Hydraulic control system

(Lecture #1)

The enclosed fluids (liquids and gases) can be used as prime movers to provide controlled
motion and force to the objects or substances. The specially designed enclosed fluid systems
can provide both linear as well as rotary motion. This kind of enclosed fluid based systems
using pressurized incompressible liquids as transmission media are called as hydraulic systems..
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
Figure 1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

Figure 1 Components of a hydraulic system

Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1 are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical
power to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder)
or rotary type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

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3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
Figure 2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols.

Figure 2 Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

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Basic Types Of Valves
1) directional control valves:
They determine the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit
2) pressure control valves:
They protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to excessive actuator
loads or due to the closing of a valve.
(3) flow control valves.
They are used to control the flow rate of the fluid

Directional control valves can be classified in the following manner:

Number of ports:
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
Number of switching position:
• Two – position
• Three - position

Two way valves

Two way valves have only two ports as shown in Figure 3. These valves are also known as on-
off valves because they allow the fluid flow only in direction.. These valves are available as
normally open and normally closed function.

Fig. 2, Two way valve

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Three way valves
When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port as shown in Figure 3,
it is known as three way valve.

Fig. 3, Three way valve

Four way valves
Figure 4 shows a four-way valve. It is generally used to operate the cylinders and motors in
both the directions. The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and
B connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize and
exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.

Fig. 4, four way valve

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Symbolic Representation of Valves

Hydraulic Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators, that is, they produce straight-line motion and/or force.
Cylinders are classified as:
1. Single-acting Cylinder
2. Double-acting Cylinder
Single Acting Cylinder
Single acting cylinder has only one fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direction, as
shown in fig. 5.

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 Fig. 5, Single acting cylinder

The double-acting cylinder

The double-acting cylinder is operated by hydraulic fluid in both directions and is capable of a
power stroke either way as shown in figure 6.

Fig. 5, double acting cylinder

Hydraulic Motors
Motors work on the reverse principle of pumps. In motors fluid is forced into the motor from
pump outlets at high pressure and is converted to mechanical energy.

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 Flight Control System
(Lecture #2)

Mechanical Flight Control System

• Basic method of controlling an aircraft

• Used in early aircraft and currently in small aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not
excessive.

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 • It uses a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, tension cables, pulleys,
counterweights, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces applied from the cockpit
controls directly to the control surfaces (see fig. 1)

Fig. 1 Mechanical Flight Control System

Increases in the control surface area required by large aircraft or higher loads caused by high
airspeeds in small aircraft lead to a large increase in the forces needed to move them,
consequently complicated mechanical gearing arrangements were developed to extract
maximum mechanical advantage in order to reduce the forces required from the pilots

Some mechanical flight control systems use Servo tabs that provide aerodynamic assistance.
Servo tabs are small surfaces hinged to the control surfaces. The flight control mechanisms
move these tabs, aerodynamic forces in turn move, or assist the movement of the control
surfaces reducing the amount of mechanical forces needed.

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Need for Powered Control System
The Complexity and Weight of the system (Mechanical) increased with Size and Performance
of the aircraft.
•When the pilot’s action is not directly sufficient for the control, the main option is a powered
system that assists the pilot.
•The hydraulic system has demonstrated to be a more suitable solution for actuation in terms of
reliability, safety, weight per unit power and flexibility.
Powered Assisted Control System
The pilot, via the cabin components, sends a signal, or demand, to a valve that opens ports
through which high pressure hydraulic fluid flows and operates one or more actuators.

Two aspects must be noticed when a powered control is introduced:

1. The system must control the surface in a proportional way, i.e. the surface response
(deflection) must be function to the pilot’s demand (stick deflection, for instance)
2. The pilot that with little effort acts on a control valve must have a feedback on the
maneuver intensity

The first problem is solved by using (hydraulic) servo-mechanisms, where the components are
linked in such a way to introduce an actuator stroke proportional to the pilot’s demand
For the second problem an artificial feel is introduced in powered systems, acting directly on
the cabin control stick or pedals.

