11 Humanistic

17
Humanistic (Third-Force)
Psychology
THE MIND, THE BODY, AND THE SPIRIT

Generally speaking, we can divide human nature into three major components:
the mind (our intellect), the body (our biological makeup), and the spirit (our
emotional makeup). Various philosophies and, more recently, schools of psychol-
ogy have tended to emphasize one of these aspects more than the others. Which
philosophy or school of psychology prevailed at any given moment has often been
closely tied to the larger Zeitgeist. The decade of the 1960s was a particularly trou-
bled time in the United States. The unpopular Vietnam War accelerated along
with its corresponding antiwar movement; assassinations felled John F. Kennedy,
Robert Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr.; and violent, racial protests occurred
in a number of major cities. “Hippies” and college students were in open rebellion
against the values of their parents and their nation. Like the ancient Skeptics, they
found little worth believing in, and like the ancient Cynics, they dropped out of
society and sought a simpler natural life. This Age of Aquarius was clearly not a
time when traditional rational philosophy (with emphasis on the mind) or empiri-
cal philosophy (with emphasis on the body) was appealing.
By the mid-20th century, structuralism disappeared as a school, and func-
tionalism and Gestalt psychology had lost their distinctiveness as schools by
being assimilated into other viewpoints. In the 1950s and early 1960s, only
behaviorism and psychoanalysis remained as influential, intact schools of thought.
In the troubled times described above, many saw the knowledge of humans pro-
vided by behaviorism and psychoanalysis as incomplete, distorted, or both.
Needed was a new view of psychology, one that emphasized neither the mind
nor the body but the human spirit.
In the early 1960s, a group of psychologists headed by Abraham Maslow
started a movement referred to as third-force psychology. These psychologists
533
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534 CHAPTER 17
claimed that the other two forces in psychology, readily trace it from the philosophies of romanti-
behaviorism and psychoanalysis, neglected a num- cism and existentialism.
ber of important human attributes. They said that Also, in Chapter 7, we saw that the romantics
by applying the techniques used by the natural (such as Rousseau) insisted that humans are more
sciences to the study of humans, behaviorism lik- than machines, which was how the empiricists and
ened humans to robots, lower animals, or compu- sensationalists described them, and more than just
ters. For the behaviorist, there was nothing unique logical, rational beings, which was how rationalists
about humans. The major argument against psy- described them. Like the ancient Cynics, the roman-
choanalysis was that it concentrated mainly on tics distrusted reason, religious dogma, science, and
emotionally disturbed people and on developing societal laws as guides for human conduct. For
techniques for making abnormal people normal. them, the only valid guide for a person’s behavior
What was missing, according to third-force psy- was that person’s honest feelings. The romantics
chologists, was information that would help (especially Rousseau) believed that humans are natu-
already healthy individuals become healthier—that rally good and gregarious, and if given freedom they
is, to reach their full potential. What was needed would become happy, fulfilled, and social-minded.
was a model of humans that emphasized their That is, given freedom, people would do what was
uniqueness and their positive aspects rather than best for themselves and for others. If people acted in
their negative aspects, and it was this type of self-destructive or antisocial ways, it was because their
model that third-force psychologists attempted to natural impulses had been interfered with by societal
provide. forces. People can never be bad, but social systems can
Although third-force psychology became very be and often are. Also in Chapter 7, we saw that the
popular during the 1960s and 1970s, its popularity existentialists (such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche)
began to wane in the 1980s. Nevertheless, like behav- emphasized the importance of meaning in human
iorism and psychoanalysis, third-force psychology existence and the human ability to choose that mean-
remains influential in contemporary psychology. ing; this, too, is contrary to the philosophies of empir-
Third-force psychology contrasts vividly with other icism and rationalism. For Kierkegaard subjectivity is
approaches because it is not deterministic in explaining truth. That is, it is a person’s beliefs that guide his or
human behavior. Rather, it assumes that humans are her life and determine the nature of his or her exis-
free to choose their own type of existence. Instead of tence. Truth is not something external to the person
attributing the causes of behavior to stimuli, drive states, waiting to be discovered by logical, rational thought
genetics, or early experience, third-force psychologists processes; it is inside each person and is, in fact, cre-
claim that the most important cause of behavior is ated by each person. According to Nietzsche, God is
subjective reality. Because these psychologists do dead, and therefore humans are on their own. People
not assume determinism, they are not practicing sci- can take two approaches to life: they can accept con-
ence in the traditional sense, and they make no apology ventional morality as a guide for living, thus partici-
for that. Science in its present form, they say, is not pating in herd conformity; or they can experiment
equipped to study, explain, or understand human with beliefs, values, and life and arrive at their own
nature. A new science is needed, a human science. truths and morality—thus becoming supermen.
Nietzsche clearly encouraged people to do the
latter.
Third-force psychology combines the philoso-
ANTECEDENTS OF THIRD-FORCE
phies of romanticism and existentialism, and this
PSYCHOLOGY combination is often called humanistic psychology.
Third-force and humanistic psychology, then, are
Like almost everything else in modern psychology, the same, but humanistic psychology is now the
third-force psychology is not “new.” We can preferred label. In applying this label, however, it
HUMANISTIC (THIRD-FORCE) PSYCHOLOGY 535
is important not to confuse the term humanistic with lending it meaning and direction. (Kinget,
the terms human, humane, or humanitarian. 1975, p. v)
The frequent confusion of the terms
human, humane, and humanistic indicates
Phenomenology
that many do not clearly understand the
meaning of the humanistic stance. To Throughout this text, we have referred to a variety
qualify as humanistic, it is not enough to of methodologies as phenomenological. In its most
concern human beings. Playing, working, general form, phenomenology refers to any meth-
building, traveling, organizing, are all odology that focuses on experience as it occurs,
human activities. This, however, does not without attempting to reduce that experience to its
make them humanistic. Similarly, when component parts. Thus, one can study consciousness
these activities are performed, for instance, without being a phenomenologist, as was the case
for charitable or philanthropic purposes, when Wundt and Titchener attempted to reduce
they are then raised to a humane or conscious experience to its basic elements. After
humanitarian status, which may be of vital making this distinction, however, phenomenology
importance but still does not make them can take many forms. The phenomenology of
humanistic. For an endeavor or a view- Johann Goethe and Ernst Mach focused on complex
point to qualify properly as humanistic, it sensations including afterimages and illusions. The
must imply and focus upon a certain con- phenomenology of Franz Brentano (1838–1917)
cept of man—a concept that recognizes his and his colleagues focused on psychological acts
status as a person, irreducible to more ele- such as judging, recollecting, expecting, doubting,
mentary levels, and his unique worth as a fearing, hoping, or loving. As we saw in Chapter 9,
being potentially capable of autonomous in Brentano’s brand of phenomenology, the concept
judgment and action. A pertinent example of intentionality was extremely important.
of the difference between the humane and Brentano believed that every mental act refers to
the humanistic outlook is found in the case (intends) something outside itself—for example,
of behavior control that relies entirely “I see a tree,” “I like my mother,” or “That was a
upon positive reinforcement. Such an good piece of pie.” The contents of a mental act
approach is humane (or humanitarian), could be real or imagined, but the act, according
since it implements generous and com- to Brentano, always refers to (intends) something.
passionate attitudes. But it is not human- In Chapter 14, we saw how Brentano’s (and
istic, because the rationale behind Husserl’s) phenomenology influenced the Gestalt
systematic behavior modification by purely psychologists. Next, we will see how phenomeno-
external forces is incompatible with a logy was instrumental in the development of
concept of man as a self- purposive and modern existentialism.
proactive, rather than merely reactive, The goal of Edmund Husserl (Chapter 9) was
being. to take the type of phenomenology Brentano
The focus of humanistic psychology is described and use it to create an objective, rigorous
upon the specificity of man, upon that basis for philosophical and scientific inquiry. Like
which sets him apart from all other species. Brentano, Husserl believed that phenomenology
It differs from other psychologies because could be used to create an objective bridge between
it views man not solely as a biological the outer, physical world and the inner, subjective
organism modified by experience and world. Of prime importance to Husserl was that
culture but as a person, a symbolic entity phenomenology be free of any preconceptions.
capable of pondering his existence, of That is, Husserl believed in reporting exactly what
536 CHAPTER 17
appears in consciousness, not what should be there of phenomenology and existentialism. Maurice
according to some belief, theory, or model. Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961) was among the
As we saw in Chapter 9, however, Husserl most important voices in French psychology
believed that phenomenology could go beyond an following World War II.
analysis of intentionality. A study of intentionality Merleau-Ponty’s doctorate was based on two
determined how the mind and the physical world books first published during the war (although not
interact, and such a study is essential for the physical translated into English until the 1960s). The Structure
sciences. But, in addition to an analysis of inten- of Behavior offered a careful review and detailed crit-
tionality, Husserl proposed a type of phenomenol- icism of Watson’s behavioral approach to psychol-
ogy that concentrates on the workings of the mind ogy, and then the Phenomenology of Perception
that are independent of the physical world. Husserl outlined his existential-phenomenological alterna-
called this pure phenomenology, and its purpose tive. Although strongly influenced by Husserl,
was to discover the essence of conscious experience. Merleau-Ponty also built on the works of William
Whereas the type of phenomenology that focuses James and the Gestalt psychologists (Schmidt, 1985).
on intentionality involves the person turned out- As a professor of child psychology and pedagogy
ward, pure phenomenology involves the person at the Sorbonne, Merleau-Ponty remained more
turned inward. The goal of the latter is to accurately grounded within academic psychology than most
catalog all mental acts and processes by which we of the other thinkers we will consider in this
interact with environmental objects or events. chapter. Indeed, although much of what we will
Husserl believed that an inventory of such acts consider in this chapter is focused on clinical
and processes had to precede any adequate philo- psychology, there are academic psychologists today
sophy, science, or psychology because it is those that apply phenomenological methods (often
mental acts and processes on which all human Merleau-Ponty’s methods) to topics across the land-
knowledge is based. scape of psychology (see for examples, Giorgi, 1970,
Husserl’s pure phenomenology soon expanded 1989; Pollio, Henley, & Thompson, 1997; Valle &
into modern existentialism. Whereas Husserl was King, 1978).
mainly interested in epistemology and in the
essence of mental phenomena, the existentialists
were interested in the nature of human existence.
In philosophy, ontology is the study of existence, EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
or what it means to be. The existentialists are con-
cerned with two ontological questions: (1) What is Although it is possible to find existential ideas in
the nature of human nature? and (2) What does it such early philosophers as Socrates and Augustine,
mean to be a particular individual? Thus, the exis- it is traditional to mark the beginning of existential
tentialists use phenomenology to study either the philosophy with the writings of Kierkegaard and
important experiences that humans have in com- Nietzsche. The great Russian novelist, Fyodor
mon or those experiences that individuals have as Dostoevsky, is also commonly mentioned as
they live their lives—experiences such as fear, among the first existential thinkers. All these indi-
dread, freedom, love, hate, responsibility, guilt, viduals probed the meaning of human existence
wonder, hope, and despair. and tried to restore the importance of human
Husserl’s phenomenology was converted into feeling, choice, and individuality that had been
existential psychology mainly by his student Martin minimized in rationalistic philosophies, such as
Heidegger, who we will consider subsequently. But those of Kant and Hegel, and in conceptions of
Husserl’s approach was not the only convergence people based on Newtonian concepts, such as
those proposed by the British empiricists and Martin Heidegger

