 15) = 22a, + 15a, + 3a,mis Jou = Sa)G2 + ast + 9) Ce) Kinetic energy (KE) = 5 78) aid (a) w= T= Gee) = (18+ 4 1563) Equating components yields Is $4 > xs 9F Fatt Ay (8.14) 1st > y= 7.58 4B, (15) 2-84, (8.1.6) Ate = 0,(%y.2) = (1, —2, 0); hence, MUSO}=1% 1 =0+A) or Aya y(t=0) = -2 > -2504B, of B= -2 AE=0)=00 =04G, of C=O Substituting the values of A,, B,, and C, into eqs. (8.1.4) to (8.1.6), we obtain Kaye) = (928 4 ar + 4,750 — 2,31) (17) Hence, att = 1, (x,y 2) = (14, 55,3). By eliminating fin eq (81.7), the mation of the particle may be deseribed in terms of xs ysand z8.2 Forces due to Magnetic Fields. 355 (©) Its velocity and acceleration at P (d) ts KE atP Answer: (a) 6a,N, (b) 2s, (€) 12a, mls, 6a, m/s?, (d) 721. A charged particle of mass kg and 1 C starts atthe origin with velocity 3a, m/s and travels in a region of uniform magnetic field B = 10a, Whim" Att = 4s, do the following. (a) Calculate the velocity and acceleration ofthe particle. (b) Caleulate the magnetic force on it (6) Determine its KE. and location. (a) Find the particles trajectory by eliminating t. (©). Show that its KE. remains constant, Solution: @) F Henee a Gilets + a + na) = By equating components, we get du, L (21) du, en le (8.2.2) du, Gino =e (823) We can eliminate 1, of u, in eqs. (8.2.L) and (82.2) by taking second derivatives of one equation and making use of the other. Thus356 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Which is a linear differential equation with solution (see Case 3 of Example 6.5) os St + Cysin St (24) From eqs (82-1) and (8.24), aly, Su, = i = SC, sin St + SC cos Se (8.25) sinSt + C,eos 5 ‘We now determine constants-C,y Cy, and C, using the inital conditions. At ¢ = 0,u = 3a, Hence, w= OF 0=C1+C 07> G BRS 0+ G1 SG oo Substituting the values of C,, C,, ane C, into eqs. (8.2.3) to (8.2.5) gives w= (1s 1p 2) = (3 sit, 3 08 54,0) (8.26) Hence, u(t = 4) = (3sin20, 3 c0820,0) = 27398, + 1224a, m/s on a= 2, 7 (S408 54 15 sin 54,0) and 13.694a, m/s tb) = 27.4a,N Qu x B= (1)(2.739a, + 1.224a,) x 108, 1228, ~ 27.4a,N (©) KE 4(2) (2738 + L224") = 9) ds Ga Saint x (827)8.2 Forces due to Magnetic Fields. 357 sin St + by (828) dy ae de h (829) where by, by and by are integration constants, Att = 0, (x,y, 2) = (00,0) and hence, 3 sro) = 040-2144, + 4,=08 (10) FIth oh yt=0) = 0405 b> b= {t= 0) =0 > 0-5; Substituting the values of by, bs, and bs into eqs. (8.2.7) o (8.2.9), we obtain (x95 2) = (06 ~ 0.608 5t, 06 sin 5¢, 0) (62.10) (x y.2) = (0.3552, 05478, 0) (d) From eq, (82.10), we eliminate t by noting that = 06) +e (0.6) (cos? St + sin’ 52), = 06) + = (06), = which is a circle on plane 2 = 0, centered at (0.6,0,0) anel of radius 0.6 m. Thus the particle gyrates in an orbit about a magnetic field Line © (2)(9 cos? St + 9sin?se) = 9 Which isthe same as the K.E. at ¢ = Oand 1 = 44s. Thus the uniform magnetic field has no effect on the K.E. of the particle. Note that the angular velocity w = QB/mand the radius of the orbit r = uaa, where is the initial speed. An interesting application of the idea in this example is found in a common method of focusing a beam of electrons. The method employs a uniform mag- netic field directed parallel to the desired beam as shown in Figure 82. Each electron emerging from the electron gun follows a helical path and returns to the axis at the same focal point with other electrons, Ifthe screen of a cathode-ray tube were at this point, a single spot would appear on the screen.358 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES FIGURE 8.2 For Example 8.2: ‘magnetic focusing of a beam of clectrons: (a) helical paths of electrons, (b) end view of paths. o « PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.2 ‘A proton of mass m is projected into uniform field B = B,a, with an initial velocity a, “+ Ba” (a) Find the differential equations thatthe postion vector # = xa, + ya, + za, snuist satis (b) Show that a solution to these equations is Saat, y=Zcouon om pt where © = eB,/m and eis the charge on the proton, (c) Show that this solution describes ‘a circular helix in space. de wy de Answer: (a) $F = cost, f = ~asinat, 4 = B, (bland (6) Proof A charged particle moves with a uniform velocity 4a, m/s in a region where E = 20 a, Vim and B = B,a, Wb/m*. Determine B, such thatthe velocity ofthe particle remains constant. Solution: IF the particle moves with a constant velocity it is