Disadvantages of Mechanical and Hydro-Mechanical Systems

1. Heavy and require careful routing of flight control cables through the aircraft using
pulleys, cranks, tension cables and hydraulic pipes.
2. They require redundant backup to deal with failures, which again increases weight.
3. Limited ability to compensate for changing aerodynamic conditions

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 4. Dangerous characteristics such as stalling, spinning …etc, which depend mainly on the
stability and structure of the aircraft concerned rather than the control system itself, can
still occur with these systems
By using electrical control circuits combined with computers, designers can save weight,
improve reliability, and use the computers to mitigate the undesirable characteristics mentioned
above.
Fly –By –Wire System (FBW)
The term "fly-by-wire" implies a purely electrically-signalled control system
• It is a computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the
operator and the final control actuators or surfaces
•It modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters
Operation
• The pilot’s demand is first of all transduced into electrical signal in the cabin and sent to
a group of independent computers.
• The computers sample also data concerning the flight conditions and servo-valves and
actuators positions
• The pilot’s demand is then processed and sent to the actuator, properly tailored to the
actual flight status (see fig. 2).

Fig 2, Fly –By –Wire System

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FBW – Advantages
1. Flight envelope protection (the computers will reject and tune pilot’s demands that might
exceed the airframe load factors)
2. Turbulence suppression and consequent decrease of fatigue loads and increase of
passenger comfort
3. Easier interfacing to auto-pilot and other automatic flight control systems
4. Weight reduction (mechanical linkages are substituted by wirings)

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 Introduction to control systems
(Lecture # 3)
A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system.
The system shown in Fig. 1, consisting of a mirror pivoted at one end and adjusted up and down
with a screw at the other end, is properly termed a control system. The angle of reflected light is
regulated by means of the screw.

Fig. 1
control systems of interest for analysis or design purposes include not only those manufactured
by humans, but those that normally exist in nature.
Definition 1:
The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system,
typically from an external energy source, usually in order to produce a specified
response from the control system.
Definition 2:
The output is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not be
equal to the specified response implied by the input.

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Inputs and outputs can have many different forms. Inputs, for example, may be physical
variables, or more abstract quantities such as reference, setpoint, or desired values for the
output of the control system.
EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Example 1
An electric switch is a manufactured control system, controlling the flow of electricity. Flipping
the switch on or off may be considered as the input. The output is the flow or nonflow (two
states) of electricity.
Example 2
A thermostatically controlled heater automatically regulating the temperature of a room is a
control system. The input to this system is a reference temperature, usually specified by
thermostat setting. The output is the actual temperature of the room.
OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems are classified into two general categories: open-loop and closed-loop systems.
The distinction is determined by the control action, that quantity responsible for activating the
system to produce the output.
Definition 3
An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output.
Definition 4
A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the
output.
Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability, a concept to be subsequently
discussed in detail.

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EXAMPLE 3
Most automatic toasters are open-loop systems because they are controlled by a timer. The
time required to make ‘‘good toast” must be estimated by the user, who is not part of the
system.
EXAMPLE 4
An autopilot mechanism and the airplane it controls is a closed-loop control system. Its
purpose is to maintain a specified airplane heading, despite atmospheric changes. It performs
this task by continuously measuring the actual airplane heading, and automatically adjusting the
airplane control surfaces (rudder, ailerons, etc.) so as to bring the actual airplane heading into
correspondence with the specified heading.
FEEDBACK
Feedback is that characteristic of closed-loop control systems which distinguishes them from
open-loop systems.
Definition 5:
Feedback is that property of a closed-loop system which permits the output to be compared
with the input to the system so that the appropriate control action may be formed as some
function of the output and input.
EXAMPLE 5
The concept of feedback is clearly illustrated by the autopilot mechanism of Example 4. The
input is the specified heading, which may be set on a dial or other instrument of the airplane
control panel, and the output is the actual heading, as determined by automatic navigation
instruments. A comparison device continuously monitors the input and output. When the two
are in correspondence, control action is not required. When a difference exists between the
input and output, the comparison device delivers a control action signal to the controller, the
autopilot mechanism. The controller provides the appropriate signals to the control surfaces of
the airplane to reduce the input-output difference.