French sensationalists. A second golden age of exis-
tentialism occurs in Europe around the time of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was Husserl’s stu-
World War II. dent and then his assistant, and he dedicated the first
edition of his famous book Being and Time (1927)
to Husserl. Heidegger had been chosen by Husserl to
Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus replace him as chair at Freiburg, but by the time this
Both Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) and Albert occurred, the men were no longer friends. Heidegger’s
Camus (1913–1960) would win the Nobel Prize work is generally considered a key bridge between
in Literature based on their writings in existentialism. existential philosophy and existential psychology.
Sartre’s first novel—Nausea—vividly blends ideas Many, if not most, of the terms and concepts that
from existentialism and Husserlian phenomenology appear in the writings of current existential psycholo-
in the form of a fictional biographic. No Exit, per- gists can be traced to the writings of Heidegger.
haps his best known work, is a short play set in the Like Husserl, Heidegger was a phenomenologist; but
lobby of a hotel (or so it would seem). Deeply psy- unlike Husserl, Heidegger used phenomenology to
chological, the drama culminates with the epiphany examine the totality of human existence. In 1933
expressed by the famed line “Hell is other people.” Heidegger became rector at the University of
Sartre was extremely interested in the power we let Freiburg. In his inaugural speech titled “The Role of
others have over ourselves, and covered this topic by the University in the New Reich,” he was highly
analyzing matters as simple as the transfixing human supportive of the Nazi party. Although Heidegger
gaze to complex considerations of political move- resigned his rectorship a few months after the Nazis
ments. This intersection of social behavior and exis- took office, he never took a strong stand against
tentialism was also the focus of Sartre’s close friend them (Langan, 1961). In fact, Farias (1989) leaves little
Simon de Beauvior, one of the pioneers of modern doubt that Heidegger was committed to Nazism and
feminist philosophy. involved himself in the activities of the Nazi regime.
Outside of his fiction, Sartre’s other key work is It is ironic that someone with such unfortunate politi-
Being and Nothingness, his response to Heidegger’s clas- cal leanings had such a significant influence on human-
sic Being and Time which Sartre digested while serving istic psychology. Husserl eventually felt betrayed
as a prisoner of war. Like Sartre, Albert Camus by Heidegger both in terms of his changes to phe-
worked as a writer for the French resistance during nomenology, and by his perceived anti-Semitism.
part of World War II, and both men would eventually Heidegger removed his dedication from the 1941
find their fame by writing psychologically-near exis- edition of his masterwork, Being and Time.
tential fiction, and in the area of political science.
Camus’ most famous novellas include The Stranger Dasein. Heidegger used the term Dasein to indi-
and The Fall, both character studies of extremely cate that a person and the world are inseparable. Lit-
interesting men. Camus is often associated with the erally, Dasein means “to be” (sein) “there” (Da), and
absurd, or the existential idea that to search for life’s Heidegger usually described the relationship between
pre-ordained purpose is futile. Like Kierkegaard, a person and the world as “being-in-the-world.”
Camus believed that it was our task to create meaning, A more dramatic way of stating this relationship is
as there are no hidden Truths for us to somehow to say that without the world humans would not
discover by exploring religion, science, or any estab- exist, and without humans the world would not
lished philosophy. Although these ideas are central to exist. The human mind illuminates the physical
all his work, Camus’ most academic consideration of world and thereby brings it into existence.
absurdity is offered in his essay The Myth of Sisyphus, an But Heidegger’s concept of Dasein is even more
analysis of the psychology of suicide. complicated. To be means “to exist,” and to exist is a
538 CHAPTER 17
fact and thereby inhibit a full understanding of them-

selves and their possibilities. According to Heidegger,
this results in an inauthentic life. An authentic life
is lived with a sense of excitement or even urgency
because one realizes one’s existence is finite. With
the time that one has available, one must explore
life’s possibilities and become all that one can
become. An inauthentic life does not have the
same urgency because the inevitability of death is
not accepted. One pretends, and pretending is inau-
thentic. Other inauthentic modes of existence
include living a traditional, conventional life accord-
ing to the dictates of society and emphasizing present
© Bettmann/Corbis
activities without concern for the future. The inau-

thentic person gives up his or her freedom and lets
others make the choices involved in his or her life. In
general, the speech and behavior of authentic indi-
Martin Heidegger viduals accurately reflect their inner feelings, whereas
with inauthentic individuals this is not the case.
dynamic process. To exist as a human is to exist unlike
anything else. In the process of existing, humans Guilt and Anxiety. Heidegger believed that if we
choose, evaluate, accept, reject, and expand. Humans do not exercise our personal freedom, we experience
are not static; they are always becoming something guilt. Because most people do not fully exercise their
other than what they were. To exist is to become freedom to choose, they experience at least some guilt.
different; to exist is to change. How a particular per- All humans can do to minimize guilt is try to live an
son chooses to exist is an individual matter, but for all authentic life—that is, to recognize and live in accor-
people existence is an active process. The Da, or dance with their ability to choose their own existence.
there, in Dasein refers to that place in space and Because acceptance of the fact that at some time
time where existence takes place; but no matter in the future we will be nothing causes anxiety,
where and when it takes place, existence (to be) is a such acceptance takes courage. Heidegger believed
complex, dynamic, and uniquely human phenome- that choosing one’s existence rather than conforming
non. Unlike anything else in the universe, humans to the dictates of society, culture, or someone else
choose the nature of their own existence. also takes courage. And in general, living an authen-
tic life by accepting all conditions of existence and
Authenticity and Inauthenticity. It was very sig- making personal choices means that one must expe-
nificant to Heidegger that humans can ponder the rience anxiety. For Heidegger, anxiety is a necessary
finiteness of their existence. For Heidegger a pre- part of living an authentic life. One reason for this
requisite for living an authentic life is coming to anxiety is that authentic people are always experi-
grips with the fact that “I must someday die.” With menting with life, always taking chances, and always
that realization dealt with, the person can get busy becoming. Entering the unknown causes part of the
and exercise his or her freedom to create a mean- anxiety associated with an authentic life.
ingful existence, an existence that allows for almost Another reason that exercising one’s freedom
constant personal growth, or becoming. in life causes anxiety is that it makes one responsible
Because realizing that one is mortal causes anxi- for the consequences of those choices. The free
ety, however, people often refuse to recognize that individual cannot blame God, parents,
circumstances, genes, or anything else for what he anxieties, fears, values, thought processes, social
or she becomes. One is responsible for one’s own relations, and personal meanings instead of those
life. Freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. notions in general. Each person lives in his or her
own private, subjective world, which is not
Thrownness. Heidegger did, however, place lim- generalizable.
its on personal freedom. He said that we are thrown
into the Da, or there, of our particular life by cir- Modes of Existence. Binswanger discussed three
cumstances beyond our control. This thrownness different modes of existence to which individuals
determines, for example, whether we are male or give meaning through their consciousness. They
female, short or tall, attractive or unattractive, rich are the Umwelt (the “around world”), the world
or poor, American or Russian, the time in human of things and events; the Mitwelt (the “with
history that we are born, and so on. Thrownness world”), interactions with other humans; and the
determines the conditions under which we exercise Eigenwel (the “own world”), a person’s private,
our freedom. According to Heidegger, all inner, subjective experience. To understand a per-
humans are free, but the conditions under which son fully, one must understand all three of his or her
that freedom is exercised varies. Thrownness pro- modes of existence.
vides the context for one’s existence. What Hei- One of Binswanger’s most important concepts
degger called thrownness has also been called was that of Weltanschauung, or world-design
facticity, referring to the facts that characterize a (worldview). In general, world-design is how
human existence. an individual views and embraces the world.
World-designs can be open or closed, expansive
or constructive, positive or negative, simple or
Ludwig Binswanger
complex, or they could have any number of other
Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966) obtained his characteristics. In any case, it is through the world-
medical degree from the University of Zurich in design that one lives one’s life, and therefore the
1907 and then studied psychiatry under Eugen world-design touches everything that one does. If a
Bleuler and psychoanalysis under Carl Jung. world-design is ineffective, in the sense that it
Binswanger was one of the first Freudian psycho- results in too much anxiety, fear, or guilt, it is the
analysts in Switzerland, and he and Freud remained therapist’s job to help the client see that there are
friends throughout their lives. Under the influence other ways of embracing the world, other people,
of Heidegger, Binswanger applied phenomenology and oneself.
to psychiatry, and later he became an existential Binswanger agreed with Heidegger that thrown-
analyst. Binswanger’s goal was to integrate the writ- ness places limits on personal freedom. For Binswanger,
ings of Husserl and Heidegger with psychoanalytic the circumstances into which one is thrown deter-
theory. Adopting Heidegger’s notion of Dasein, mines one’s ground of existence, defined as the
Binswanger called his approach to psychotherapy conditions under which one exercises one’s personal
Daseinanalysis. freedom. However, no matter what a human’s cir-
Like most existential psychologists, Binswanger cumstances are, he or she aspires to transcend
emphasized the here-and-now, considering the them—that is, not to be victimized or controlled
past or future important only insofar as they by them. Everyone seeks being-beyond-the-
manifested themselves in the present. To understand world. By “being-beyond-the-world,” Binswanger
and help a person, according to Binswanger, was not referring to a life after death, or anything else
one must learn how that person views his or her supernatural, but to the way in which people try
life at the moment. Furthermore, the therapist to transform their circumstances by exercising their
must try to understand the particular person’s free will.
540 CHAPTER 17
Existentialism as Therapy. People may be Beyond Binswanger, such ideas would appear
thrown into negative circumstances such as poverty, in a variety of existential approaches to clinical psy-
incest, rape, or war, but they need not be devas- chology following World War II. For example,
tated by those experiences. Most existentialists Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) also sought to merge exis-
accept Nietzsche’s proclamation: “What does tential philosophy with the practice of psychiatry,
not kill me, makes me stronger” (Nietzsche, and his own analysis of being-there mirrors the work
1889/1998b). This strength comes from finding of Heidegger and Binswanger in many ways. Ini-
meaning even in a negative experience and grow- tially trained as a physician, Jaspers would spend
ing from that meaning. In his famous book Man’s much of his academic career as a psychologist. Fol-
Search for Meaning (1946/1984), psychiatrist lowing the war, his writings became increasingly
Viktor E. Frankl (1905–1997) described his experi- focused on existential philosophy.
ences in a Nazi concentration camp. One of his Prior to the Holocaust, Frankl had been a psy-
major observations was that prisoners who, even choanalyst associated with Freud and Adler. After his
under those dire circumstances, found meaning in experience in the war he would reinvent his clinical
their lives and something to live for continued to approach, calling it logotherapy, which he described
live: as a phenomenological analysis of how people come
to find meaning. Similarly, Medard Boss (1903–
We who lived in concentration camps can
1990), another Swiss psychiatrist previously associ-
remember the men who walked through
ated with Blueler, Jung, and Horney, was also a
the huts comforting others, giving away
leading popularizer of Daseinanalysis after the war.
their last piece of bread. They may have
Boss came to believe that any approach to under-
been few in number, but they offer
standing human nature that was limited to traditional
sufficient proof that everything can be
science would be incomplete—a theme we will see
taken from a man but one thing: the last
time and again among the existential and humanistic
of the human freedoms—to choose
thinkers that helped shape American approaches to
one’s attitude in any given set of
clinical psychology.
circumstances, to choose one’s own
way. (p. 86)
Rollo May
According to Frankl (1946/1984), “Suffering
ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a Rollo May (1909–1994) introduced existentialism
meaning” (p. 135). to U.S. psychology through books he edited,
By choosing, we change the meanings and Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology
values of what we experience. Although physical (with Angel & Ellenberger, 1958) and Existential
circumstances may be the same for different people, Psychology (1961). May was born in Ada, Ohio.
how those circumstances are embraced, interpreted, Neither of his parents was well educated, and there
valued, symbolized, and responded to is a matter of was little intellectual stimulation in the home. When
personal choice. By exercising our freedom, we his older sister became psychotic, his father blamed it
grow as human beings; and because exercising free- on too much education. May was not close to either
dom is an unending process, the developmental of his parents, but he especially disliked his mother
process is never completed. Becoming characterizes (Rabinowitz, Good, & Cozad, 1989). May received
the authentic life, which, in turn, is characterized by his Bachelor of Arts degree from Oberlin College in
anxiety. Not becoming, or remaining stagnant, 1930 and a Bachelor of Divinity degree from Union
characterizes the inauthentic life—as does guilt— Theological Seminary in 1938. While at the Union
because the person does not attempt to fully mani- Seminary, May met the existential philosopher Paul
fest his or her human potential. Tillich (1886–1965), and the two became lifelong
friends. In 1973 May wrote Paulus: Reminiscences of a rejected Hegel’s belief that an individual’s life
Friendship as a tribute to Tillich. After graduation, had meaning only insofar as it related to the total-
May served as a minister for two years in Montclair, ity of things, which Hegel called the Absolute.
New Jersey. In the 1940s, he studied psychoanalysis at Kierkegaard proposed that each person’s life is a sep-
the William Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, arate entity with its own self-determined meaning.
Psychoanalysis, and Psychology, and he became a Again, for Kierkegaard, subjectivity is truth; that is, a
practicing psychoanalyst in 1946. May enrolled in person’s beliefs define that person’s reality.
the doctorate program at Columbia University, but
before he obtained his degree, he contracted tuber-
The Human Dilemma. May (1967) pointed out
culosis and nearly died. During this depressing time,
that humans are both objects and subjects of expe-
May studied Kierkegaard’s and Freud’s views on anx-
rience. We are objects in the sense that we exist
iety; upon returning to Columbia, he submitted
physically, and therefore things happen to us. As
“The Meaning of Anxiety” as his doctoral disserta-
objects, we are not distinguished from the other
tion. In 1949 May received the first PhD in clinical
physical objects that are studied by the natural
psychology ever awarded by Columbia University. In
sciences. It is as objects that humans are considered
modified form, his dissertation became The Meaning of
by the traditional methods of science—the assump-
Anxiety (1950). May’s other books include Man’s
tion being that human behavior is caused in much
Search for Himself (1953), Psychology and the Human
the same way that the behavior of any physical
Dilemma (1967), Love and Will (1969), and Power
object is caused. Besides being objects, however,
and Innocence: A Search for the Sources of Violence
we are also subjects. That is, we do not simply
(1972). May died in 1994, of multiple causes.
have experience; we interpret, value, and make
Like many other existential thinkers, May was
choices regarding our experience. We give our
strongly influenced by Kierkegaard, who had
experience meaning. This dual aspect of human
nature, which May called the human dilemma,
makes us unique. By dilemma, May did not mean
an insoluble problem; rather, he meant a paradox of
human existence.
Normal and Neurotic Anxiety. May believed,