implied that its acceleration is zero. In other words, the particle experiences no net force. Hence, 0 = ma = Q(E + wx B) 0 = Q(20a, + 4a, x Ba.) — 20a, = -4B.a, ‘Thus B, = 5. ‘This example illustrates an important principle employed in a velocity filter shown in Figure 8.3. In this application, E, B, and w are mutually perpendicular so that Qu x Bis8.2 Forces due to Magnetic Fields 359 Parists with FIGURE 8.3 For Example 8.3: velocity filter for charged particles directed opposite to QE, regardless of the sign of the charge. When the magnitudes of the two vectors are equal, QuB = QE or This is the required (critical) speed to balance out the two parts of the Lorentz force. articles with this speed are undeflected by the fields; they are “filtered” through the aper- ture, Pasticles with other speeds are deflected down or up, depending on whether their speeds are greater or less than this eritical speed, PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.3 Uniform I and B fields are oriented at right angles to each other. An electron moves witha speed of 8 X10" m/sat right angles to both fields and passes undellected thzough the field (2) I the magnitude of B is 0.5 mWb/m', find the value of E (b) Will ehis Biter work for positive and negative charges and any value of mass? Answer: (a) 4kV/m, (b) yes. A rectangular loop carrying eurrent fis placed parallel to an infinitely long filamentary wire carrying current J, as shown in Figure 8.4(a). Show that the force experienced by the loop is given by mab an360 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES : FIGURE 8.4 For Example 8.4 {a) rectangular loop inside the field produced by an infinitely lang wire, {b) forces acting on the loop and wire a noes . Q = 4 i. Solution: Let the force on the laop be FoF +R th +h af a x By where F,, F,, Fy, and F, are, respectively, the forces exerted on sides of the loop labeled 1, 2,3,and 4 in Figure 8.4(b). Owing to the infinitely long wire Hence, 2p, _Halidab a, (attractive) aap, F is attractive because itis directed toward the long wire; that is, F is along ~a, because loop side 1 and the long wire carry curcents along the same direction, Similarly, Hla aX Tg a8.3 Magnetic Torque and Moment 361 ‘The total force F, on the loop is the sum of F, F., Fs, and Fy; that is, Sele neal which is an attractive force trying to draw the loop toward the wire, The force F,, on the wire, by Newtons third law is ~F,; see Figure 8.4(b). PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.4 In Example8.4, ind the force experienced by the infinitely long wire iff, = L0A,1,=5.A, p. = 20cm, a= 10cm, b = 30cm. Answer: 5a, 4. 8.3 MAGNETIC TORQUE AND MOMENT Now that we have considered the foree on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can deter- mine the torque on it. The concept of a current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic field is of paramount importance in understanding the behavior of orbiting charged par- ticles, dc motors, and generators. Ifthe loop is placed parallel to.a magnetic field, it experi- ences a force that tends to rotate it “The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the vector product of the moment arm rand the Force F. Thatis, T ea) and its units are newton-meters (Nm). Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length € and width w placed in a uniform magnetic field B as shown in Figure 8.5(a). From Figure 8.5(a), we notice that dlis parallel to B along sides AB and CD of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus362, CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES ‘ FIGURE 8.5 (a) Rectangular planar loop in a uniform magnetic Field. (b) Cross-sectional view of part (3. Fai axes de -F=0 (8.15) where |F,| = IBC because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop-as a whole. However, F, and ~F, act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. Ifthe rnormal to the plane of the loop makes an angle a with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view of Figure 8.5(b), the torque on the loop is It] = [Fl wsiner T = Bibwsina (8:16) But €w = 5, the area ofthe loop: Henee, T= BiSsina (8.17) We define the quantity m = Ia, (8.18) as the magnetic dipole moment (in A *m?) af the loop. In eq. (8.18), a, is a unit normal vee~ tor tothe plane of the loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the direction of