Gce Health and Social Care Childcare Pathways

Unit 3
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Section 1
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Key areas of
development in
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children and young
people
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Content
In this section learners will gain knowledge and understanding of:
• key areas of development in children and young people.
This includes:
• physical, cognitive, language, intellectual, social and emotional
development.
Amplification
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Learners should understand • language, including:
the key areas of development in components of language
children and young people (0-18 development; stages of
years) communication; difficulties
in communication, including
• physical, including: the language delay, impairments,
biological aspect, the use and language differences
purpose of measurements,
normative measures, sensory • emotional and social, including:
development, the key social interaction; importance
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milestones of development for of attachment; consequences
gross and fine motor skills and of separation from primary
coordination, puberty carers; development of feelings
and awareness of oneself,
• intellectual/cognitive, feelings towards other people,
including: the thinking process, personality, relationships with
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problem-solving and memory, other people.
imagination and creativity,
reasoning, perception,
concentration and attention
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Chapter 1: Physical development
The b iolo g ica l a spect
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Understanding how children develop is one of the key principles of working with children. Our
understanding of child development informs all areas of our practice and is integral in
supporting each individual child to achieve their optimum developmental outcomes.
The biological aspect of child development plays a vital role in the early development of the
child and can influence the child in either a positive or a negative way. Some periods of the
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child’s development are particularly important,

such as developing in the womb and the very
early stages of the child’s life. Some critical Keywords
biological factors are genetics passed on from
Biological Maturation
the child’s parents, brain chemistry, hormone
levels, nutrition and gender. Macronutrients
Micronutrients
Section 1 | Chapter 1 3
Principles of Child Development
• Development starts from the child’s head and continues down the body.
• Development always occurs in the same order, but the speed or rate of that
development can change.
• All developmental areas are interdependent or linked together.
Key areas of development in children and young people
Expansion:
• It is essential for all practitioners to understand the principles of child development.
This way, we can best support each individual child to develop to their full potential.
Understanding the sequence of development from the head down the spine and
from the spinal cord out to the hands and feet allows us to identify any possible
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developmental delays and problems and give the child the support needed.
• Development occurs in each child in sequence, but the rate of this development is
different for each individual child. A baby needs to hold their head up independently to
learn to sit and needs to be able to stand before they can walk. Some children will walk
as early as nine months, whereas others may not walk until they reach 18 months old.
• Areas of development link to each other: a child who is not spoken to cannot develop
language skills, and language skills are linked to the development of other skills,
such as hearing. A child who is not given love and support to aid their development
will suffer developmental delay across all areas. Babies who are communicated with
consistently through facial gestures, body language and verbal communication will
smile, interact and speak earlier than those who receive fewer social stimuli.
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Nutrition
Nutrition is vitally important for all aspects of a child’s development. Before a child is born,
the mother’s health and diet directly influence the development of her child in the womb.
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Expectant mothers are advised to take 400 mg of folic acid every day to avoid birth defects,
such as spina bifida. This can be even more effective with planned pregnancies when folic acid
is taken for three months prior to conception. Folic acid deficiency, when it occurs between
21 and 28 days after conception, makes the unborn child more likely to develop a congenital
malformation called neural tube defect. From conception to their early years, a child’s brain
can be affected greatly by nutrition as the brain matures and undergoes significant structural
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development.
Nutrition is the foundation for good health and development in the early years of a child’s life.
Poor nutrition can cause delays in both cognitive and physical development that can last into
later childhood or adulthood and, in extreme cases, can cause serious illness or death. It is
important that all children consume the correct number of macronutrients, including protein,
fat and carbohydrates, and micronutrients, such as vitamin A, iron and zinc. Reversing the
effects in young children is easier than in older children as after the age of two deficiencies
become more difficult to address.
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Physical Development
Children go through many physical changes in the first few months and years of life. They go
through biological maturation which includes developing their motor skills and changing the
size and shape of their brains. These processes are affected by the nutritional status of the
child.
Good nutrition is also vital for cognitive/intellectual development, including functions such as
memory, learning and understanding. If good nutrition has a positive impact on these functions,
then for children who have dietary deficiencies, poor nutrition will impact in a negative impact.
Dietary deficiencies
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There are two different types of child malnutrition which can impact on development –
undernutrition and overnutrition. These often have a negative impact on the child’s health
and development, as shown in the table below.
Developmental effects of Developmental effects of