along with the other existentialists, that the most
important fact about humans is that they are free.
As we have seen, however, freedom does not pro-
duce a tranquil life. Freedom carries with it respon-
© Bernard Gotfryd/Premium Archive/Getty Images
sibility, uncertainty, and therefore anxiety. The

healthy (authentic) person exercises freedom to
embrace life fully and to approach his or her full
potential. Exercising one’s freedom means going
beyond what one previously was, ignoring the
expectations (roles) for one’s behavior that others
impose, and therefore often acting contrary to
traditions, mores, or conventions. All this causes
anxiety, but it is normal, healthy anxiety because
it is conducive to personal growth (becoming).
Rollo May
Neurotic anxiety is not conducive to personal
542 CHAPTER 17
growth because it results from the fear of freedom. Because myth is a type of narrative (story), May’s
The person experiencing neurotic anxiety lives his observation that effective living depends on effective
or her life in such a way that reduces or eliminates myths is supported by recently developed “narrative
personal freedom. Such a person conforms to tradi- therapy.” Narrative therapy examines the stories
tion, religious dogma, the expectations of others, or by which people live and understand their lives and
anything else that reduces his or her need to make the effectiveness of those stories (see, for example,
personal choices. Kierkegaard called the neurotic’s Lieblich, McAdams, & Josselson, 2004; McAdams,
situation shut-upness. The neurotic is shut off 2006; McLeod, 1997; Pennebaker & Seagal, 1999;
from himself or herself as well as from other people; Singer, 2004; White & Epston, 1990).
he or she has become alienated from his or her true In his analysis of myth, May (1991) shows an
self. Self-alienation occurs whenever people alignment with Jung: “Individual myths will gener-
accept, as their own, values dictated by society ally be a variation on some central theme of classical
rather than those personally attained. Self- myths.… Myths are archetypal patterns in human
alienation results not only in guilt but also in apathy consciousness [and therefore] where there is con-
and despair. The frightening aspects of human free- sciousness, there will be myth” (pp. 33, 37).
dom and the many ways people attempt to escape Like Nietzsche, Freud, and Jung, May believed
from their freedom are discussed in Erich Fromm’s that positive and negative tendencies coexist in all
classic book Escape from Freedom (1941). humans and that the tension between them is the
According to Kierkegaard, May, and most primary source of creativity. For May, it is the
other existentialists, we can either exercise our daimonic that is responsible for great literature,
free will and experience normal anxiety or not drama, and art, and it is the daimonic that is at
exercise it and feel guilty. Obviously, it is not easy the heart of many myths; for example, myths por-
being human, for this conflict between anxiety and traying conflicts between good and evil. May
guilt is a constant theme in human existence: “The (1969) defined the daimonic as
conflict is between every human being’s need to
any natural function which has the power to take
struggle toward enlarged self-awareness, maturity,
over the whole person. Sex and eros, anger
freedom and responsibility, and his tendency to
and rage, and the craving for power are
remain a child and cling to the protection of parents
examples. The daimonic can be either
or parental substitutes” (May, 1953, p. 193).
creative or destructive and is normally
both.… The daimonic is the urge in every
The Importance of Myth. According to May, being to affirm itself, assert itself, perpetu-
myths provide the major vehicle for providing mean- ate and increase itself. The daimonic
ing in life: “Myth is a way of making sense in a becomes evil when it usurps the total
senseless world. Myths are narrative patterns that personality without regard to the integra-
give significance to our existence” (1991, p. 15). tion of that self, or to the unique forms and
After a long, illustrious career as a psychoanalyst, desires of others and their need for inte-
May reached the following conclusion about people gration. It then appears as excessive
seeking professional help: “As a practicing psychoan- aggression, hostility, cruelty—the things
alyst I find that contemporary therapy is almost about ourselves which horrify us most, and
entirely concerned, when all is surveyed, with the which we repress whenever we can, or
problems of the individual’s search for myth” (1991, more likely, project on others. But these
p. 9). In sympathy with May’s conclusion, McAdams are the reverse side of the same assertion
and Pals (2006) say, “The process of putting life expe- which empowers our creativity. All life is a
rience into a meaningful narrative form influences flux between these two aspects of the
development, coping, and well-being” (p. 210). daimonic. (p. 123)
May had little patience with those who portray Human Science. May was not opposed to study-
humans as only good or bad. For him, we are ing humans scientifically. He was opposed, how-
potentially both, and therein lies the dilemma of ever, to merely employing the methods of the
human existence. physical sciences to study humans. Such methods,
According to May, myths serve four primary he said, overlook attributes that are uniquely
functions: They provide a sense of identity, provide human. Instead, May (1967) suggested the creation
a sense of community, support our moral values, of a new science specifically designed to study
and provide a means of dealing with the mysteries humans:
of creation. Most important, however, “hunger for
The outlines of a science of man we sug-
myth is a hunger for community.… To be a mem-
gest will deal with man as the symbol-
ber of one’s community is to share in its myths”
maker, the reasoner, the historical mam-
(1991, p. 45). For May, then, the best myths are
mal, who can participate in his community
those that encourage a sense of kinship among
and who possesses the potentiality of free-
humans. The myth of the rugged individual, popu-
dom and ethical action. The pursuit of this
lar for so long in the United States, encourages
science will take no less rigorous thought
people to live in isolation and leads to loneliness
and wholehearted discipline than the pur-
and violence. Survival itself depends on replacing
suit of experimental and natural science at
myths that isolate people with those that bind
their best, but it will place the scientific
them together. For example,
enterprise in a broader context. Perhaps it
We awake after a sleep of many centuries will again be possible to study man scien-
to find ourselves in a new and irrefutable tifically and still see him whole. (p. 199)
sense in the myth of humankind. We find Schneider (1998) elaborates the human science
ourselves in a new world community; we envisioned by May and discusses its relevance for
cannot destroy the parts without destroy- contemporary psychology. Also, the emerging
ing the whole. In this bright loveliness we field of positive psychology (discussed later in this
know now that we are truly sisters and chapter) is moving in the direction suggested by
brothers, at last in the same family. (May, May.
1991, p. 302)
May was not the only proponent of existential-

George Kelly
ism to be interested in matters such as myth and George Kelly (1905–1967) was born on a farm
human convention. Philosopher and anthropologist near Perth, Kansas. An only child, his father was
Martin Buber (1878–1965) combined Kierkegaard, an ordained Presbyterian minister, and his mother
Nietzsche, as well as the study of myth and conven- was a former schoolteacher. By the time Kelly was
tion in his classic analysis of human language—I born, his father had given up the ministry and
and Thou (1923/1970). Another anthropologist, turned to farming. In 1909, when Kelly was four
and Pulitzer Prize winner, Ernest Becker years old, his father converted a lumber cart into a
(1924–1974) combines elements of both Freud covered wagon and with it moved his family to
and Kierkegaard to explain human nature in Colorado, where he staked a claim to a plot of
books such as The Denial of Death and the Birth of land offered free to settlers. Unable to find an ade-
Meaning. His ideas form the basis of terror manage- quate amount of water on their claim, the family
ment theory, which explains much of social and moved back to Kansas. There, Kelly’s education
clinical psychology in terms of our awareness of consisted of attending a one-room school and
our own mortality (Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszc- being tutored by his parents. From the pioneering
zynski, 1991). efforts of his family, Kelly developed a pragmatic
544 CHAPTER 17
spirit that remained with him throughout his life: this day—and I have pretty well given up
the major criterion he used to judge an idea or a trying to figure it out. (p. 47)
device was whether it worked.
Next, Kelly went to the University of Kansas,
When Kelly was 13, he was sent to Wichita,
where he earned his master’s degree in 1928 with a
where he attended four different high schools in
major in educational psychology and a minor in
four years. Upon graduation from high school, he
labor relations. While at the University of Kansas,
attended Friends University in Wichita for three
Kelly decided that it was time for him to become
years and then Park College in Parkville, Missouri,
acquainted with Freud’s writings. Freud did not
where he earned his bachelor’s degree in 1926 with
impress him any more than S!R psychology
majors in physics and mathematics. Kelly was totally
did: “I don’t remember which one of Freud’s
unimpressed by his first psychology class. For several
books I was trying to read, but I do remember
class meetings, he waited in vain for something
the mounting feeling of incredulity that anyone
interesting to be said. Finally, one day the instructor
could write such nonsense, much less publish it”
wrote “S!R” on the blackboard, and Kelly (1969)
(1969, p. 47).
believed that finally he was going to hear something
The next year was a busy one for Kelly; he
interesting. He recalled his disappointment:
taught part-time in a labor college in Minneapolis
Although I listened intently for several and gave speech classes for the American Bankers
sessions, after that the most I could make Association and an Americanization class to immi-
of it was that the “S” was what you had to grants wishing to become U.S. citizens. In the win-
have in order to account for the “R” and ter of 1928, he moved to Sheldon, Iowa, where he
the “R” was put there so the “S” would taught at a junior college. Among his other duties,
have something to account for. I never did Kelly coached dramatics, and this experience may
find out what that arrow stood for—not to have influenced his later theorizing. It was here that
Kelly met his future wife, Gladys Thompson, an
English teacher at the same school. After a year
and a half, Kelly returned to Minnesota, where
he taught for a brief time at the University of
Minnesota. He then returned to Wichita to work
for a while in aeronautical engineering. In 1929 he
received an exchange scholarship, which allowed
him to study for a year at the University of
Edinburgh in Scotland. It was while earning his
advanced degree in education at Edinburgh under
the supervision of the illustrious statistician and psy-
chologist Sir Godfrey Thomson that Kelly became
interested in psychology. His thesis was on predict-
ing teaching success.
In 1930, on his return from Scotland, Kelly
enrolled in the graduate program in psychology at
© Brandeis University
the State University of Iowa, where he obtained