current and thumb along,84A Magnetic Dipole 363, ‘The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area ofthe loop; its direction is normal to the loop. Introducing eq. (8.18) in eq, (8.17), we obtain TomxB (19) Although this expression was obtained by using a rectangular Loop, itis generally applicable in determining the torque on a planar loop of any arbitrary shape. ‘The only limitation is that the magnetic field must be uniform. It should be noted that the torque is in the diree- tion of the axis of rotation (the z-axis in the ease of Figure &.5(a). It is directed with the aim of reducing a so that m and B are in the same direction. In an equilibrium position (when m and B are in the same direetion), the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the torque will be zero as well as the sum ofthe farces on the loop, 8.4 A MAGNETIC DIPOLE A magnetic dipole consists ofa bar magnet or small current-carrying loop. The reason lor this and what we mean by “small” will soon be evident. Let us determine the magnetic field B at an observation point P(r, 8, ) due to a circular loop carrying current Jasin Figure 8.6. The -magnetie vector potential at Pis, alfa ro I-can be shown that in the far field >> a, so thatthe loop appears small at the observation point, A has only ¢-component and itis given by pilira® sin Bay 1 (8.218) FIGURE 8.6 Magnetic field at Pdue to a current loap.364 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES nom Xa, AO ee (s.21b) where m = Ira’a,, the magnetic moment of the loop, and a, X a, = sind ay, We deter- ‘mine the magnetic lax density B from B= V x Aas BO, +n} em) ‘TABLE 8.2 Comparison between Electric and Magnetic Monopoles and Dipoles366. CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Hence, Qut Is (8.26) showing that they must have the same lpole moment, Determine the magnetic moment of an electric circuit formed by the triangular loop of| Figure 89, Solution: Ia plane intercepts the coordinate axes at (a, 0,0), (0, , 0), andl (0, 0, 0), 8 equation is sven by 1—> bex + cay + abs = abe For the present problem, a= 2. Hence xtyte=2 “Thus, we can use m = ISa, where loop area Savay(2v2)in 0" = Asin 60" FIGURE 8.9 Triangular loop of Example 8.58-4.A Magnetic Dipole 367 If we define the plane surface by a fianction Slaya=xbyte-2 ‘We choose the plus sign in view of the direction of the current in the loop (using the right- hhand rule, m is directed as in Figure 89). Hence (a+ a+ a) mm = 5(4sin 60°) v3 = 10(a, + 94a) vm? PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.5 [A rectangular coil of area 10 cmé carrying current of 50 A lies on plane 2x + Gy — 32 = 7 such that the magnetic moment ofthe col is directed away from the origin, Calculate its magnetic moment. Answer: (1429, + 4286a, ~ 2.143a) x 107 A-m, A small current loop 1, with magnetic moment Sa, Am? another small loop current L, with magnetic moment 3a, Am? is Located a (4, Determine the torque on 1 s lacated at the origin while 10), Solution: ‘The torque T, on the loop L, is due to the field B, produced by loop L,. Hence, T, = m, XB, Since m, for loop L, is along a, we find B, using eq. (8.22): m, = 3a, = 3(sind sin ba, + cos@ sina, + cos bay) At (4, —3, 10), r=VE+ (3) 410 = 5V5368 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES tan 1 > sino 2 X34 yg 3 _ tang === sind =, cas = Hence, eee cia) 'awesVs WS V5" _ 0? 25 (4a, + a) meee] ae. foe, sVvs v5 5 and 107(3) 625(5V'3) = 4.293 x 10°" (94d, + 35778, + 21ay) (-3a, — 6ay + 4V5ay) * (4a, + ay) = -038: , + 1.S86a, + 0.9015ay nN -m PRACTICE EXERCISE 8, ‘The coil of Practice Exercise 8.5 is surrounded by a uniform field 06a, + 04a, + 0.5a, Whim’. (@) Find the torque on the coil. (b) Show that the torque on the col is maximum if placed om plane 2x 8y + 42 = B Veal canine ietemennnsttc eestor Answer: (a) 0034, ~ 0.028, ~ 0.02a,N +m, (b)0.0439N -m, 8.5 MAGNETIZATION IN MATERIALS ‘Our discussion here will parallel that on polarization of materials in an electric field. We shall assume that our atomnie model is that of an electron orbiting about a positive nucleus, ‘We know that a given material is composed of atoms. Each atom may be regarded as consisting of electrons orbiting about a central positive nucleus; the electrons also rotate8.5 Magnetization in Materials 369 (or spin) about their own axes. Thus an internal magnetic field is produced by electrons