undernutrition: overnutrition:
• less energy • obesity
• less interest in learning and play • cardio-metabolic disease, e.g. Diabetes
• poor academic performance • lack of confidence
•
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slower rate of growth • difficulty in participating in physical
• lower body weight exercise
• shorter in comparison to other children • heart disease and stroke in adulthood
Genetics
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Genetics has a profound effect on the development
of each individual child. Events such as the timing of
a child reaching puberty are usually due to genetics,
though environmental factors, such as nutrition,
can have some impact. The interaction of hereditary
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factors with a child’s environment shapes how that

child will develop. A child’s genetic information
develops from their parents’. When a child is
conceived, both the father’s sperm and the mother’s
egg contain chromosomes. The genes in these
chromosomes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) that contain the embryo’s genetic code. All
cells in the body, except reproductive cells, have 46
chromosomes.
A genotype is the genes a person has inherited, and a phenotype is how the genes are
exhibited. Physical traits, such as height and eye colour, are a phenotype. Some genes are
dominant, and some are recessive so a child with one brown-eyed parent and one blue-eyed
parent is more likely to be brown-eyed as brown eyes is the dominant gene for eye colour.
Genes do not always control the development of a child, for example, a child who has two tall
parents could end up being smaller due to poor
nutrition. Sometimes genetics can cause children to

be born with a genetic abnormality, such as Fragile Keywords
X syndrome — when part of the X chromosome is
attached to other chromosomes by a very fragile Genetic
string of molecules. Some sufferers have few Chromosomes
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symptoms while others can have mild to severe Genotype
learning difficulties.
Phenotype
The most common chromosome disorder is Down’s Abnormality

syndrome, where the child has three chromosomes
at the site of the 21st chromosome instead of two.
Down’s syndrome can cause some physical problems, such as heart defects and hearing
problems. A child with Down's syndrome will have some degree of learning disability, but the
level of ability will be different for each child.
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Test your knowledge:
1. Define a gene and a chromosome.
2. Discuss the importance of nutrition in the development of an infant before and

after birth.
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Gender
The female and male brains are not identical. The male brain is more lateralised with the two
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hemispheres operating in a more independent manner, for example, when holding a

conversation. Females use the hemispheres in a more equal way. The male brain is also slightly
larger at all developmental stages, even in ratio to body size. Neuroscientific experiments
taking electrical measurements of the brain have demonstrated significant differences in the
brain function of girls and boys from birth. By three months old their brains show different
responses to human speech. As this is such an early response, it is thought to be controlled by
sex related genes and hormones. The testosterone levels in the male foetus start to rise just
seven weeks after conception, which affects the growth and development of neurons in the
brain. It is thought that female hormones also impact on brain development but further
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research on the impact of this is needed.
Gender differences in the brain are reflected in the developmental stages of the two
genders. When we measure cognitive development, female children are more advanced
than male children of the same age. This also
applies to sensory development. Girl infants often
show better social perception, showing greater Keywords
responses to voices and faces. Their senses,
such as hearing, touch, smell and vision, are Neuroscience
more developed too, along with their memory. Hormones
It is not just cognitive development in which girls Testosterone
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develop more rapidly but their fine motor skills
and language development also tend to be more
advanced.
Growth
There are significant differences between

growth and development although both are
interconnected. Growth can be simply measured
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and is visible to the eye. We can see the child
change in size as they increase in height and
weight. If we look at a new-born baby, it has
considerable physical differences to an adult or
even an older child. A baby’s head is considerably
larger, proportionally, than its body as by nine
months old the infant’s brain will already be half
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the size of an adult’s. A new-born baby therefore
lacks the strength and muscle control to hold
up its own head so will need to have their head
supported by an adult. A baby has just enough
muscle control to move the head from side to
side, yet the rate of growth for an infant is so
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rapid that by four to five months most infants can

sit up unaided. This is due to our spinal cord and
nervous system developing from the head down
to the bottom of the spinal cord and from the
spinal cord out to the limbs, hands and feet. We
can observe the rapidity of this development as a
new-born can only move their arms and legs in an uncoordinated and random way, whereas
by a year old they will have the dexterity to form a tower of small blocks using a pincer-like
grip.
Bone development
Babies have a different amount of bones to adults as their bones need to be more flexible as
they travel through the birth canal. As they grow and develop, these bones will become harder
and will fuse to create larger bones, changing the amount of bones in the body from around
300 to just 206.
Growth and developmental stage of a Growth and developmental advances in