his doctorate in 1931. His dissertation was on the
common factors in speech and reading disabilities.
Kelly began his academic career at Fort Hays Kansas
George Kelly
State College during the Great Depression. This
was a time when there were many troubled people; his most important work, The Psychology of Personal
Kelly desperately wanted to help them, but his Constructs, in two volumes.
training in experimental psychology did not equip In 1960 Kelly and his wife received a grant from
him to do so. Ironically however, his lack of train- the human ecology fund, allowing them to travel
ing in clinical psychology, along with his pragmatic around the world discussing the relationship
attitude, gave Kelly great latitude in considering between Kelly’s theory and international problems.
emotional problems, and his observations eventu- In 1965 Kelly accepted a position at Brandeis
ally resulted in his unique theory of personality. University, where for a short time he was a colleague
Soon after arriving at Fort Hays, Kelly developed of Maslow. Kelly died in 1967, at the age of 62. His
traveling clinics that serviced the public school sys- honors included presidencies of both the clinical
tem. The clinics brought Kelly into contact with a and counseling divisions of the APA. He also headed
wide range of emotional problems that both students the American Board of Examiners in Professional
and teachers experienced. Kelly soon made a remark- Psychology, an organization whose purpose was to
able observation. Because he was not trained in any improve the quality of professional psychology.
particular therapeutic approach, he began to experi-
Constructive Alternativism. Kelly observed that
ment with a variety of approaches, and he discovered
the major goal of scientists is to reduce uncertainty;
that anything that caused his clients to view themselves or
and because he believed that this is also the goal of
their problems differently improved the situation. Whether
all humans, he said all humans are like scientists. But
a proposed explanation was “logical” or “correct”
whereas scientists create theories with which they
seemed to have little to do with its effectiveness:
attempt to predict future events, nonscientists create
I began fabricating “insights.” I deliberately construct systems to predict future events. If
offered “preposterous interpretations” to either a scientific theory or a personal construct sys-
my clients. Some of them were about as tem is effective, it adequately predicts the future
un-Freudian as I could make them—first and thereby reduces uncertainty. And both scien-
proposed somewhat cautiously, of course, tific theories and construct systems are tested empir-
and then, as I began to see what was hap- ically. That is, they are checked against reality and
pening, more boldly. My only criteria were are revised until their ability to predict future events
that the explanation account for the crucial or experiences is satisfactory. For Kelly, a construct
facts as the client saw them, and that it carry was a verbal label. For example,
implications for approaching the future in a
On meeting a person for the first time, one
different way. (Kelly, 1969, p. 52)
might construe that person with the con-
In this statement lies the cornerstone of Kelly’s struct “friendly.” If the person’s subsequent
position: Whether or not a person has a psycholog- behavior is in accordance with the con-
ical problem is mainly a matter of how that person struct of friendly, then the construct will
views things. be useful in anticipating that person’s
At the beginning of World War II, Kelly behavior. If the new acquaintance acts in
joined the Navy and was placed in charge of a an unfriendly manner, he or she will need
local civilian pilot-training program. After the to be construed either with different con-
war, he taught at the University of Maryland for a structs or by using the other pole … of the
year and in 1946 moved to Ohio State University as friendly-unfriendly construct. The major
professor of psychology and director of clinical psy- point is that constructs are used to antici-
chology. It was during his 19 years at Ohio State pate the future, so they must fit reality.
that Kelly refined his theory of personality and his Arriving at a construct system that corre-
approach to psychotherapy. In 1955, he published sponds fairly closely to reality is largely a
546 CHAPTER 17
matter of trial and error. (Hergenhahn & are important differences between Vaihinger’s philo-
Olson, 2007, p. 409) sophy and Kelly’s theory (see Hermans, Kempen, &
Van Loon, 1992), both emphasized propositional
For Kelly, whether or not an experience is
thinking, or the experimentation with ideas to see
pleasant is relatively unimportant. Of greater
where they lead. About Vaihinger, Kelly (1964) said,
importance is whether or not it validates the pre-
dictions generated by one’s construct system. Kelly Toward the end of the last century a
(1970) said, “Confirmation and disconfirmation of German philosopher, Hans Vaihinger,
one’s predictions [have] greater psychological sig- began to develop a system of philosophy he
nificance than rewards, punishments, or drive called the “philosophy of ‘as if.’ ” In it he
reduction” (p. 11). offered a system of thought in which God
With his concept of constructive alternati- and reality might best be represented as
vism, Kelly aligned himself squarely with the existen- [propositions]. This was not to say that
tialists. Kelly maintained that people are free to choose either God or reality was any less certain
the constructs they use in interacting with the world. than anything else in the realm of man’s
This means that people can view and interpret events awareness, but only that all matters con-
in an almost infinite number of ways because constru- fronting man might best be regarded in
ing them is an individual matter. No one needs to be hypothetical ways. In some measure, I
a victim of circumstances nor a victim of the past; all suppose, I am suggesting that Vaihinger’s
are free to view things as they wish: position has particular value for psychology.
At least, let us pursue the topic—which is
We take the stand that there are always
probably just the way Vaihinger would
some alternative constructions available to
have proposed that we go at it. (p. 139)
choose among in dealing with the world.
No one needs to paint himself into a cor- The following statement nicely summarizes
ner; no one needs to be completely Kelly’s belief in the importance of propositional
hemmed in by circumstances; no one thinking and exemplifies his kinship with existential
needs to be the victim of his biography. philosophy: “Whatever nature may be, or however
(Kelly, 1955, Vol. 1, p. 15) the quest for truth will turn out in the end, the
events we face today are subject to as great a variety
According to Kelly, it is not common experi-
of constructions as our wits will enable us to con-
ence that makes people similar; rather, it is how they
trive” (1970, p. 1).
construe reality. If two people employ more or less
the same personal constructs in dealing with the
world, then they are similar no matter how dissimilar Fixed-Role Therapy. Kelly’s approach to therapy
their past experiences had been. Kelly also said that reflected his belief that psychological problems are
to truly understand another person, we have to perceptual problems and that the job of the therapist is
know how that person construes things. In other therefore to help the client view things differently.
words, we have to know what that person’s expec- Kelly often began the therapeutic process by having
tations are, and then we can choose to act in accor- a client write a self-characterization, which pro-
dance with those expectations. The deepest type of vided Kelly with information about how the client
social interaction occurs when this process is mutual. viewed himself or herself, the world, and other
people. Next, Kelly created a role for the client to
Kelly and Vaihinger. Although Kelly’s thinking play for about two weeks. The character in the role
was existential in nature, there is no evidence that was markedly different from the client’s self-
any existential philosophers or psychologists directly characterization. The client became an actor, and
influenced him. However, he was aware of the therapist became a supporting actor. Kelly
Vaihinger’s philosophy of “as if.” Although there called this approach to treating clients fixed-role
therapy. He hoped that this procedure would help control to distinguish between events we take responsi-
the client discover other possible ways of viewing bility for versus those we blame on external forces) and
his or her life: the humanistic psychologist Joseph Rychlak, whose
texts popularized Kelly as a social psychologist and per-
What I am saying is that it is not so much
sonality theorist. In England Kelly’s ideas remain pop-
what man is that counts as it is what he
ular—even after his death—primarily because of the
ventures out to make himself. To make the
efforts of his disciple Donald Bannister. Exposure to
leap he must do more than disclose himself;
Kelly’s theory is a requirement in most clinical
he must risk a certain amount of confusion.
programs approved by the British Psychological
Then, as soon as he does catch a glimpse of
Association. The popularity of Kelly’s theory is again
a different kind of life, he needs to find
growing in the United States, especially in the area of
some way of overcoming the paralyzing
industrial-organizational psychology (Jankowicz,
moment of threat, for this is the instant
1987; Neimeyer & Jackson, 1997). Other areas to
when he wonders what he really is—
which Kelly’s theory is being applied include friend-
whether he is what he just was or is what he
ship formation, developmental psychology, percep-
is about to be. (Kelly, 1964, p. 147)
tion, political science, and environmental psychology
In the role of supporting actor, the therapist (Adams-Webber, 1979; Mancuso & Adams-
helps the client deal with this threatening moment Webber, 1982); depression and suicide (Neimeyer,
and then provides experiences that validate the cli- 1984; Parker, 1981); obsessive-compulsive disorders
ent’s new construct system. According to Kelly, (Rigdon & Epting, 1983); drug and alcohol abuse
people with psychological problems have lost their (Dawes, 1985; Rivers & Landfield, 1985); childhood
ability to make-believe, an ability that the therapist disorders (Agnew, 1985); fear of death and physical
must help the client regain. Kelly’s fixed-role ther- illness (Robinson & Wood, 1984; Viney, 1983,
apy can be seen as an early version of narrative 1984); couples in conflict (Neimeyer & Hudson,
therapy that was discussed earlier. 1984); and other relationship disorders (Leitner,
In the 1960s, there was much talk about people 1984; Neimeyer & Neimeyer, 1985).
being “themselves”; Kelly’s advice was the opposite:
A good deal is said these days about being
oneself. It is supposed to be healthy to be HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
oneself. While it is a little hard for me to
understand how one could be anything else, Abraham Maslow
I suppose what is meant is that one should
Some argue that Alfred Adler should be considered
not strive to become anything other than
the first humanistic psychologist because he defined
what he is. This strikes me as a very dull way
a healthy lifestyle as one reflecting a considerable
of living; in fact, I would be inclined to
amount of social interest and his concept of the
argue that all of us would be better off if we
creative self stressed that what a person becomes is
set out to be something other than what we
largely a matter of personal choice. Certainly,
are. Well, I’m not so sure we would all be
Adler’s theory had much in common with those
better off—perhaps it would be more accu-
theories later called humanistic. Usually, however,
rate to say life would be a lot more interest-
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) is recognized as
ing. (Kelly, 1964, p. 147)
the one most responsible for making humanistic
Kelly became a major force within clinical psy- psychology a formal branch of psychology.
chology in the postwar years, both directly and Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York. He
through the works of his colleagues and students, was the oldest of seven children born to parents
including Julian Rotter (who coined the term locus of who were Jewish immigrants from Russia. Maslow
548 CHAPTER 17
recalled his father Samuel as loving whiskey, thrust of my life-philosophy and all my
women, and fighting (Wilson, 1972). Maslow dis- research and theorizing also has its roots in a
liked his father but eventually made peace with hatred for and revulsion against everything
him. Not so with his mother, however; Maslow she stood for. (Lowry, 1979, p. 958)
hated his mother all his life:
Not being close to his parents and being the only
[Maslow] grew to maturity with an unre- Jewish boy in his neighborhood, Maslow was
lieved hatred for her and never achieved intensely lonely and shy and took refuge in books
the slightest reconciliation. He even and scholarly pursuits. He was an excellent student
refused to attend her funeral. He charac- at Boys High School in Brooklyn and went on to
terized Rose Maslow as a cruel, ignorant, attend City College of New York. While attending
and hostile figure, one so unloving as to City College, he made an effort to satisfy his father’s
nearly induce madness in her children. In desire for him to become a lawyer by also attending
all of Maslow’s references to his mother— law school. Unhappy with law school, however,
some uttered publicly while she was still he walked out of class one night, leaving his
alive—there is not one that expresses any books behind. Thereafter, he transferred to Cornell
warmth or affection. (Hoffman, 1988, p. 7) University, where he took introductory psychology
from Titchener. Titchener’s approach to psychology
It is interesting that Maslow saw the motivation
did not impress Maslow, and following only one
for his work in humanistic psychology in his hatred of
semester at Cornell he transferred back to City
his mother. Shortly before he died, Maslow entered
College, partly to be near his first cousin Bertha Good-
the following comment in his personal journal:
man, whom he loved very much. He and Bertha were
I’ve always wondered where my Utopianism, married in 1928 when he was 20 and she was 19. Prior
ethical stress, humanism, stress on kindness, to their marriage, Maslow enrolled at the University of
love, friendship, and all the rest came from. Wisconsin, and Bertha joined him there. By Maslow’s
I knew certainly of the direct consequences own account, his life did not really begin until he and
of having no mother-love. But the whole Bertha moved to Wisconsin.
As ironic as it now seems, Maslow was first
infatuated with the behaviorism of John Watson,
in which he saw a way of solving human problems
and changing the world for the better. His infatua-
tion ended when he and Bertha had their first child:
Our first baby changed me as a psycholo-
gist. It made the behaviorism I had been so
enthusiastic about look so foolish I could
not stomach it anymore. That was the
thunderclap that settled things.… I was
stunned by the mystery and by the sense of
not really being in control. I felt small and
weak and feeble before all this. I’d say
anyone who had a baby couldn’t be a
behaviorist. (M. H. Hall, 1968, p. 55)
Abraham Maslow At the University of Wisconsin, Maslow earned
his bachelor’s degree in 1930, his master’s degree in
© Archives of the History of American Psychology, The Center for the
History of Psychology, The University of Akron. 1931, and his doctorate in 1934. As a graduate
student at Wisconsin, Maslow became the first doc- here that Maslow became the leading figure in
toral student of the famous experimental psycholo- third-force psychology. In 1968, because of increased
gist Harry Harlow. Maslow’s dissertation was on the disenchantment with academic life and failing health,
establishment of dominance in a colony of mon- Maslow accepted a fellowship offered to him by the
keys. He observed that dominance has more to do Saga Administrative Corporation. Hoffman (1988)
with a type of “inner confidence” than with physi- describes the offer that was made to Maslow:
cal strength, an observation that may have influ-
Laughlin [the president and chairman of
enced his later theorizing. During this time,
the Saga Corporation] cheerfully informed
Maslow also observed that sexual behavior within
Maslow, the fellowship was ready. He was
the colony was related to dominance and subservi-
prepared to offer Maslow a two-
ence, and he wondered whether the same was true
to-four-year commitment with the fol-
for human sexual activity, a possibility he would
lowing conditions: a handsome salary, a
subsequently explore. After receiving his doctorate,
new car, and a personally decorated private
Maslow taught at Wisconsin for a while before
office with full secretarial services at Saga’s
moving to Columbia University, where he became
attractive campus like headquarters on
Edward Thorndike’s research assistant. He also
Stanford University’s suburban outskirts.
began his research on human sexuality by inter-
What would Maslow have to do in return?
viewing both male and female college students
Nothing. (p. 316)
about their sexual behavior, but soon abandoned
males because they tended to lie too much about Maslow accepted and, as advertised, was free to
their sexual activities (Hoffman, 1988). Maslow think and write as he pleased, and he enjoyed his