orbiting around the nucleus as in Figure 8.10(a) oF electrons spinning as in Figure 8.10(b) Both these electronic motions produce internal magnetic fields B, that are similar to the ‘magnetic field produced by a current loop of Figure 8.11. The equivalent current loop has a magnetic moment of m = Say where Sis the arca of the loop and Jj is the bound 0, we obtain ° (38) and Ampére’ circuit law I (8.39) B,, AS ~ B,, AS (a4o) ‘Thus (at) since B = iH Equation (8.41) shows that the normal component of B is continuous at the ‘boundary. It also shows that the normal component of H is diseontinuous at the boundary: ‘Hundergoes some change atthe interface. Similarly, we apply eq, (8.39) to the closed path abeda of Figure 8.16(b), where surface ‘current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the path. We abtain Ak Ab Ko Bw = Hy Aw 4 Hy 4 Hag 0 o FIGURE 8.16 Boundary condisions between two magnetic media: (a) for B, (b) for H.8.7 Magnetic Boundary Conditions 377 (42) As Mh > 0, eq, (8.42) leads to (43) ‘This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous. Equation (8.43) may be written in terms of Bas By By ni K (8.44) In the general case, eq. (8.48) becomes (Hy =) Xan = K (45) Where a. is & unit veetor normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to ‘medium 2. Ifthe boundary is free of current or the media are not conductors (for Kis free current density), K = O and eq, (843) becomes By _ By =H,| of ee Be (8.46) me ‘Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is discontinuous atthe boundary. Ifthe fields make an angle 0 with the normal to the interface, eq. (8-41) results in By cosd, Bu By cos: (ary while eq, (8.46) produces 3, Sino, = Hy, (eas) ms Dividing eq. (8.48) by eq. (8.47) gives tan 8, es tan 8, ea which is [similar to eq, (5.65)] the law of refraction far magnetic flux lines at a boundary with no surface current Given that H, calculate (a) M, and B, (b)_-H, and B, in region y = x = 2 = O,where wy = 2, 2a, + 6a, + 4a, A/m in region y — x — 20, where 4, = Sp,378 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Solution: Since y =x = 2= 0 isa plane, y ~ x = 2 oF y- Sx +2 is region | in Figure 817. A ppoint in this region may be used to confirm this, For example, the origin (0, 0) isin this region because 0 — 0 ~ 2 < 0. we et the surface of the plane be described by f(x,y) = y— = 2, a.unit veetor normal tothe plane is given by Yoana “Wi ve o My = XniFhy = (Hn ~ 1) Hy = (5 ~ 1)(-2,6,4) = 8a, + 24a, + 160, Alm B= willy = papal, = Ar X 10°7(5)(~2,6,4) = -10.57a, + 37-7a, + 25.134, Whitin? 11,0) (b) Hy, = (Hy a,) (-2,6,4) vi | Va = 4a, 4 4a, But Hy = Hi + Hy Hence, H,, = H, = Hy, = (=2,6,4) = (=4,4,0) = 2a, + 2a, + 4a, ‘Using the boundary conditions, we have Hi, =H, = 2a, + 2a, +a, HH, = 1B, FIGURE 8.17 For Example 8.8.8.7 Magnetic Boundary Conditions 379 1a, + 10a, Thus yt Hy, = 8a, + 1a, + da, Alm and Ha = poptaHhy = (4m X 1077)(2)(—8, 12, 4) = 20.118, + 30.16a, + 10.05a,j2 Wim? PRACTICE EXERCISE 88 Region 1, described by 3x + 4y = 10, is free space, whereas region 2, described by 3x + 4y= 10, is a magnetic material for which r= 10j1,. Assuming that the boundary between the material and free space is current free, find B, if B, = Ola, + 04a, + 0.2a, Wh/m’, Answer: ~1.052a, + 1.264a, + 2a, Wh/m*. ‘The xy-plane serves as the interface between two different media. Medium 1 (z <0) is filled with a material whose jz, = 6, and medium 2 (z > 0) is filled with a material whose , = 4. If the interface carries current (1/j.,) a, mA/m, and B, = 5a, + 8a, mWbim’, find H, and By Solution: In Example 88, K = 0, so e9, (8.46) was appropriate. In this example, however, K# 0, and we must resort to1q, (8.45) in addition to eq, (8-41). Consider the problem as illustrated in Figure 8.18. Let B, = (BB, B,) in mWhinn 8 won But 4. (Sa, + 8a,)mAjm (89.2) and Bi) ga. + Ba, + Ba.) mAlm (693) mi Su,380 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES FIGURE 8.18 For Example 8.9. ‘Having found the normal components, we can find the tangential components by using (H, =H) Xa = Hy X ayy = HX aye + K 894) Substituting eqs (89.2) and (89.3) into eg. (8.9.4) gives 1 (Ba. + Ba, + B, o sa + Ba, + Ba.) x Equating components yields (8.95) From eqs. (89.1) and (8.9.5) we have B, = 15a, + Sa, mWb/mt? Bs A (oa5a, + 1330.) mas Bi (o2sn, + 1.98) malon i ie and ty = 4 (1250, + 2a) mAs b= (1.284, Note that Zh, is Ug