baby at birth: the child by 16 years old:
• average weight of 3-4kg • average weight of 60-65kg
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• average length of 45-55cm • average height of 160-180cm
• unable to hold head up, no independent • can walk, run, jump, climb and
mobility participate in work and sports
• cannot talk and can only babble or cry to • can use complex language to
communicate communicate and can often speak more
• does not understand or follow than one language
instructions • becomes independent – able to feed,
• is fully dependent on adults to meet all dress and think for themselves
basic needs
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T he u se a nd purpo se o f
measur ement s
From the moment a pregnancy is confirmed, the child

will be monitored and measured in its development to
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ensure the child is healthy and developing in the expected
way. Both mother and child are monitored throughout
the pregnancy. This makes the pregnancy safer and
assesses the development and well-being of the baby.
The baby will also be screened for particular conditions
affecting development, such as Down’s syndrome, Edwards’
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Syndrome and Patau’s syndrome. At the 12-week dating

scan, a baby’s size is checked as well as whether multiple
birth or problems with the placenta are present.
Once the baby is born, health care professionals will

continue to measure the child’s growth to identify possible
disabilities or growth problems. Monitoring will also identify
if the child’s growth is following expected patterns. The
measurements are carried out at birth and at regular intervals in the child’s life.
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Measurements taken to monitor development

• The child’s weight will be measured to ensure they are not gaining or losing too
much weight which could indicate feeding difficulties that would impact on the child’s
nutrition and growth.
• The child’s length/height will be measured to diagnose any problems with their growth
• The child’s head circumference will be measured to ensure the brain is developing
correctly as a child’s brain does 80% of it’s growing in the first two years of life. These
measurements allow doctors to assess brain growth as the skull bones fuse. At this
stage, it is normal for the head to be larger in comparison to height and weight.
• Genetics will also be a factor in the child’s development. If parents are particularly tall
or short, the child will inherit these traits. If parents have a large head, the child will
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too. A consistent pattern of growth is the important factor in these measurements.
Growth percentiles
Percentiles are the measurements used by healthcare professionals to measure the growth
of a child compared to other children of the same age. These are drawn on graphs as lines in
a curved pattern. The healthcare professional will plot the child’s height and weight on a chart
to assess in which percentile line the measurements are. The higher the percentile where the
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child’s measurements land, the bigger the child is compared with other children of the same
age and gender.
Birth to 36 months: Boys NAME
For example, if a 3-year-old boy’s weight is in

Length-for-age and Weight-for-age percentiles RECORD #
Birth 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
the 95th percentile, it means that 95% of other

in cm AGE (MONTHS)
cm in
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3-year-old boys weigh less than he does and
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5% of boys weigh more. This demonstrates that

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the child is above average size for his age and

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gender. A child being above or below average

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size does not indicate a problem. Often this

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reflects the height of the parents as a child’s

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height is often genetic. A baby in the 10th

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but can be just as healthy as a larger child. It is 18

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The WHO growth charts for girls (left) from birth to age 2, published by the CDC in 2009.
There are some patterns of growth that can indicate a problem. For example, if a child has
been on the 60th percentile and then drops to the 40th percentile this shows a change in
growth pattern that could indicate a growth problem, but could also be a natural slowing of
growth as rates can vary at certain times. There can also be a problem if height and weight
are vastly different percentiles. For example, if the height is in the 30th percentile and weight
is in the 60th percentile the child could be overweight.
CASE STUDY
Lowri has one child, Lois, aged 4, and has just found that she is 6 weeks
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pregnant. Lowri finds it hard to afford healthy nutritious foods on her income,
and often has to buy cheaper, less healthy options. She often does not have
enough money to buy fresh fruit and vegetables and finds it difficult to buy
suitable foods on her wage. Lowri sometimes uses food banks. Lowri smokes
and says this is because she is stressed and anxious because she struggles to
pay her bills but does not smoke in the house. She drinks alcohol regularly but
has reduced her intake since becoming pregnant. Lois was 5 weeks premature
and is small for her age.
1. Explain two ways that Lowri’s lifestyle could affect the development of her
A unborn child.
2. Discuss how Lowri would discover that Lois is small for her age.
3. Identify 3 reasons why Lois might be small for her age.