made important contributions to our knowledge freedom very much. In June 1970, however,
of human sexuality several years before Kinsey’s Maslow suffered a heart attack while jogging and
famous research. Furthermore, the interviewing died at the age of 62.
skills he developed during this research served him Due primarily to Maslow’s efforts, the Journal of
well when he later studied the characteristics of Humanistic Psychology was founded in 1961; also in
psychologically healthy individuals. 1961, the American Association of Humanistic
After a year and a half at Columbia, Maslow Psychologists was established, with James F. T.
moved to Brooklyn College, where he stayed until Bugental as its first president; and a division of
1951. Living in New York in the 1930s and 1940s the American Psychological Association (APA),
gave Maslow an opportunity to come into contact Humanistic Psychology, was created in 1971.
with many prominent European psychologists who
came to the United States to escape the Nazi rise. The Basic Tenets of Humanistic Psychology. The
Among them were Erich Fromm, Max Wertheimer, beliefs shared by psychologists working within the
Karen Horney, and Alfred Adler. Adler began giving humanistic paradigm include the following:
seminars in his home on Friday evenings, which ■ Little of value can be learned about humans by
Maslow attended frequently. Maslow also befriended studying nonhuman animals.
the famous anthropologist Ruth Benedict about this ■ Subjective reality is the primary guide for
same time. Maslow became obsessed with trying to
human behavior.
understand Ruth Benedict and Max Wertheimer,
whom he considered truly exceptional people, and ■ Studying individuals is more informative than
it was this obsession that evolved into Maslow’s ver- studying what groups of individuals have in
sion of humanistic psychology. common.
In 1951 Maslow accepted the position of chair- ■ A major effort should be made to discover
man of the psychology department at Brandeis those things that expand and enrich human
University in Waltham, Massachusetts, and it was experience.
550 CHAPTER 17
■ Research should seek information that will the human mystery and enjoyment of it,
help solve human problems. these would be to release the person from
■ The goal of psychology should be to formulate external controls and to make him less
a complete description of what it means to be a predictable to the observer (to make him
human being. Such a description would freer, more creative, more inner deter-
include the importance of language, the valu- mined) even though perhaps more pre-
ing process, the full range of human emotions, dictable to himself. (Maslow, 1966, p. 40)
and the ways humans seek and attain meaning Humans, then, are much more than physical
in their lives. objects, and therefore the methods employed by
Charlotte R. Bühler (1893–1974) was a found- the physical sciences have little relevance to the
ing member of the Association of Humanistic study of humans. Similarly, psychoanalysis, by con-
Psychologists and served as its president in 1965– centrating on the study of psychologically disturbed
1966. Her influential position paper on humanistic individuals, creates a “crippled” psychology: “It
psychology (1971) elaborated several of the tenets becomes more and more clear that the study of crip-
listed above and showed their relevance to such pled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens
topics as creativity, education, and psychotherapy. can yield only a crippled psychology and a crippled
The wife of Gestalist Karl Bühler, Charlotte had philosophy” (Maslow, 1954/1970, p. 180). For
also worked with Thorndike, and was key figure Maslow, there are exceptional people whose lives
in child psychology prior to World War II. cannot be understood simply as the absence of mental
Humanistic psychology, which rejects the notion disorders, so these people must be studied directly:
that psychology should be entirely scientific, sees Health is not simply the absence of disease
humans as indivisible wholes. Any attempt to reduce or even the opposite of it. Any theory of
them to habits, cognitive structures, or S–R connec- motivation that is worthy of attention
tions results in a distortion of human nature. According must deal with the highest capacities of the
to Maslow (1966), psychologists often use scientific healthy and strong person as well as with
method to cut themselves off from the poetic, roman- the defensive maneuvers of crippled spirits.
tic, and spiritual aspects of human nature: (Maslow, 1954/1987, p. 14)
Briefly put, it appears to me that science Importantly, Maslow’s point was not that psy-
and everything scientific can be and often chology should stop attempting to be scientific or
is used as a tool in the service of a distorted, stop studying and attempting to help those with psy-
narrowed, humorless, de-eroticized, de- chological problems, but that such endeavors tell
emotionalized, de-sacralized, and de- only part of the story. Beyond this, psychology
sanctified Weltanschauung [world-view]. needs to attempt to understand humans who are in
This de-sacralization can be used as a the process of reaching their full potential. We need
defense against being flooded by emotion, to know how such people think and what motivates
especially the emotions of humility, rev- them. Thus, Maslow invested most of his energies in
erence, mastery, wonder and awe. (p. 139) trying to understand exceptional humans.
Humanistic psychologists flatly reject the goal
The Hierarchy of Needs. According to Maslow,
of predicting and controlling human behavior,
human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The
which so many scientifically inclined psychologists
lower the needs in the hierarchy, the more basic
accept:
they are and the more similar they are to the
If humanistic science may be said to have needs of other animals. The higher the needs in
any goals beyond sheer fascination with the hierarchy, the more distinctly human they are.
The needs are arranged so that as one satisfies a need we may call self-actualization.
lower need, one can deal with the next higher need. (Maslow, 1954/1987, p. 22)
When one’s physiological needs (such as hunger, thirst,
Aspects of the concept of self-actualization go
and sex) are satisfied, one can deal with the safety needs
back at least as far as Aristotle, but what Aristotle
(protection from the elements, avoiding pain, and
meant by self-actualization was the innate tendency
unexpected dangers); when the safety needs are rea-
to manifest the characteristics or the essence of one’s
sonably satisfied, one is free to deal with the belonging
species. For example, an acorn has an innate tendency
and love needs (the need to love and be loved, to share
to become an oak tree and to exhibit the characteristics
one’s life with a relevant other); when the belonging
of oak treeness. Jung reintroduced the concept of self-
and love needs are adequately satisfied, one is released
actualization into modern psychology, and what he
to ponder the esteem needs (to make recognizable
meant by the term and what Maslow later meant by
contributions and achievements); if the esteem needs
it was distinctly different from the Aristotelian mean-
are met satisfactorily, one is in a position to become
ing. By self-actualization, Jung, Maslow, and Rogers
self-actualized. Maslow’s proposed hierarchy of
(whom we consider next) meant the realization of an
needs can be diagrammed as follows:
individual’s potential. Because it is impossible for any
Self-Actualization person to completely reach his or her full potential,
" Maslow referred to those who have satisfied hierarchi-
Esteem Needs cal needs as self-actualizing. (A list of characteristics of
" self-actualizing people is given shortly.)
Belonging and Love Needs As one climbs the hierarchy, the needs become
" more fragile. That is, the physiological and safety
Safety Needs needs have a long evolutionary history and are there-
" fore very powerful; the higher needs for love, esteem,
Physiological Needs and self-actualization are “newer” and distinctly
human and therefore do not have as firm a biological
Self-Actualization. By self-actualization, Maslow foundation. This means that their satisfaction is easily
meant reaching one’s full, human potential: interfered with. The higher up the hierarchy one
So far as motivational status is concerned, goes, the truer this is; and therefore the satisfaction
healthy people have sufficiently gratified of the need for self-actualization—although the need
their basic needs for safety, belongingness, is innate—is easily disturbed. Of self-actualization,
love, respect, and self-esteem so that they Maslow said, “This inner nature is not strong and
are motivated primarily by trends to self- overpowering and unmistakable like the instincts of
actualization defined as ongoing actuali- animals. It is weak and delicate and subtle and easily
zation of potentials, capacities and talents, overcome by habit, cultural pressure, and wrong atti-
as fulfillment of mission (or call, fate, des- tudes toward it” (1968, p. 4).
tiny, or vocation), as a fuller knowledge of, Thus, although all humans have an innate drive
and acceptance of, the person’s own to be self-actualized (to reach their full potential as
intrinsic nature, as an unceasing trend humans), self-actualized people are rare. Another
toward unity, integration or synergy major reason that self-actualization occurs so infre-
within the person. (Maslow, 1968, p. 25) quently is that it requires a great deal of honest
knowledge of oneself, and most humans are fearful
Musicians must make music, artists of such knowledge:
must paint, poets must write if they are to
be ultimately at peace with themselves. More than any other kind of knowledge we
What humans can be, they must be. They fear knowledge of ourselves, knowledge
must be true to their own nature. This that might transform our self-esteem and
552 CHAPTER 17
our self-image.… While human beings love had happened, so that the subject is to
knowledge and seek it—they are curious— some extent transformed and strengthened
they also fear it. The closer to the personal it even in his daily life by such experiences.
is, the more they fear it. (p. 16) (p. 137)
Related to the fear of self-knowledge is the ■ They are concerned with all humans instead of
Jonah complex, which Maslow (1971) defined as
with only their friends, relatives, and
“fear of one’s own greatness, … evasion of one’s
acquaintances.
destiny, … running away from one’s best talents”
(p. 34). According to Maslow, humans often fear ■ They tend to have only a few friends.
success as much as they do failure and this fear, ■ They have a strong ethical sense but do not
like the fear of self-knowledge, militates against necessarily accept conventional ethics.
self-actualization. ■ They have a well-developed but not hostile
The Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People. As sense of humor.
we have seen, Maslow believed that for too long ■ They are creative.
psychology had emphasized the study of lower ani-
Although Maslow (1954/1987) concluded that
mals and psychologically disturbed individuals. To
his group of self-actualizing people was made up of
begin to remedy the situation, he studied a number
outstanding humans, he also indicated that they
of people he thought were self-actualizing. Among
were not without faults:
them were Albert Einstein, Albert Schweitzer,
Sigmund Freud, Jane Addams, William James, and Our subjects show many of the lesser
Abraham Lincoln. Maslow concluded that self- human failings. They too are equipped
actualizing people have the following characteristics: with silly, wasteful or thoughtless habits.
They can be boring, stubborn, irritating.
■ They perceive reality accurately and fully.
They are by no means free from a
■ They demonstrate a great acceptance of rather superficial vanity, pride, partiality
themselves and of others. to their own productions, family, friends,
■ They exhibit spontaneity and naturalness. and children. Temper outbursts are not
■ They have a need for privacy. rare.
Our subjects are occasionally capable of
■ They tend to be independent of their envi-
an extraordinary and unexpected ruthless-
ronment and culture.
ness. It must be remembered that they are
■ They demonstrate a continuous freshness of very strong people. This makes it possible
appreciation. for them to display a surgical coldness when
■ They tend to have periodic mystic or peak this is called for, beyond the power of the
experiences. Maslow (1954/1987) described average man. The man who found that a
peak experiences as long-trusted acquaintance was dishonest cut
himself off from this friendship sharply and
feelings of limitless horizons opening up to abruptly and without any observable pangs
the vision, the feeling of being simulta- whatsoever. Another woman who was
neously more powerful and also more married to someone she did not love, when
helpless than one ever was before, the she decided on divorce, did it with a deci-
feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and siveness that looked almost like ruthlessness.
awe, the loss of placing in time and space Some of them recover so quickly from the
with, finally, the conviction that some- death of people close to them as to seem
thing extremely important and valuable heartless. (p. 146)
Deficiency and Being Motivation. If a person is These new developments may very well
functioning at any level other than self- offer a tangible, usable, effective satisfac-
actualization, he or she is said to be deficiency- tion of the “frustrated idealism” of many
motivated. That is, the person is seeking specific quietly desperate people, especially young
things to satisfy specific needs, and his or her per- people. These psychologies give promise
ceptions are need-directed. Jourard describes need- of developing into the life-philosophy, the
directed perception (also called deficiency or religion-surrogate, the value-system, the
D-perception) as follows: “Need-directed percep- life-program that these people have been
tion is a highly focused searchlight darting here and missing. Without the transcendent and the
there, seeking the objects which will satisfy needs, transpersonal, we get sick, violent, and
ignoring everything irrelevant to the need” (1974, nihilistic, or else hopeless and apathetic.
p. 68). Deficiency motivation (D-motivation) We need something “bigger than we are”
leads to need-directed perception. to be awed by and to commit ourselves to
Unlike most psychologists, Maslow was mainly in a new, naturalistic, empirical, non-
interested in what happens to people after their basic churchly sense. (pp. iii–iv)
needs are satisfied. His answer was that people who
Maslow lived to see Anthony J. Sutich (1907–
satisfy their basic needs and become self-actualizing
1976), who was also a founding editor of the Journal
enter into a different mode of existence. Instead
of Humanistic Psychology, found the Journal of Transper-
of being deficiency-motivated, they are being-
sonal Psychology in 1969. Maslow’s “The Farther
motivated (B-motivated). Being motivation
Reaches of Human Nature” appeared as the lead arti-
involves embracing the higher values of life such as
cle in the new journal. (This article should not be con-
beauty, truth, and justice. Being-motivated people
fused with the book of readings published
are also capable of B-love, which unlike D-love is
posthumously [1971] with the same title.) Transper-
nonpossessive and insatiable. Unlike D-perception,
sonal psychology has much in common with non-
being perception (B-perception) does not involve
Western psychologies, philosophies, and religions.
seeking specific things in the environment. Therefore,
For example, all recognize meditation as a way of get-
the person interacting with the world through
ting in touch with the higher states of consciousness.
B-perception is open to a wider range of experience
Many interested in the occult and in parapsychology
than the person who interacts through D-perception.
are attracted to humanistic psychology and especially
Transpersonal Psychology. Toward the end of to transpersonal psychology. Perhaps because these
his life, Maslow began to ponder a new kind of topics are generally viewed as outside the realm of sci-
psychology that went beyond personal experience. ence, the APA has thus far denied petitions to create a
This transpersonal psychology would constitute division of transpersonal psychology.
a fourth force and would focus on the mystical, Maslow’s many honors include election to the
ecstatic, or spiritual aspects of human nature. In presidency of the APA in 1968. At the time of his
the preface of his book Toward a Psychology of death in 1970, Maslow’s ideas were influential not
Being (1968), Maslow described his vision of only within psychology but also in fields such as
fourth-force psychology: medicine, marketing, theology, education, and
nursing. Although Maslow’s influence has dimin-
I … consider Humanistic, Third Force
ished, it is not uncommon for his theory of moti-
Psychology to be transitional, a preparation
vation to be taught in psychology, education, and
for a still “higher” Fourth Psychology,
business courses. Coon (2006) speculates as to the
transpersonal, transhuman, centered in the
reasons for Maslow’s lasting appeal:
cosmos rather than in human needs and
interest, going beyond humanness, iden- Perhaps it is that his theory of motivation
tity, self-actualization, and the like.… embodies deeply felt democratic ideals
554 CHAPTER 17
expressed in psychological terms. It is