mA/m less than Hy, because of the current sheet and also that Big = Bix8.8 Inductors and inductances 381 (a) Ha, (b) The surface current density K on the interface (©) The angles B, and B, make with the normal to the interface Answer: (a) 5.833, (b) 4.86% = 864a, + 3.958, Alm, (¢) 7627", 77.62" 8.8 INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCES [A circuit (or closed conducting path) carrying current I produces a magnetic field B that causesa flux W = [Bd to passthrough each tun ofthe circuit as show in Figure 8.19, the circuit has N identical turns, we define the fax Finkage Aas NW (8.50) Also ifthe medium surrounding the circuit i linear, the fax linkage A is proportional to the current [producing its that is, or Aen (esi) where Lisa constant of proportionality called the inductance ofthe circuit The inductance Lisa property of the physical arrangement of the circuit. It isthe ability ofthe physical arrangement to store magnetic energy. A circuit or past of a eircuit that has inductance is, called an incuetor.The inductance L of an inductor is the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage to the current I through the inductor. 852) ‘The unit of inductance isthe henry (H), which isthe same as webers per ampere. Since the henry is a fairly large unit, inductances are usually expressed in millihenrys (mH) FIGURE 8.19 Magnetic field B produced by a circuit.382 (CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES FIGURE 8.20 Magnetic interaction besween Trt) Gian ‘The inductance defined by eq, (8.52) is commonly referred to as sifsinductanee, since the linkages are produced by the inductor itself. Like capacitance, inductance may be regarded asa measure of how much magnetic energy is stored in an inductor. The magnetic energy in joules) stored in an inductor is expressed in circuit theory as ye tip =U (8.53) (8.54) ‘Thus the self-ineuctance of a cireuit may be defined or caleulated from energy considerations instead of having a single circuit, we have two circuits carrying curcent J, and I, as shown in Figure 8.20, a magnetic interaction exists between the circuits. Four component Axes W,, Via, Way and Waa are produced. The flux W,, for example, isthe flux passing through cireuit 1 due to current I; in circuit 2. I'Bz is the magnetic flax density due to fs and Sis the area of circuit 1, then wee | meas (55) ‘The mutual inductance My, is the ratio of the ux Linkage Ay: = N\Wiz on circuit 1 to. current (8.56) Similarly, the mutual inductance My is defined as the flux linkages of cireuit 2 per unit ‘current Ij that (s.sTay8.8 Inductors and inductances 383 It can be shown by using energy concepts that if the medium surrounding the circuits is linear (i.e, in the absence of ferromagnetic material), My = My (857) ‘The mutual inductance M;, oF M,, is expressed in henrys and should not be confused with the magnetization vector M expressed in amperes per meter. Mutual inductance is funda~ ‘mental to the operation of transformers We define the self-inductance of circuits 1 and 2, respectively, as (8.58) and 6.59) where W,= Wy, + Vizand W; = Wa, + Wop The total energy in the magnetic field is the suum ofthe energies die to Ly Ly and My, (or My); thal is, (8.60) ‘The positive sign is taken if currents [, and J flow such that the magnetic fields of the two circuits strengthen each other. Ifthe currents flow such that their magnetic fields oppose each other, the negative sign is taken, Asmentioned earlier, an inductor is a conductor arranged in a shape appropriate to store magnetic energy. Typical examples of inductors are toroids, solenoids, coaxial transmission lines, and paralle-wire transmission lines. The inductance of each of these inductors can be determined by following procedure similar to that taken in determining the capacitance of a capacitor. Fora given inductor, we find the self-inductance L by taking these steps 1. Choose a suitable coordinate system. 