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Solved Problems
1 Identify the input and output for the pivoted, adjustable mirror of Fig. 1.
Solution:
The input is the angle of inclination of the mirror Ɵ, varied by turning the screw. The output is
the angular position of the reflected beam Ɵ + α from the reference surface.
2. How are the automatic washing machine open-loop system calibrated
Solution:
Automatic washing machines are calibrated by estimating any combination of the following
input quantities: (1) amount of detergent, (2) amount of bleach or other additives, (3) amount of
water, (4) temperature of the water, ( 5 ) cycle-time.
3. Identify the organ-system components, and the input and output, and describe the operation
of the biological control system consisting of a human being reaching for an object.
Solution:
The basic components of this control system are the brain, arm and hand, and eyes.
The brain sends the required nervous system signal to the arm and hand to reach for the object.
This signal is amplified in the muscles of the arm and hand, which serve as power actuators for
the system. The eyes are employed as a sensing device, continuously “feeding back” the
position of the hand to the brain. Hand position is the output for the system. The input is object
position. The control action is equal to the distance between hand and object position. The
objective of the control system is to reduce the distance between hand position and object
position to zero

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 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
(Lecture # 4)
A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship
between the input and output of a physical system.
The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one input and one output, as
shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a description of or the name
of the element, or the symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to
yield the output. The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.
EXAMPLE 1

Fig. 2

The operations of addition and subtraction have a special representation. The block becomes a
small circle, called a summing point, with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the
arrows entering the circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
EXAMPLE 2

Fig. 3

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In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one block or summing
point, a takeoff point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations.
EXAMPLE 3

Fig. 4
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF CONTINUOUS (ANALOG) FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEMS
The basic configuration of a simple closed-loop (feedback) control system is illustrated in Fig. 5

Fig. 5
Definition 2. I :
The plant (or process, or controlled system) g 2 is the system, subsystem, process, or object
controlled by the feedback control system.
Definition 2.2
The controlled output c is the output variable of the plant, under the control of the
feedback control system.
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SERVO MECHANISMS
Definition:
A servomechanism is a power-amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled
variable c is mechanical position, or a time derivative of position such as velocity or
acceleration.
EXAMPLE 4.
An automobile power-steering apparatus is a servomechanism. The command input is the
angular position of the steering wheel. A small rotational torque applied to the steering wheel is
amplified hydraulically, resulting in a force adequate to modify the output, the angular position
of the front wheels. The block diagram of such a system may be represented by Fig. 6. Negative
feedback is necessary in order to return the control valve to the neutral position, reducing the
torque from the hydraulic amplifier to zero when the desired wheel position has been achieved

Fig. 2.6
REGULATORS
A regulator or regulating system is a feedback control system in which the reference input or
command is constant for long periods of time, often for the entire time interval during which the
system is operational. Such an input is often called a setpoint.
regulator differs from a servomechanism in that the primary function of a regulator is usually to
maintain a constant controlled output, while that of a servomechanism is most often to cause the
output of the system to follow a varying input.

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Solved Problems
1. Consider the following equation in which xl and x2 are variables, and a1,, a2, are general
coefficients or mathematical operators:

Draw a block diagram for the equation.

Solution
The block diagram for the entire equation is shown in the following figure.

2. Draw block diagrams for each of the following equations:

(a) Two operations are specified by this equation, a1, and differentiation d/dt. Therefore the
block diagram contains two blocks, as shown below.

( b ) The + and - operations indicate the need for a summing point. The differentiation operation
can be treated as in part (a), or by combining two first derivative operations into one second
derivative operator block, giving two different block diagrams for the equation for x 3 , as
shown below.
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( c ) The integration operation can be represented in block diagram form as following.

3. Draw a simple block diagram for the feedback control system of the airplane with an
autopilot.
The plant for this system is the airplane, including its control surfaces and navigational
instruments. The controller is the autopilot mechanism, and the summing point is the
comparison device. The feedback linkage may be simply represented by an arrow from the
output to the summing point. The autopilot provides control signals to operate the control
surfaces (rudder, flaps, etc.). These signals may be denoted ul, u2,.