hopeful and optimistic, even utopian in its
dream of an eventual Eupsychia [good
mind country]. Given the right set of
psychological and social conditions, every
person among us has the potential to
become happy, fulfilled, creative,
emotionally whole—in Maslow’s terms,
self- actualized. It is the American ethos of
self-improvement taken to its ultimate
psychological conclusion, and it unabash-
edly embraces our right to life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness. (pp. 270–271)
© Roger Ressmeyer/Encyclopedia/Corbis
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was born in the
Chicago suburb of Oak Park, Illinois, and was the
fourth of six children. He was closer to his mother
than to his father, who was a successful civil engi-
neer and was often away from home. In the affluent Carl Rogers
suburb of Oak Park, Rogers attended school with
Ernest Hemingway and the children of the famous
architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Rogers described his religious atmosphere for the family. Because his
family as closely knit and highly religious. Friend- father insisted that the farm be run scientifically,
ships outside the family were discouraged: Rogers developed an intense interest in science,
reading extensively about agricultural experiments.
I think the attitudes toward persons outside
Rogers maintained this interest in science through-
our large family can be summed up sche-
out his career, although he worked in one of
matically in this way: Other persons
psychology’s more subjective areas. When Rogers
behave in dubious ways which we do not
graduated from high school, he intended to become
approve in our family. Many of them play
a farmer; and when he entered the University of
cards, go to movies, smoke, drink, and
Wisconsin in 1919, he chose to study agriculture.
engage in other activities—some unmen-
In his early years in college, Rogers was very active
tionable. So the best thing to do is to be
in church activities, and in 1922 he was selected to
tolerant of them, since they may not know
attend the World Student Christian Federation
better, and to keep away from any close
Conference in Peking (Beijing), China. During this
communication with them and live your
six-month trip, Rogers, for the first time, experi-
life within the family. (Rogers, 1973, p. 3)
enced people of different cultures with different
Not surprisingly, Rogers was a loner in school religions. Rogers wrote to his parents declaring his
and, like Maslow, took refuge in books, reading independence from their conservative religion, and
everything that he could get his hands on, including almost immediately he developed an ulcer that
encyclopedias and dictionaries. When Rogers was caused him to be hospitalized for several weeks.
12 years old, he and his family moved to a farm Upon returning to the University of Wisconsin,
25 miles west of Chicago. The purpose of the Rogers changed his major from agriculture to
move was to provide a more wholesome and history. He received his bachelor’s degree in 1924.
Shortly after graduation, he married his childhood This incident was one of a number
sweetheart, Helen Elliott, with whom he eventually which helped me to experience that fact—
had two children. Soon after their marriage, Carl and only fully realized later—that it is the client
Helen moved to New York, where he enrolled in the who knows what hurts, what directions to
liberal Union Theological Seminary while also taking go, what problems are crucial, what
courses in psychology and education at neighboring experiences have been deeply buried. It
Columbia University. After two years at the seminary, began to occur to me that unless I had a
Rogers’s doubts about whether the religious approach need to demonstrate my own cleverness
was the most effective way of helping people caused and learning, I would do better to rely
him to transfer to Columbia University on a full-time upon the client for the direction of
basis; there he earned his doctorate in 1931. His dis- movement in the process. (pp. 11–12)
sertation concerned the measurement of personality
It was while Rogers was employed by the
adjustment in children.
Child Study Department that he wrote his first
After obtaining his doctorate, Rogers went
book, The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child
to work for the Child Study Department of the
(1939), and its publication led to an offer of an
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
academic position at Ohio State University. Rogers
in Rochester, New York, where he had served as a
was reluctant to leave the clinical setting, but when
fellow while working toward his doctorate. Rogers
Ohio State agreed to start him at the rank of full
had several experiences there that caused him to
professor, he decided, at the age of 38, to begin a
develop his own brand of psychotherapy. For
new career in the academic world. At Ohio, Rogers
example, the society was dominated by therapists
communicated his own ideas concerning the thera-
trained in the psychoanalytic tradition, people
peutic process in his now famous Counseling and
who saw their job as gaining an “insight” into the
Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (1942). It is
cause of a problem and then sharing that insight
widely believed that this book described the
with the client. At first, Rogers followed this pro-
first major alternative to psychoanalysis. Rogers’s
cedure. In one case, he concluded that a mother’s
approach to psychotherapy was considered revolu-
rejection of her son was the cause of the son’s delin-
tionary because it eliminated the needs for diagno-
quent behavior, but his attempts to share this insight
sis, a search for the causes of disturbances, and any
with the mother failed completely. Rogers (1961)
type of labeling of disorders. He also refused to call
described what happened next:
disturbed individuals “patients,” as had been the
Finally I gave up. I told her that it seemed case with the psychoanalysts; for Rogers, people
we had both tried, but we had failed.… seeking help were “clients.” Gendlin (1988) said
She agreed. So we concluded the inter- that Rogers’s proposed alternative to psychoanalysis
view, shook hands, and she walked to the was nothing less than a “war against monolithic
door of the office. Then she turned and authority” (p. 127).
asked, “Do you take adults for counseling As part of the war effort, in 1944 Rogers
here?” When I replied in the affirmative, took a leave from Ohio State to become director
she said, “Well then, I would like some of counseling services for the United Services
help.” She came to the chair she had left, Organization in New York. After one year, Rogers
and began to pour out her despair about moved to the University of Chicago as professor of
her marriage, her troubled relationship psychology and director of counseling. It was dur-
with her husband, her sense of failure and ing his 12-year stay at Chicago that Rogers wrote
confusion, all very different from the sterile what many consider to be his most important
“Case History” she had given before. Real work, Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice,
therapy began then. Implications, and Theory (1951). This book marked
556 CHAPTER 17
a change in Rogers’s approach to psychology. continued to work with encounter groups, but he
Originally, his approach was called nondirective, expanded his interests in education and interna-
believing that in a positive therapeutic atmosphere tional politics. In 1985 he organized the Vienna
clients would solve their problems automatically. Peace Project, which brought leaders from 13
Therapy became client-centered when Rogers countries together, and in 1986 he conducted
realized that the therapist had to make an active peace workshops in Moscow. Rogers continued
attempt to understand and accept a client’s subjec- to work on these and other projects until his
tive reality before progress could be made. It was death on February 4, 1987, from cardiac arrest fol-
also at Chicago that Rogers and his colleagues lowing surgery for a broken hip.
engaged in the first attempt to objectively measure Rogers received many honors. He served as
the effectiveness of psychotherapy. president of the APA in 1947, and in 1956 he
To measure therapy’s effectiveness, Rogers used was a corecipient, along with Kenneth Spence
a method called the Q-sort technique created by and Wolfgang Köhler, of the first Distinguished
the British-trained researcher William Stephenson Scientific Contribution Award from the APA.
(1953). Rogers’s version of the technique involved The latter award moved Rogers to tears because
having clients describe themselves as they were at he believed that his fellow psychologists had viewed
the moment (real self) and then as they would like his work as unscientific: “My voice choked and the
to become (ideal self). The two selves were mea- tears flowed when I was called forth … to receive
sured in such a way as to allow the correlation [the award]” (Rogers, 1974, p. 117). In 1972
between them to be determined. Typically, when Rogers received the Distinguished Professional
therapy begins, the correlation between the two Contribution Award from the APA, making him
selves is very low, but if therapy is effective it the first person in the history of the APA to receive
becomes higher. That is, the real self becomes both the Distinguished Scientific and Professional
more similar to the ideal self. Using this technique, Contribution Awards.
a therapist can determine the effectiveness of his
or her procedures at any point during, or after, Rogers’s Theory of Personality. At the urging of
therapy (see, for example, Rogers, 1954; Rogers & others, Rogers developed a theory of personality to
Dymond, 1955). account for the phenomena he had observed during
In 1957 Rogers returned to the University of the therapeutic process. The rudiments of his the-
Wisconsin, where he held the dual position of pro- ory were first presented in his APA presidential
fessor of psychology and professor of psychiatry. In address (Rogers, 1947) and then expanded in his
the early 1960s Rogers was part of an important Client-Centered Therapy (1951). The most complete
symposium at Rice University titled “Behaviorism statement of his theory was in a chapter titled “A
and phenomenology: Contrasting bases for modern Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal
psychology.” Other contributors included B. F. Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered
Skinner, and Wann’s (1964) book by the same Framework” (Rogers, 1959).
name provides fascinating coverage. In 1963 Like Maslow, Rogers postulated an innate
Rogers joined the Western Behavioral Sciences human drive toward self-actualization, and believed
Institute (WBSI) in La Jolla, California. At WBSI that if people use this actualizing tendency as a frame
Rogers became increasingly interested in encounter of reference in living their lives, there is a strong
groups and sensitivity training and less interested in likelihood that they will live fulfilling lives and ulti-
individual therapy. Toward the end of his life, he mately reach their potential. Such people are said to
also became interested in promoting world peace. be living according to the organismic valuing
In 1968 Rogers and 75 of his colleagues resigned process. Using this process, a person approaches
from WBSI and formed the Center for the Studies and maintains experiences that are in accord with
of the Person, also in La Jolla. There, Rogers the actualizing tendency but terminates and avoids
those that are not. Such a person is motivated by his act and think in accordance with the values of the
or her own true feelings and is living what the relevant people in their lives. Gradually, as the chil-
existentialists call an authentic life—that is, a life dren internalize those values, the values replace the
motivated by a person’s true inner feelings rather organismic valuing process as a guide for living life.
than mores, beliefs, traditions, values, or conven- As long as people live their lives according to some-
tions imposed by others. Here we see Rogers one else’s values instead of their own true feelings,
restating the belief of the ancient Cynics and of experience will be edited, and certain experiences
Rousseau in the primacy of personal feelings as that would have been in accord with the organis-
guides for action. In the following quotation mic valuing process will be denied:
(Rogers, 1961), we see a strong similarity among
In order to hold the love of a parent, the
ancient Cynicism, Rousseau’s romantic philosophy,
child introjects as his own values and per-
and Rogers’s humanistic psychology:
ceptions which he does not actually
One of the basic things which I was a long experience. He then denies to awareness
time in realizing, and which I am still the organismic experiencings that contra-
learning, is that when an activity feels as dict these introjections. Thus, his self-
though it is valuable or worth doing, it is concept contains false elements that are not
worth doing. Put another way, I have based on what he is, in his experiencing.
learned that my total organismic sensing of (Rogers, 1966, p. 192)
a situation is more trustworthy than my
According to Rogers, there is only one way to
intellect.
avoid imposing conditions of worth on people, and
All of my professional life I have been
that is to give them unconditional positive regard.
going in directions which others thought
With unconditional positive regard, people are
were foolish, and about which I have had
loved and respected for what they truly are; there-
many doubts myself. But I have never
fore, there is no need for certain experiences to be
regretted moving in directions which “felt
denied or distorted. Only someone who experi-
right,” even though I have often felt lonely
ences unconditional positive regard can become a
or foolish at the time.… Experience is for
fully functioning person:
me, the highest authority.… Neither the
Bible nor the prophets—neither Freud nor If an individual should experience only
research—neither the revelations of God unconditional positive regard, then no condi-
nor man—can take precedence over my tions of worth would develop, self-regard
own experience. (pp. 22–24) would be unconditional, the needs for
positive regard and self-regard would never be
Unfortunately, according to Rogers, most peo-
at variance with organismic evaluation, and
ple do not live according to their innermost feelings
the individual would continue to be psy-
(the organismic valuing process). A problem arises
chologically adjusted, and would be fully
because of our childhood need for positive
functioning. (Rogers, 1959, p. 224)
regard. Positive regard involves receiving such
things as love, warmth, sympathy, and acceptance When conditions of worth replace the organis-
from the relevant people in a child’s life. If positive mic valuing process as a guide for living, the person
regard is given freely to a child, no problem will becomes incongruent. What Rogers called an
arise, but usually it is not freely given. Instead par- incongruent person is essentially the same as
ents (or other relevant people) give children posi- what the existentialists call an inauthentic person.
tive regard only if they act or think in certain ways. In both cases, the person is no longer true to his
This sets up conditions of worth. The children or her own feelings. Rogers viewed incongruency
soon learn that in order to receive love, they must as the cause of mental disorders, and he believed
558 CHAPTER 17
therefore that the goal of psychotherapy is to help element could be called genuineness, realness,
people overcome conditions of worth and again or congruence.… The second attitude of
live in accordance with their organismic valuing importance in creating a climate for change
processes. Rogers (1959) described this goal as is acceptance, or caring, or prizing—what
follows: I have called “unconditional positive regard.”
… The third facilitative aspect of the rela-
This, as we see it, is the basic estrange-
tionship is empathic understanding.… This
ment in man. He has not been true to
kind of sensitive, active listening is exceed-
himself, to his own natural organismic
ingly rare in our lives. We think we listen,
valuing of experience, but for the sake of
but very rarely do we listen with real
preserving the positive regard of others
understanding, true empathy. Yet listening,
has now come to falsify some of the values
of this very special kind, is one of the most
he experiences and to perceive them only
potent forces for change that I know.
in terms based upon their value to others.
(pp. 115–116)
Yet this has not been a conscious choice,
but a natural—and tragic—development Rogers’s person-centered psychology has been
in infancy. The path of development applied to such diverse areas as religion, medicine,