2. Let the inductor carry current L 3. Determine B from Biot-Savarts law (or from Ampere’ law ifsymmetty exists) and calculate W from W =f B- ds. 4. ty nd = = ‘The mutual inductance between two circuits may be caleulated by taking a simi proceduse In an inductor such a8 a coaxial or a parallel-wire transmission line, the inductance produced by the flux internal to the conductor is called the internal inductance Li while that produced by the flux external to itis called extemal induclance Lj, The total indue~ tance Lis384 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES b= lat Lee (861) Just as it was shown that for eapacitors RC (6.235) it can be shown that LC = pe (862) ‘Thus Ly may be calculated using eq, (8.62) ifC is known, A collection of formulas for some fundamental circuit elements is presented in “Table 8.3. All formulas can be derived by taking the steps just outlined? 8.9 MAGNETIC ENERGY Just asthe potential energy in an electrostatic field was derived as 1 1 we=4]o edva4 | aay (4.96) we would like to derive a similar expression for the energy in a magnetostatic field. A simple approach is using the magnetic energy in the field of an inductor. From eq. (8.53). W, (853) 2 ‘The energy is stored in the magnetic field B of the inductor. We would like to express eq. (8.53) in terms of B or H. FIGURE 8.21 A differential volume ina magnesic field. ay Ay az Conducting —-s beste ® Additional formulas can be found in standard electrical handbooks or in H. Knoepfel, Pulsed High “Magnetic Fields. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1970, pp. 312-324.386 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Consider a differential volume in a magnetic field as shown in Figure 8.21. Let the volume be covered with conducting sheets at the top and bottoms surfaces with current AZ We assume that the whole region is filled with such differential volumes. From eq, (8.52), cach volume has an inductance AW _ wi Acde a= eee (8.63) where AI = H Ay. Substituting eq. (8.63) into eg, (8.53), we have AW, = JALAP = Fit Ax ay de (8.64) or 1 AWy = 5 iP Ay ‘The magnetostatic energy density w,, (in J/m') is defined as Hence, (8.65) ‘Thus the energy in a magnetostatic field in a linear medium is [ dv Wa (8.66) Which is similar to eq. (4.96) for an eletrostatie eld ‘Calculate the self-inductance per unit length ofan infinitely long solenoid Solution: ‘We recall from Example 7.4 that for an infinitely long solenoid, the magnetic ux inside the solenoid per unit length és B= pH = pln8.9 Magnetic Energy 387 wheren = N/E = numberof turns per unit length. If Sis the cross-sectional area of the solenoid, the total ux through the cross section is v= BS= phns Since this flux és only fora unit length ofthe solenoid, the linkage per unit length is a =e wr = pnts z im and thus the inductance per unit length is PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.10 [A very long solenoid with 2 x 2 cm eross section has an iron core (1, 4000 turns per meter It carries a current of 500 mA. Find the Following (a) Its selfinductance per meter (b) The energy per meter stored in its field Answer: (a) 8042 Him, (b) 1.008 Jim. Determine the self-inductance of a coaxial cable of inner radius @ and outer radius b Solution: ‘The self-inductance of the inductor ean be found in two diflerent ways by taking the four steps given in Section 88 or by using eqs. (8.54) and (8.66) Method 1: Consider the cross section of the cable as shown in Figure 8.22. We recall from 4, (7.29) that by applying Ampéze’ ereuit law, we obtained for region 1 (05 p =a), ale 2a and for region (a = p =), lap ‘We first find the internal inductance 1, by considering the flux linkages due to the inner conductor, From Figure 8.22(a), the lux leaving a differential shell af thickness dis388 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Py de a, = By dp de = 5 ‘The flux linkages 4, multiplied by the ratio of the area within the path enclosing the flux. to the total area, that is, 1, ap day = ey = dy > because Tis uniformly distributed aver the cross section for de excitation. Thus, the total flux linkages within the differential flux element are Ipdpde p* da, = Mledede For length € of the cable, (nla) (e112) is independent of the radius of the conductor oF wire. Since the inductance does not depend, ‘on a, we can make the wire as thin as possible. Thus eqs. (8.11.1) and (8.11.2) are also appli- cable to finding the inductance of any infinitely long sta ‘We now determine the external inductance I. by considering the flux linkages between the inner and the outer conductor as in Figure 8.22(b). Fo a differential shell of thickness dp, dW, = B,dpde = “dp de or © som ou © © FIGURE 8.22 Cross section of the coasal cable: (a) for region 1, 0 pa, (b) for region 2, a~< p a) are separated by distance h (hh