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 Control Systems - Mathematical Models
(Lecture # 5)

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

• Differential equation model

• Transfer function model
• State space model

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.
• Apply basic laws to the given control system.
• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).

Example
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage vo.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

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Substitute, the current passing through capacitor in the above equation.

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) & output Y(s)

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Example
Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

Where,
• Vi(s)) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
• Vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function inside
it. And this block has an input Vi(s) & an output Vo(s).

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 Block Diagram Algebra
(Lecture #6)

Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the block
diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.

Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
• Series Connection
• Parallel Connection
• Feedback Connection

Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks having
transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s)
Where, Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)=G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

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Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’ blocks.

Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in parallel.
The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s)

Where, Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s)=G2(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)+G2(s)X(s)={G1(s)+G2(s)}X(s)

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’
blocks.

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Feedback Connection
There are two types of feedback
• Positive feedback.
• Negative feedback.
The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here, two blocks having
transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

The output of the summing point is

E(s)=X(s)−H(s)Y(s)
The output Y(s) is
Y(s)=E(s)G(s)
Substitute E(s) value in the above equation.

Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is

his means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

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Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positive feedback, i.e.,

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks –

• Shifting summing point after the block

• Shifting summing point before the block

Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s). The output of it is {R(s)+X(s)}.
So, the input to the block G(s) is {R(s)+X(s)} and the output of it is

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Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).

The output of the summing point is

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more
block G(s). It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to
summing point instead of X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

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Shifting Summing Point Before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.

Output of this block diagram is

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Output of this block diagram is

Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,

The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second

term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block . It is

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having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point
instead of X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −

• Shifting take-off point after the block

• Shifting take-off point before the block

Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off
point is present before the block.

Here, X(s)=R(s) and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s)will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more

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 block . It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is present
after the block.

Here, X(s)=Y(s)=G(s)R(s)
When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there
is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more
block G(s). It is having the input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

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 Block Diagram Reduction
(Lecture # 7)
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having
many blocks, summing points and take-off points.
Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.

Example 1
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

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Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4)and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

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Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

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Example 2
Simplify the block diagram shown in the following figure

Solution
First, move the branch point of the path involving H1outside the loop involving H2

Then eliminating two loops results in the following figure .

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Combining two blocks into one gives

Example 3
Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 3-13. Obtain the transfer function relating C(s) and
R(s ).

Solution
The block diagram can be modified as following

Eliminating the minor feedforward path, we obtain:

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which can be simplified to that shown in Figure below

The transfer function C(s)/R(s) is thus given by

Example 4
Simplify the block diagram shown the Figure

Solution.
First move the take off point between G3 and G4 to the right-hand side of the loop containing
G3, G4, and H2. Then move the summing point between G1 and G2, to the left-hand side of the
first summing point.

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By simplifying each loop, the block diagram can be modified as

Further simplification results in the following figure

Example 5

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 Signal Flow Graphs (SFG)
(Lecture # 8)
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because,
we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to
overcome this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation). Signal flow graph is a

graphical representation of algebraic equations. The main advantage for using SFG is that a
straight forward procedure is available for finding the transfer function in which it is not
necessary redraw the system several times as with block diagram manipulations.
Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node
There are three types of nodes — input node, output node and mixed node.
• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

• The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
• y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
• y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.

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 Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example, there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches
have gains of a, b, c and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations –

There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this
signal flow graph. The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42,
a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each
equation, then combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the
steps given below –
Step 1 − Signal flow graph for is shown in the following figure.

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Step 2 − Signal flow graph for is shown in the

following figure.

Step 3 − Signal flow graph for is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for is shown in the

following figure.

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for is shown in the following figure.

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Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following
figure.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal
flow graph.
• Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off
points of block diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
• Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow
graph.
• Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram
as gains of the branches in signal flow graph.
• Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection
between two nodes (but there is no block in between), then represent
the gain of the branch as one. For example, between summing
points, between summing point and takeoff point, between input and
summing point, between take-off point and output.

Example
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow
graph.
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Represent the input signal R(s)R(s) and output signal C(s)C(s) of block
diagram as input node R(s)R(s) and output node C(s)C(s) of signal flow
graph.

Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block
diagram. There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is
four nodes for four summing points, four nodes for four take-off points and
one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

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 Mason's Gain Formula
(Lecture 9)
Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal flow graph. The gain
between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing
but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using
Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is

Where,

• C(s) is the output node

• R(s) is the input node

• T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)

• Pi is the ith forward path gain

∆=1−(sum of all individual loop gains)

+(sum of gain products of all possible two nontouching loops)
−(sum of gain products of all possible three nontouching loops)+...

∆i is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops which are touching the

ith forward path.

Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic
terminology involved here.

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Path
It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the
direction of branch arrows. It should not traverse any node more than
once.
Examples:
y2→y3→y4→y5
and y5→y3→y2
Forward Path
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known
as forward path.
Examples
y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6
and y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Forward Path Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward
path.
Examples
abcde is the forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6
and abge is the forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known
as loop. Hence, it is a closed path.

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Examples
y2→y3→y2 and y3→y5→y3.
Loop Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.
Examples
bj is the loop gain of y2→y3→y2 and gh is the loop gain of y3→y5→y3.
Non-touching Loops
These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples
The loops, y2→y3→y2 and y4→y5→y4 are non-touching.

Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula

Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

• Number of forward paths, N = 2.

o First forward path is y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.

First forward path gain, p1=abcde.
o Second forward path is y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
Second forward path gain, p2=abge.
• Number of individual loops, L = 5.

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 o Loops are y2→y3→y2, y3→y5→y3, y3→y4→y5→y3,
y4→y5→y4 and y5→y5.
o Loop gains are l1=bj, l2=gh, l3=cdh, l4=di and l5=f.
• Number of two non-touching loops = 2.

o First non-touching loops pair is y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.

Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, l1l4=bjdi
o Second non-touching loops pair is y2→y3→y2, y5→y5.
Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is l1l5=bjf
Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in
this signal flow graph.

We know,

∆=1−(sum of all individual loop gains)

+(sum of gain products of all possible two nontouching loops)
−(sum of gain products of all possible three nontouching loops)+...

Substitute the values in the above equation,

∆=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+(bjdi+bjf)−(0)
⇒∆=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path.

So, ∆1=1.

Similarly, ∆2=1. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second

forward path.
Substitute, N = 2 in Mason’s gain formula

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Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.

Therefore, the transfer function is

Example 2
Obtain the transfer function C(s)/R(s).

Solution:
Step 1 : Forward path gains
There are two forward paths

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Step 2 : Loop gains

No two or more non touching loops. Hence

Step 3 : The determinant of the graph

Step 4 : The transfer function is,

Example 3
Obtain C(s) /R(s) for the following signal flow graph.

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7 of 7
 The Laplace Transform
(lecture #10)

The Laplace transform of a signal (function) f is the function F = L(f) defined by

common notation convention: lower case letter denotes signal; capital letter denotes its Laplace
transform, e.g., U denotes L(u), Vin denotes L(vin), etc.

Example 1

Find Laplace transform of

Example 2
Constant: (or unit step) f(t) = 1 (for t > 0)

computing Laplace transforms directly can be fairly complicated. Usually we just use a table
of transforms when actually computing Laplace transforms. Table 1 includes most of the
commonly used Laplace transforms and most of the commonly needed formulas pertaining to
Laplace transforms.

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 Table 1, commonly used Laplace transforms

Laplace Transform Rules

Table 2summarizes the basic Laplace manipulation rules.
Table 2, Laplace Transform Rules

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Example3 Show the steps for

Example 4 Show the steps for

Example5 Show the steps used to obtain these Laplace identities:

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Example 6
Compute L(f(t)) using the basic Laplace table and
transform linearity properties.

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 The Inverse Laplace Transform
(lecture #11)

If F(s) is the Laplace transform of f (t) then we can say that f (t) is the inverse Laplace transform
of F(s) . The following notation is used

We have seen that

The inverse transform of F(s) can be obtained using the formula

The complex integral above is usually difficult to evaluate. Instead the approach that is
considered here is to express F(s) as the sum of simple terms that are usually available in the
Laplace transform Table.