toward psychological maturity, the path law enforcement, ethnic and cultural relations, pol-
of therapy, is the undoing of this itics, and international conflict, as well as organiza-
estrangement in man’s functioning, the tional development (Levant & Schlien, 1984);
dissolving of conditions of worth, the education (Rogers, 1969, 1983); marriage (Rogers,
achievement of a self which is congruent 1972); personal power (Rogers, 1977); and the
with experience, and the restoration of a future (Rogers, 1980). And, we will have more to
unified organismic valuing process as the say about Rogers’s contributions to professional
regulator of behavior. (pp. 226–227) psychology in Chapter 20.
When people are living in accordance with
their organismic valuing process, they are fully
Comparison of Existential
functioning. The fully functioning person embraces and Humanistic Psychology
life in much the same way as Maslow’s self- Existential and humanistic psychology have enough
actualizing person does. in common to cause them often to be lumped
Rogers fully appreciated the fact that human together as “existential-humanistic psychology.”
growth can be facilitated by relationships other The following is a list of tenets shared by existential
than that between therapist and client. Rogers and humanistic psychology:
(1980) described the conditions that must charac-
terize any relationship if that relationship is going to ■ Humans have a free will and are therefore
facilitate personal growth: responsible for their actions.
There are three conditions that must be
■ The most appropriate method by which to
present in order for a climate to be growth study humans is phenomenology, the study of
promoting. These conditions apply whether intact subjective experience.
we are speaking of the relationship between ■ To be understood, the human must be studied
therapist and client, parent and child, leader as a whole. Elementism of any type gives a
and group, teacher and student, or admin- distorted view of human nature.
istrator and staff. The conditions apply, in ■ Humans are unique, and therefore anything
fact, in any situation in which the devel- learned about other animals is of limited use for
opment of the person is a goal.… The first the understanding of humans.
■ Each human is unique, therefore, anything compatible with our nature, they say, humans
learned about one human is of limited use for could live together in peace and harmony. The
the understanding of others. existentialists are more pessimistic. For them,
■ Living an authentic life is better than living an humans have no built-in guidance system but
inauthentic one. only the freedom to choose. Because we are free,
we cannot blame God, our parents, genetics, or
■ Because they possess unique attributes such as
environmental circumstances for our misfortune—
free will, humans cannot be effectively studied
only ourselves. This responsibility often makes free-
using just traditional scientific methodology.
dom more of a curse than a blessing, and people
A major difference between existential and often choose not to exercise their freedom by con-
humanistic psychology lies in their assumptions forming to values that others have formulated. In
about human nature. The humanists assume that his famous book Escape from Freedom (1941), Erich
people are basically good, and therefore, if placed Fromm (1900–1980) echoed Kierkegaard in his
in a healthy environment, they will naturally live a observation that often the first thing people do
life in harmony with others. For humanists, the when they recognize their freedom is attempt to
major motivation in life is the actualizing tendency, escape from it by affiliating themselves with some-
which is innate and which continually drives a per- one or something that will reduce or eliminate their
son toward those activities and events conducive to choices.
self-actualization. The existentialists, on the other Another important difference between
hand, view human nature as essentially neutral. humanistic psychologists and existentialists (like
For them, the only thing we are born with is the Heidegger, and much later Becker), is that for the
freedom to choose the nature of our existence. existentialist, the realization that one’s death is inev-
This is what Jean-Paul Sartre meant by his itable is extremely important. Before a rich, full life
famous statement “Existence precedes essence.” is possible, one must come to grips with the fact
For Sartre and most existential philosophers, there that one’s life is finite and “live unto death.” The
is no human essence at birth. We are free to choose humanistic psychologist does not dwell as much on
our own essence as a unique human being. We the meaning of death in human existence. For addi-
become our choices: “Man is nothing else but tional discussion of the differences between existen-
what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle tial philosophy and humanistic psychology, see
of existentialism” (Sartre, 1957, p. 15). We can deCarvalho (1990).
exercise our freedom to create any type of life we In Chapter 20 we will note the similarities
wish, either good or bad. The major motive in life, between third-force psychology and contemporary
according to the existentialist, is to create meaning postmodernism.
by effectively making choices. Many existential
thinkers—such as Albert Camus—reached the con-
Evaluation: Criticisms
clusion that without meaning, life is not worth living,
but that with meaning, humans can tolerate almost and Conclusions
any conditions. Viktor Frankl quoted Nietzsche as It should come as no surprise that humanistic
saying, “He who has a why to live can bear with psychology itself has been criticized. Each of the fol-
almost any how” (1946/1984, p. 12). Frankl main- lowing has been offered as one of its weaknesses:
tained that there is only one motivational force for
humans, and that is what he called the “will to ■ The description of persons that humanistic
meaning” (1946/1984, p. 121). psychologists offer is like the more favorable
Generally, the view of human nature the ones found through the centuries in poetry,
humanists hold causes them to be optimistic about literature, or religion. It represents a type of
people and their future. If societies could be made wishful thinking that is not supported by the
560 CHAPTER 17
facts that more objective psychology has accu- psychology is, you are likely to get at least
mulated. We should not ignore facts just three mutually incompatible definitions.…
because they are not to our liking. It is highly unlikely that an explicit defi-
■ Humanistic psychology criticizes behaviorism, nition of [humanistic psychology] could be
psychoanalysis, and scientific psychology in written that would satisfy even a small
general, but all three have made significant fraction of the people who call themselves
contributions to the betterment of the human “humanistic psychologists.” (pp. 739, 743)
condition. In other words, all three have done As William James said, if existing methods are
the very thing that humanistic psychology sets ineffective for studying certain aspects of human
as one of its major goals. nature, it is not those aspects of human nature
■ If humanistic psychology questions traditional that are to be discarded but the methods. To be
scientific methodology as a means of evaluating fair, humanistic psychologists do not want to dis-
propositions about humans, what is to be used card scientific inquiry; they want to expand our
in its place? If phenomenology is to be used, conception of science so that such inquiry can be
this enterprise should not be referred to as used to study the higher human attributes.
psychology. The humanistic approach to Indeed, the expansion of psychology’s domain
studying humans is often characterized as a is arguably humanistic psychology’s major contri-
throwback to psychology’s past. bution to the discipline. In psychology, there is
■ By minimizing animal research, humanistic now an increased tendency to study the whole per-
psychologists are turning their backs on an son. We are concerned with not only how people
extremely valuable source of knowledge about learn, think, and mature biologically and intellectu-
humans. Not to use the insights of evolutionary ally but also how people formulate plans to attain
theory in studying human behavior is, at best, future goals and why people laugh, cry, and create
regressive. meaning in their lives. In the opinion of many, the
humanistic paradigm has breathed new life into
■ Many of the terms and concepts that human-
psychology. Recently, a field called positive
istic psychologists use are so nebulous that they
psychology has developed that, like traditional
defy clear definition and verification. There is
humanistic psychology, explores positive human
even confusion over the definition of human-
attributes. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000)
istic psychology. After searching for a definition
describe what positive psychology has in common
of humanistic psychology in the Journal of
with traditional humanistic psychology and what
Humanistic Psychology, in various books on
makes it different:
humanistic psychology, and in the programs of
the Division of Humanistic Psychology of the [The purpose of positive psychology] is to
APA, Michael Wertheimer (1978) reached the remind our field that psychology is not just
following conclusion: the study of pathology, weakness, and
damage; it is also the study of strength and
It is hard to quarrel with such goals as virtue. Treatment is not just fixing what is
authenticity, actualizing the potential broken; it is nurturing what is best. Psy-
inherent in every human being, creating chology is not just a branch of medicine
truly meaningful human relationships, concerned with illness or health; it is much
being fully in touch with our innermost larger. It is about work, education, insight,
feelings, and expanding our awareness. But love, growth, and play. And in this quest
what, really, is humanistic psychology? To for what is best, positive psychology does
paraphrase an old Jewish joke, if you ask not rely on wishful thinking, faith, self-
two humanists what humanistic deception, fads, or hand waving; it tries to
adapt what is best in the scientific method optimally in their personal and social lives. In fact,
to the unique problems that human the characteristics of flourishing individuals are
behavior presents to those who wish to essentially the same as those thought by Maslow
understand it in all its complexity. (p. 7) to characterize self-actualizing individuals or those
thought by Rogers to characterize fully functioning
Both positive psychologists and humanistic psy-
individuals.
chologists agree that mental health is more than the
For additional information on positive psychol-
absence of mental illness. Currently, the term
ogy, see the work of the 1998 APA President, Martin
flourishing is used to describe people who are
Seligman (for example, Seligman, Steen, Park, &
not only free from mental illness but, more impor-
Peterson, 2005) or Keyes (2007).
tantly, are filled with vitality and are functioning
SUMMARY
The 1960s were troubled times in the United a person explores possibilities for living through his or
States, and a group of psychologists emerged who her choices. Choosing, however, requires entering
believed that behaviorism and psychoanalysis, the the unknown, and this causes anxiety. For Heidegger,
two major forces in psychology at the time, were only by exercising one’s freedom can one live an
neglecting important aspects of human existence. authentic life—a life that the person chooses and
What was needed was a third force that emphasized therefore a life for which the person is completely
the positive, creative, and emotional side of humans responsible. If a person lives his or her life in accor-
using the methods of phenomenology. Brentano dance with other people’s values, he or she is living
and Husserl developed phenomenology, which is an inauthentic life. For Heidegger, the first step
the study of intact, conscious experiences as they toward living an authentic life is to come to grips
occur and without any preconceived notions with the inevitability of death (nonbeing). Once a
about the nature of those experiences. According person comprehends and deals with finitude, he or
to Brentano, all conscious acts intend (refer to) she can proceed to live a rich, full, authentic life.
something outside themselves. An example is the Binswanger applied Heidegger’s philosophical
statement “I see that girl.” Husserl thought that a ideas to psychiatry and psychology. Binswanger
careful, objective study of mental phenomena could called his approach to psychotherapy Daseinanalysis,
provide a bridge between philosophy and science. or the study of a person’s approach to being-
Both existentialism and phenomenology flour- in-the-world. Like Heidegger, Binswanger believed
ished in Europe around the time of World War II. that the circumstances into which one was thrown
Key figures in France included Maurice Merleau- place limits on personal freedom. Thrownness cre-
Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus. Husserl’s ates what Binswanger called the ground of existence
student Heidegger expanded phenomenology from which one has to begin the process of be-
into existential inquiry. Heidegger studied Dasein, coming by exercising one’s freedom. According to
or being-in-the-world. Heidegger believed that Binswanger, each person attempts to rise above his
although humans have a free will, they are thrown or her ground of existence and to attain being-
by events beyond their control into their life circum- beyond-the-world—that is, to rise above current cir-
stances. Thrownness determines such things as cumstances by transforming them through free
whether a person is male or female, rich or poor, choice. Other existential analysts at the time
attractive or unattractive, and so on. It is up to each included Jaspers, Frankl, and Boss.
person to make the most of his or her life no matter May was primarily responsible for popularizing
what the circumstances. Positive growth occurs when existential psychology in the United States. Like the
562 CHAPTER 17
other existential psychologists, May believed that nor- be realized, one has to use the organismic valuing
mal, healthy living involves the experience of anxiety process as a frame of reference in living one’s life;
because living an authentic life necessitates venturing that is, one has to use one’s own inner feelings in
into the unknown. If a person cannot cope with nor- determining the value of various experiences. If one
mal anxiety, he or she will develop neurotic anxiety lives according to one’s organismic valuing process,
and will be driven from an authentic life to a life of one is a fully functioning person and is living an
conformity or to a life that is overly restrictive. May authentic life. Unfortunately, because humans have
believed that healthy people embrace myths that a need for positive regard, they often allow other
provide a sense of identity and community, support people in their lives to place conditions of worth
moral values, and provide a way of dealing with on them. When conditions of worth replace the
the mysteries of life. People without such myths feel organismic valuing process as a frame of reference
isolated and fearful and often seek professional help. for living one’s life, the person becomes incongruent
May believed the most unique aspects of humans and lives an inauthentic life.
elude traditional scientific methodology and, there- Existential and humanistic psychology share the
fore, if humans are to be studied scientifically, a new beliefs that: humans possess a free will and are there-
human science will need to be created. fore responsible for their actions; phenomenology is
Kelly, who was not formally trained as a clini- the most appropriate method for studying humans;
cal psychologist, tried a number of approaches to humans must be studied as whole beings; the search
helping emotionally disturbed individuals. He for meaning is the most important human motive; all
found that anything that caused his clients to view humans should aspire to live authentic lives; and,
themselves and their problems differently resulted because humans are unique, traditional scientific
in improvement. Because of this observation, methodology cannot be used effectively to study
Kelly concluded that mental problems are really them. The major difference between existential
perceptual problems, and he maintained that and humanistic psychology is that the latter views
humans are free to construe themselves and the human nature as basically good, whereas existential
world in any way they choose. psychologists do not believe we have an innate guid-