a, b} as shown ins Figure 8.23. Find the mutual inductance between the wires. Solution: Let current J, flow in wire 1. Atan arbitrary point P on wire 2, the magnetic vector potential due to wire 1 is given by eq. (82a), namely pha sind whaibas a a SRS Wwh>>b392 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Hence, wha pola? amb = 4 ae and naa? ar FIGURE 8.23 Tivo coaval circular wires; for Example 8.13, PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.13 Find the mutual inductance of two coplanar concentric circular loops of radii 2m and 3 m, Answer: 2.632 lH. 18.10 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS "The concept of magnetic circuits is baseel on solving some magnetic field problems by using, a circuit approach. Magnetie devices such as toroids, transformers, motors, generators, and relays maybe considered as magnetic circuits. The analysis of such circuits is made simple ifan analogy between magnetic circuits and electric circuits i exploited. Once this has been done, we can directly apply concepts in electric circuits to solve their analogous magnetic circuits. ‘The analogy between magnetic and electric circuits is summarized in Table 8.4 and portrayed in Figure 8.24. The reader is advised to pause and study Table 84 and Figure 8.24 First, we notice from Table 8.4 that two terms are new. We define the magnetomotive force (mmf) ¥, in amperesturns (A=), as8.10 Magnetic Circuits 393 #=MI fa wn ‘The source of mmf in magnetic circuits is usually a coil-carrying current as in Figure 8.24 We also define reluctance ‘in ampere-turns per weber, as x is (e068) where { and S are, respectively, the mean length and the cross-sectional area of the mag- netic core. The reciprocal of reluctance is permeance &. The basie relationship for eireuit elements is Ohm’ law (V. FaR (8.69) Based on this, Kirchhol's current and voltage laws ean be applied to nodes and loops of a given magnetic circuit just as in an electric circuit, The rules of adding voltages and for TABLE 8.4 Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits a Condacivy @ aldiseaity B Cunt d= [a8 Current density) = 1 = lectromative free (em) V Resistance R Conductance G = 4 R ObnisbwR = ¥ = oe VeRO reo as Sie xV-BE=0 “> a Magnetic Permeability ld intesity Magnetic Bux W = 8-8 Flux density 8 Magnetomotve force (ment) Reductance R Peameance? = ve or Fe He WO = NI Kiechhot avs: Dw -0 Y9-Yaweo FIGURE 8.24 Analogy besween (a) an eleetre circuit and (b) & ‘magnetic circuit o394 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES combining series and parallel resistances also hold for mmfs and reluctances. Thus for n magnetic circuit elements in series % % 8.70) and Fa Fb Fy tet F (871) For n magnetic circuit elements in parallel, Wate tht 672) and (873) Some differences between electric and magnetic circuits should be pointed out. Unlike an electric circuit, where the current I flows, magnetic flux does not flow. Also, conduc~ tivity o is independent of current density Jin an electric cireuit, whereas permeability jx varies with flux density B in a magnetic circuit. This is because ferromagnetic (nonlinear) materials are normally used in most practical magnetic devices. These diflerenees not- withstanding, the magnetic circuit concept serves in the approximate analysis of practical rmagnetie devices, 18.11 FORCE ON MAGNETIC MATERIALS It is of practical interest to determine the force that a magnetic field exerts on a picee of ‘magnetic material in the field. This is useful in electromechanical systems such as elec- tromagnets, relays, and rotating machines and in magnetic levitation (see Section 8.12). Consider, for example, an electromagnet made of iron of constant relative permeability as shown in Figure 8.25. The coil has N turns and carries a current I. If we ignore fringing, the magnetic field in the air gap isthe same as that in iron (8, = By). To find the Force between the two pieces of iron, we calculate the change in the total energy that would result were the two pieces of the magnetic circuit separated by a differential displacement dl. The work required to effect the displacement is equal to the change in stored energy in the air ‘gap (assuming constant current), that is, -Fdl= dW, 1B, [2s a (8.74) Where S is the cross-sectional area of the gap, the factor 2 accounts for the two air gaps, and the negative sign indicates thatthe