Example 1: We have

because

Likewise, since

we have

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Example 2: Let’s find

We know that

To use this in computing our desired inverse transform, we will combine linearity with
multiplying by 1with, in this case, 1 = 3/3 :

Example3 : Let’s find the inverse Laplace transform of

which, reduces to

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Partial Fractions
we often get transforms that can be converted via ‘partial fractions’ to forms that are easily
inverse transformed using the tables the basic idea is that, if we have a fraction of two
polynomials

and P(s) can be factored into two smaller polynomials

P(s) = P1(s)P2(s)
then two other polynomials Q1(s) and Q2(s) can be found so that

Example:

we should note that one factor in the denominator can be further factored

Now we can seek the partial fraction expansion of Y(s) :

Canceling out the common denominator leaves

Letting s = 2 in the equation:

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Letting s = 3 in the equation:

Letting s = 4 in the equation:

Combining the above results, we have

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 Time Response Analysis
(lecture #12)

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called
the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

• Transient response
• Steady state response
The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

Where,

Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady
state. Therefore, the response of the control system during the transient state is known
as transient response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is infinity.
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Mathematically, we can write it as

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero
value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response.

Example

Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system

Here, the second term will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient
term. And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady
state term.

Standard Test Signals

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used to
know the performance of the control systems using time response of the output.

Unit Impulse Signal

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

The following figure shows unit impulse signal.

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So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero.

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

Following figure shows unit step signal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

Ramp Signal
A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step signal, u(t) as

Following figure shows unit ramp signal.

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So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal is
zero for all negative values of ‘t’.

Parabolic Signal
A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

We can write unit parabolic signal, p(t) in terms of the unit step signal, u(t) as,

The following figure shows the unit parabolic signal.

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its
value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

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 Time Response of the First Order System

Consider the following block diagram of the closed loop control system.

The transfer function is:

The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of
the first order and the system is said to be the first order system.
We can re-write the above equation as

Where,

• C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),

• R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and

• T is the time constant.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the time
domain.
• Take the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t).
• Consider the equation,

• Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.

• Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.
• Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).

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Impulse Response of First Order System
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

Consider the equation,

Substitute, R(s)=1 in the above equation.

Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.

The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and it is
zero for negative values of ‘t’.
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 Time Response of Second Order System
(Lecture # 13)

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open loop

transfer function, is connected with a unity negative feedback.

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity negative
feedback as

The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the
second order and the system is said to be the second order system.

The characteristic equation is –

The roots of characteristic equation are –

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 • The two roots are imaginary when δ = 0.
• The two roots are real and equal when δ = 1.
• The two roots are real but not equal when δ > 1.
• The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 < δ < 1.

We can write C(s) equation as,

Where,

C is the Laplace transform of the output signal, c(t)

R is the Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t)

ωn is the natural frequency

δ is the damping ratio.

Step Response of Second Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system.

Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,

We know the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,

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Case 1: δ = 0 (Undamped)

So, the unit step response of the second order system when δ =0 will be a continuous time

signal with constant amplitude and frequency.

Case 2: δ = 1 (Critically damped)

So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step input in steady
state.

Case 3: 0 < δ < 1 (Under damped)

where

So, the unit step response of the second order system is having damped oscillations (decreasing
amplitude) when ‘δ’ lies between zero and one.

Case 4: δ > 1 (Over damped)

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The following figure shows the four cases of the Step Response of Second Order System

Time Domain Specifications

The step response of the second order system for the underdamped case is shown in the
following figure.

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Delay Time

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It is
denoted by td .

Rise Time

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. Rise time is
denoted by tr.

From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time tr and the damped frequency ωd are
inversely proportional to each other.

Peak Time

It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It is denoted by tp.

From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time tp and the damped
frequency ωd are inversely proportional to each other.

Peak Overshoot

Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time from the final value
of response.

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From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak vershoot will decrease if
the damping ratio δ increases.

Settling time

Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to the damping
ratio δ

Example
Find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed loop transfer

function when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this control system.

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Solution

The standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system as

By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural frequency ωn as 2
rad/sec and the damping ratio δ as 0.5.

The following table shows the formulae of time domain specifications, substitution of necessary
values and the final values.

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8 of 8
 Control Systems - Stability
(Lecture # 14)

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is

said to be unstable. A stable system produces a bounded output for a
given bounded input.