According to Maslow, usually considered the ance system. Existential psychologists see freedom as
founder of third-force psychology, human needs a curse as well as a blessing and something from
are arranged in a hierarchy. If one satisfactorily which most humans attempt to escape.
meets the physiological, safety, belonging and Humanistic psychology has been criticized for
love, and esteem needs, then one is in position to offering a description of humans more positive than
become self-actualized. Leading a life characterized the facts warrant, and for minimizing or ignoring
by fullness, spontaneity, and creativity, the self- the positive contributions of behaviorism and psy-
actualizing person is being-motivated rather than choanalysis. Humanistic psychology’s major contri-
deficiency-motivated. That is, because this person bution has been to expand psychology’s domain by
has met the basic needs, he or she does not need urging that all aspects of humans be investigated and
to seek specific things in the environment. Rather, that psychology’s conception of science be changed
he or she can embrace the world fully and openly to allow objective study of uniquely human attri-
and ponder the higher values of life. butes. Recently the field of positive psychology has
Like Kelly, Rogers concluded that the only way emerged, studying positive human attributes but
to understand a person is to determine how that doing so in a manner more scientifically rigorous
person views things—that is, to determine that per- than was often the case with traditional humanistic
son’s subjective reality. This view resulted in psychology. However, both traditional humanistic
Rogers’s famous client-centered therapy, which psychology and positive psychology insist that men-
became a major therapeutic alternative to psycho- tal health is more than the absence of mental illness.
analysis. Like Maslow, Rogers postulated an innate Both describe the truly healthy person as living an
actualizing tendency. For this actualizing tendency to exciting, meaningful life.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is third-force psychology? What did the psychological problems are perceptual
third-force psychologists see as the limitations problems? What techniques did Kelly use to
of the other two forces? help his clients regain their ability to make-
2. Describe Brentano’s phenomenology. What believe?
did he mean by intentionality? What did Husserl 11. What are the main tenets of humanistic
mean by pure phenomenology? psychology?
3. How did Heidegger expand phenomenology? 12. Summarize Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Discuss the following terms and concepts from 13. Why, according to Maslow, are self-actualizing
Heidegger’s theory: Dasein, authenticity, becom- people so rare? List what Maslow found to be
ing, and thrownness. the characteristics of self-actualizing people.
4. Describe Binswanger’s method of Daseinana- 14. Describe what Maslow meant by transpersonal
lysis. Discuss the following terms and concepts psychology.
from Binswanger’s theory: Umwelt, Mitwelt,
15. How did Rogers attempt to measure the
Eigenwelt, world-design, ground of existence, and
effectiveness of psychotherapy?
being-beyond-the-world.
16. For Rogers, what constitutes an incongruent
5. In May’s theory, what is the relationship
person? In your answer, include a discussion of
between anxiety and guilt? What is the difference
the organismic valuing process, the need for
between normal anxiety and neurotic anxiety?
positive regard, and conditions of worth.
6. What, according to May, is the human dilemma?
17. According to Rogers, what are the three major
7. For May, what functions do myths provide in components of any relationship that facilitate
human existence? What determines the con- personal growth?
tent of classical myths? Are some myths better
18. What are the similarities and differences
than others?
between humanistic and existential
8. Describe the relationship between May’s belief psychology?
in the importance of myth in living one’s life
19. Summarize the criticisms and contributions of
and contemporary narrative therapy.
humanistic psychology.
9. Why did Kelly maintain that all humans are
20. Compare the contemporary field of positive
like scientists?
psychology with traditional humanistic
10. Describe Kelly’s approach to psychotherapy. psychology.
What did Kelly mean when he said that
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Becker, E. (1971). The birth and death of meaning (2nd ed.). psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 255–271). Washington, DC:
New York: Free Press. American Psychological Association.
Camus, A. (1956). The fall. New York: Vintage Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning (rev. ed.).
Books. New York: Washington Square Press. (Original
Coon, D. J. (2006). Abraham H. Maslow: Reconnaissance German edition published 1946)
for Eupsychia. In D. A. Dewsbury, L. T. Benjamin Inwood, M. (2000). Heidegger: A very short introduction.
Jr., & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Portraits of pioneers in New York: Oxford University Press.
564 CHAPTER 17
Jankowicz, A. D. (1987). Whatever happened to George Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. Boston, MA:
Kelly? Applications and implications. American Houghton Mifflin.
Psychologist, 42, 481–487. Royce, J. R., & Mos, L. P. (Eds.). (1981). Humanistic
Kirschenbaum, H. (1979). On becoming Carl Rogers. New psychology: Concepts and criticisms. New York: Plenum.
York: Dell. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000).
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. Positive psychology: An introduction. American
New York: Penguin Books. Psychologist, 55, 5–14.
GLOSSARY
Absurd The existential idea that the search for an Camus, Albert (1913–1960) A French writer who
inherent meaning in life is futile. won the Nobel Prize for his works in existential psy-
Anxiety The feeling that results when one confronts chology and political science.
the unknown, as when one contemplates death or when Conditions of worth According to Rogers, the con-
one’s choices carry one into new life circumstances. ditions that the relevant people in our lives place on us
According to existentialists, one cannot live an authentic and that we must meet before these people will give us
life without experiencing anxiety. positive regard.
Authentic life According to existentialists, the type Construct systems According to Kelly, the collection
of life that is freely chosen and not dictated by the of personal constructs with which people make predic-
values of others. In such a life, one’s own feelings, tions about future events.
values, and interpretations act as a guide for Constructive alternativism Kelly’s notion that it is
conduct. always possible to view ourselves and the world in a
Becoming A characteristic of the authentic life variety of ways.
because the authentic person is always becoming Daimonic According to May, any human attribute or
something other than what he or she was. Becoming function that in moderation is positive but in excess is
is the normal, healthy psychological growth of a human negative.
being. Dasein Heidegger’s term for “being-in-the-world.”
Being-beyond-the-world Binswanger’s term for The world does not exist without humans, and humans
becoming. The healthy individual always attempts to do not exist without the world. Because humans exist in
transcend what he or she is. the world, it is there that they must exercise their free
Being motivation For Maslow, the type of motivation will. Being-in-the-world means existing in the world,
that characterizes the self-actualizing person. Because and existing means interpreting and valuing one’s
being motivation is not need-directed, it embraces the experiences and making choices regarding those
higher values of human existence, such as beauty, truth, experiences.
and justice. (Also called B-motivation.) Daseinanalysis Binswanger’s method of psychotherapy
Being perception Perception that embraces fully that requires that the therapist understand the client’s
“what is there” because it is not an attempt to locate worldview. Daseinanalysis examines a person’s mode of
specific items that will satisfy needs. (Also called being-in-the-world.
B-perception.) Deficiency motivation According to Maslow, moti-
vation that is directed toward the satisfaction of some
Binswanger, Ludwig (1881–1966) Applied
specific need. (Also called D-motivation.)
Heidegger’s existential philosophy to psychiatry and
psychology. For Binswanger, a prerequisite for helping Eigenwelt Binswanger’s term for a person’s private,
an emotionally disturbed person is to determine how that inner experiences.
person views himself or herself and the world. (See also Existential psychology The brand of contemporary
Daseinanalysis and World-design.) psychology that was influenced by existential philosophy.
The key concepts in existential psychology include Intentionality Brentano’s contention that every
freedom, individuality, responsibility, anxiety, guilt, mental act refers to something external to the act.
thrownness, and authenticity. Jonah complex According to Maslow, the fear of one’s
Fixed-role therapy Kelly’s brand of therapy whereby own potential greatness.
he would assign a role for his clients to play that was Kelly, George (1905–1967) Emphasized that it is
distinctly different from the client’s self- always possible to construe one’s self and the world in a
characterization. With this type of therapy, the thera- variety of ways. For Kelly, psychological problems are
pist acts much like a supporting actor. (See also Self- essentially perceptual problems.
characterization.)
Maslow, Abraham (1908–1970) A humanistic psy-
Flourishing According to positive psychologists, the chologist who emphasized the innate human tendency
state of being free from mental illness and also living an toward self-actualization. Maslow contended that
enthusiastic, meaningful, and effective life. behaviorism and psychoanalysis provided only a partial
Ground of existence Binswanger’s term for the cir- understanding of human existence and that humanistic,
cumstances into which a person is thrown and according or third-force, psychology needed to be added to com-
to which he or she must make choices. (Also called plete our understanding.
facticity.) (See also Thrownness.)
May, Rollo (1909–1994) Psychologist who was
Guilt The feeling that results most intensely from living instrumental in bringing European existential philosophy
an inauthentic life. and psychology to the United States.
Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976) Expanded Husserl’s Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1908–1961) A French
phenomenology to include an examination of the total- academic psychologist known for his existential phe-
ity of human existence. nomenology. Modern phenomenological psychology is
Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s contention that human often derived from his methods.
needs are arranged in a hierarchy and that lower needs in Mitwelt Binswanger’s term for the realm of social
the hierarchy must be adequately satisfied before atten- interactions.
tion can be focused on higher needs. The most basic and
powerful needs in the hierarchy are physiological needs, Narrative therapy Examines the stories by which
and then come safety needs, needs for belonging and people live and understand their lives and, where nec-
love, and the need for self-esteem. When all lower needs essary, encourages the replacement of ineffective stories
in the hierarchy are adequately satisfied, a person with effective ones.
becomes self-actualizing. Need-directed perception Perception whose purpose
Human dilemma According to May, the paradox that is to locate things in the environment that will satisfy a
results from the dual nature of humans as objects to need. (Also called deficiency perception or
which things happen and as subjects who assign meaning D-perception.)
to their experiences. Need for positive regard According to Rogers, the
Humanistic psychology The branch of psychology need for positive responses from the relevant people in
that is closely aligned with existential psychology. Unlike one’s life.
existential psychology, however, humanistic psychology Neurotic anxiety The abnormal fear of freedom that
assumes that humans are basically good. That is, if negative results in a person living a life that minimizes personal
environmental factors do not stifle human development, choice.
humans will live humane lives. Humanistic psychology is Normal anxiety Results from living an authentic life.
concerned with examining the more positive aspects of (See also Authentic life.)
human nature that behaviorism and psychoanalysis had
neglected. (Also called third-force psychology.) Ontology The study of the nature of existence.
Inauthentic life A life lived in accordance with values Organismic valuing process According to
other than those freely and personally chosen. Such a life Rogers, the innate, internal guidance system that
is characterized by guilt. a person can use to “stay on the track” toward
self-actualization.
Incongruent person Rogers’s term for the person
whose organismic valuing process is replaced by condi- Phenomenology The introspective study of intact,
tions of worth as a guide for living. mental experiences.
566 CHAPTER 17
Positive psychology Field in contemporary psychol- self-actualizing person is open to experience and
ogy that explores the positive attributes of humans but embraces the higher values of human existence.
does so in a more scientifically rigorous and less self- Self-alienation According to existentialists, the condi-
centered way than was often the case with traditional tion that results when people accept values other than
humanistic psychology. those that they attained freely and personally as guides for
Propositional thinking According to Kelly, the living.
experimentation with ideas to see where they lead. Self-characterization The self-description that Kelly
Pure phenomenology The methodology proposed by required of many of his clients before beginning their
Husserl to discover the essence of those mental acts and therapeutic program.
processes by which we gain all knowledge. Shut-upness Kierkegaard’s term for the type of life
Responsibility A necessary by-product of freedom. If lived by a defensive, inauthentic person.
we are free to choose our own existence, then we are Subjective reality A person’s consciousness.
completely responsible for that existence.
Third-force psychology See Humanistic
Rogers, Carl (1902–1987) A humanist psychologist psychology.
whose nondirective and then client-centered psycho-
Thrownness According to Heidegger and Binswanger,
therapy was seen by many as the first viable alternative to
the circumstances that characterize a person’s existence
psychoanalysis as a method for treating troubled indivi-
that are beyond the person’s control. (See also Ground
duals. Like Maslow’s, Rogers’s theory of personality
of existence.)
emphasized the innate tendency toward self-
actualization. According to Rogers, a person continues Transpersonal psychology Maslow’s proposed fourth
toward self-actualization unless his or her organismic force in psychology that stresses the relationship between
valuing process is displaced by conditions of worth as a the individual and the cosmos (universe) and in so doing
guide for living. The only way to avoid creating condi- focuses on the mystical and spiritual aspects of human
tions of worth is to give a person unconditional positive nature.
regard. (See also Conditions of worth, Organismic Umwelt Binswanger’s term for the physical world.
valuing process, Self-actualization, and Uncondi- Unconditional positive regard According to
tional positive regard.) Rogers, the giving of positive regard without any
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905–1980) A French philosopher preconditions.
with interests in psychology. His existential writings World-design (Weltanschauung) Binswanger’s term
earned him a Nobel Prize. for a person’s basic orientation toward the world
Self-actualization According to Rogers and Maslow, and life.
the innate human tendency toward wholeness. The

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17

THE MIND, THE BODY, AND THE SPIRIT

those proposed by the British empiricists and Martin Heidegger

fact and thereby inhibit a full understanding of them-

activities without concern for the future. The inau-

Normal and Neurotic Anxiety. May believed,

sibility, uncertainty, and therefore anxiety. The

May was not the only proponent of existential-

the State University of Iowa, where he obtained

expressed in psychological terms. It is

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

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