force aets to reduce the airgap (or that the force is altractive). Thus8.11 Force on Magnetic Materials 395 FIGURE 8.25 An electromagnet. Nturne *~ = hae F -o( 25) (695) 2, ‘ote that the force is exerted on the lower piece and not on the current-carrying upper piece giving rise to the field. The tractive force across a single gap can be obtained from eq. (8.75) a8 Bs Hy (8.76) Notice the similarity between eq. (8.76) and that derived in Example 5.8 for electrostatic case. Equation (8.76) can be usedl to calculate the forces in many types of devices includ- ing relays, rotating machines, andl magnetic levitation. The tractive pressure (in N/m") in a magnetized surface is a2 (7) Which ig the same as the enery density w,, in the air gap. The toroidal core of Figure 8.26(a) has p, = 10 cm and a circular cross section with a= Lem. Ifthe core is made of steel (14 = 1000 2,) and has a coil with 200 turns, e late the amount of current that will produce a flux of 0.5 mWb in the core. Solution: This problem can be solved in two different ways: by using the magnetic field approach (diceet) or by using the electri circuit analog (indirect). Method 1: Since p, is large compared with a, from Example 7.6, BNE _ pu NI TU" tap396 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES 200 turns + ~ FIGURE 8.26 (a) Toroidal core of Example 8.14, (b) Its equivalent clecric circuit analog, Hence, NI ra w= pg — Hobie 2p, or 2p 2(10 < 10)(0.5 x 10) pott:Ne eX 10*(1000) (200)(1 > 10 =i ssor90 od ‘Method 2: The toroidal core in Figure 8.26(a) is analogous to the electric circuit of Figure 8.26(b). From the circuit and Table 84, F=Ni= WR= w= wt, NE SN nem 2p. Bee 9794, as obtained with Method 1, PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.14 A-conductor of radius is bent into acircular loop of mean radius p, (see Figure 8.26(a)) fp, = Wem and 2a = 1 cm, calculate the internal inductance of the loop. Answer: 31-42 nll8.11 Force on Magnetic Materials 397 In the magnetic circuit of Figure 8.27, calculate the current in the coil that will produce a magnetic flux density of 15 Wh/m in the air gap, assuming that jx = 50, and that all bbranches have the same cross-sectional area of 10 em?. Solution: ‘The magnetic circuit of Figure 8.27 is analogous to the electric circuit of Figure 8.28. In Figure 827, ty, Jy, My and Sh, are the reluetances in paths 143, 123, 35 and 16, and 56 (air gap), respectively. Thus € 30 x 107 By = B= TS ~ aw 10-7) (50)(10 % 10-4) 9x 10 09 x10" (4m x 10°7)(50)(10 x 10°) 207 1x10? (4m x 107)(1)(10 10) We combine St, and Ji as resistors in parallel, Hence, aul, = 20% ASF a The total reluctance is 74 x 108 Ry + y+ Ills = ‘The mmf is F=NI= VI; [10cm ++ 1m +] FIGURE 8.27 Magnetic circuit for Example 8.15.398 CHAPTER 8 MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES FIGURE 8.28 Electric circuit analog of the magnetic circuit in Figure 8.27, But ¥, = Y= 8,5, Henee BSRy _ 15 X 10 x 10" x 7.4 x 10" No 400% 207" = 4416 A PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.15, ‘The toroid of Figure 8.26(a) has a coil of 1000 turns wound on its core. Ifp, = 10em anda = Lem, find the current required to establish a magnetic flux of 0.5 mWb (a) Ifthe core is nonmagnetic (b) Ifthe core has ja, = 500 Answer: (a) 795.8 A, (b) 1.592.A. A.U-shaped electromagnet shown in Figure 8.29 is designed to lift a 400 kg mass (which includes the mass of the keeper). The iron yoke (jz, = 3000) has a cross section of 40 em? ‘and mean length of 30cm, and the ar gaps are each 0.1 mm long, Neglecting the reluctance of the keeper, calculate the number of turns in the coil when the excitation current is 1 A. Solution: ‘The tractive force aevoss the two aie gaps must balance the weight. Henee (B55) Bey, ME guy _ 400 X 98 X 4m x 107 BS * s 40 x 10 LAL Wb/m?8.12 Application Note—Magnetic Levitation 399 a FIGURE 8.29 U-shaped electromagnet; For Example 8.16 |_— ton yoke But F = N= WR, +2) jpn fe 2 OO 6x 108 SUS be KIO 40X10 Be 50x 10°? 5x 108 4m X10 X 3000 X40 10% 48 Since WBE, MX LAL x 01 x 10"! 6 ud 6X4 XW 7X1 N= 162, PRACTICE EXERCISE 8.16 Find the force across the air gap of the magnetic circuit of Example 8.15. Answer: 895.2N, 18.12 APPLICATION NOTE—MAGNETIC LEVITATION Overcoming the grip of earths gravity has been a major challenge for years. However, scientists and engineers have found many ways to achieve levitation. For example, a