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient
condition for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition, then
we can say that the control system is unstable. But, if the control system satisfies the
necessary condition, then it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient condition is
helpful for knowing whether the control system is stable or not.

Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should be
positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have
negative real parts.
Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is –

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation.
This means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient
that is of zero value.

Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability

The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should have the same sign.

Routh Array Method

Follow this procedure for forming the Routh table.
Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient of sn and continue
up to the coefficient of s0.
Fill the remaining rows of the Routh array with the elements as mentioned in the table
below.

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The following table shows the Routh array of the nth order characteristic polynomial.

where the coefficients bi are

generated until all subsequent coefficients are zero. Similarly, cross multiply the
coefficients of the two previous rows to obtain the ci, di, etc.

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until the nth row of the array has been completed1 Missing coefficients are replaced by
zeros. The resulting array is called the Routh array. multiplying a row by a positive
number to simplify the calculation of the next row does not affect the outcome of the
application of the Routh criterion.

Example 1

Let us find the stability of the control system having characteristic equation,

Step 1 − Verify the necessary condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial,

are positive. So, the control system satisfies the necessary condition.

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Step 2 − Form the Routh array for the given characteristic polynomial.

Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign
change in the first column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

Example 2
The characteristic equation of a given system is

Routh array for the given system is

From the array we note that there are no sign changes in the first column. So, the
control system is stable

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Example 3 The characteristic equation of a given system is

Routh array for the given system is

From this array we note that there are two sign changes in the first column. So, the
control system is unstable
Example 4
Determine if the following characteristic equation represents a stable system:

The Routh table for this system is

Since there are no changes of sign in the first column,the system is stable.
Example5
The characteristic equation of a given system is

What restrictions must be placed upon the parameter K in order to ensure that the
system is stable?

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Solution
The Routh table for this system is

For the system to be stable,

60 - 6K > 0, or K < 10,
and K > 0.
Thus 0 < K < 10.

Example 6
Find the range of K that stabilizes the closed-loop system

Solution
The block diagram can be simplified as follows

Characteristic equation is

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Routh array

For the system to be stable,

18 - 2K > 0, or K < 9,
and 2+2K > 0, or k > -1
Thus -1 < K < 9.

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 Root Locus
(Lecture # 15)

In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we
can identify the nature of the control system. In this technique, we will use an open loop
transfer function to know the stability of the closed loop control system.

Construction of Root Locus

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about the
real axis. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the values
either as real or as complex conjugate pairs.

Rules for Construction of Root Locus

Follow these rules for constructing a root locus.

Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.

Rule 2 − Find the number of root locus branches.

The root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop zeros. So,
the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop
poles P or the number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.

Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as

N=P if P≥Z
N=Z if P<Z
Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.

If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the left side of a point on the
real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore, the branch of points
which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.

Rule 4 − Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.

• If P=Z, then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at
finite open loop zeros.
• If P>Z , then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and
end at finite open loop zeros and P−Z number of root locus branches start at
finite open loop poles and end at infinite open loop zeros.
• If P<Z , then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and
end at finite open loop zeros and Z−P number of root locus branches start at
infinite open loop poles and end at finite open loop zeros.

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So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z. Asymptotes give the
direction of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real
axis is known as centroid.
We can calculate the centroid α by using this formula,

The formula for the angle of asymptotes θ is

Where,
q=0,1,2,....,(P−Z)−1
Example
Draw the root locus of the control system having open loop transfer function,

Step 1 − The given open loop transfer function has three poles at s=0,s=−1 and s=−5.
It doesn’t have any zero. Therefore, the number of root locus branches is equal to the
number of poles of the open loop transfer function.
N=P=3

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The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment
between s=−1 and s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of
the root locus on the real axis is the line segment to the left of s=−5.

Step 2 − We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using
the given formulae.

The angle of asymptotes are θ=600,1800 and 3000.

The centroid and three asymptotes are shown in the following figure.

Step 3 − Since two asymptotes have the angles of 600 and 3000, two root locus
branches intersect the imaginary axis.
The root locus diagram for the given control system is shown in the following figure.

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4 of 4