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1. State what measurements are taken of babies to monitor growth, and

discuss their purpose.
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2. Explain what is meant by a growth percentile.
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N o rmativ e mea sures
Healthy Child Wales Programme

• It has been recognised by the Welsh Government that the early years are vitally
important in the future health and well-being of all children. The Healthy Child Wales
Programme ensures positive and equal developmental outcomes.
• This has led to increased investment in prevention and early intervention services in
pregnancy and early years, including screening tests, immunisations, developmental
reviews and information and guidance to support parenting and healthy choices. It also
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aims to identify families in need of additional support and children who may be at risk
of poor outcomes.
• The Government wants to support each child to reach their full potential for health and
well-being.
Related legislation, strategy, programmes and ways of working:

• Legislation and strategy: The Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014 and Well-
being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015.
• Programmes and standards: The Child Measurement Programme for Wales, the
National Minimum Standards for Regulated Childcare for children up to the age of 12
years, and the Foundation Phase baseline assessment.
•
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Ways of working: co-production, prudent healthcare, active participation and patient
activation.
The Healthy Child Wales Programme (HCWP) was launched after an NHS Wales-led review of
the way children and their families are supported in Wales. Research shows support in the
early years of life will positively affect a child’s health, social and educational development
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and their long-term outcomes. Through the HCWP the NHS will give support from pregnancy
through the first seven years of a child’s life and early education. The HCWP promotes three
areas of intervention: screening, immunisation, and monitoring child development. This
covers a wide range of services, including maternity, health visits, school nursing, mental
health, social services, education, dentistry, and Flying Start who will give advice and support
to families during the early years. There is now an all-Wales approach to child surveillance by
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Health Visitors and School Nurses with a schedule of health visits and school nursing contacts
for every child.
There have been many reports whose findings state that support and intervention in the early
years have a considerable impact on the health, social and educational outcomes for children
(Black Report 1980, Acheson 1998, Marmot 2010). Lack of support and intervention can cause
great harm to the future outcomes of the child (Welsh Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE)
Study 2015). The HCWP aims to support families by addressing any harmful behaviours and
health inequalities and child poverty.
M ilestones
Milestones are a stage in the developmental process that are based on research done by
experts in child development on what a child can do by a certain age. These milestones
are based on the age at which most children can do a certain thing, such as walking by
18 months. As already discussed, children reach

milestones at different ages and many children will
walk much earlier than this. What is important is if Keywords
the child has the ability to do this by the ‘milestone
Milestones
age.’ Whether a child learns to do things quickly or
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more slowly is dependent on many different factors, Developmental
but even though children will develop at different norms
rates they will follow the same sequence or pattern.
Children’s development is split into different areas
to allow for easier assessment and identification of any potential delays or problems in a
child’s development. The milestones are grouped into stages according to the age when the
child could be expected to achieve that milestone.
Developmental norms are decided through looking at a group of children and studying the
age at which they reach a significant developmental milestone. Children’s developmental
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milestones are measured as soon as they enter a childcare setting and would have been
monitored prior to this by their health visitor or GP. The teacher or Early Years worker will
need to support each individual child’s learning and so will need to know where that child
is in relation to their milestones on entering the setting and whether they are making good
developmental progress. The childcare professional will observe the child and use the
developmental milestones to compare where the child currently is in their development for
their age, and if they need extra help or support in any of the developmental areas.
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The Early Years Development and Assessment
Framework in Wales
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In ‘Building a Brighter Future: Early Years and Childcare Plan’ the Welsh Government introduced
a system of assessing, tracking and monitoring the development and progress of children in the
early years. The Early Years Development and Assessment Framework (EYDAF) was developed
to provide an assessment framework to chart children’s progress from birth to seven years
old. Part of the EYDAF is the development of the Foundation Phase profile. The purpose of
the Foundation Phase child development assessment profile is to assess children within six
weeks of entering the Foundation Phase, at age three, to provide a ‘baseline’ assessment. The
assessment will use the development areas to assess each individual child.
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ACTIVITY
Complete the table by deciding whose role it is to monitor the child during
certain times in their development and how this benefits the child.
Stage of Professional How this benefits the

development or monitoring child
circumstances development
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Example: Midwife • Measurements from
The child and mother GP ultrasound scan to check
during all stages Hospital development.
of pregnancy and Radiographer • Blood tests and other
immediately after screening tests to check
birth for abnormalities in
baby.
• Check mother’s blood
pressure and weight to
make sure she is healthy.
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The child from birth to GP
three years old Health Visitor
A 3-year-old child with a GP

developmental delay in Health Visitor
language Speech Therapist
Early Years
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Practitioner
A child who has been Flying start… • Multi-agency working
identified as being born will ensure the child
into poverty does not suffer health
inequalities and support
both parent and child.
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A child starting school/ • Baseline assessment…

nursery at 3 years old
An 8-year-old child at
primary school
1. Explain the key aspects of the Foundation Phase.
2. Describe how children’s development is assessed when they enter the Foundation
Phase.
3. Discuss how the Healthy Child Wales Programme (HCWP) supports and monitors
children’s development to ensure all children achieve positive outcomes.
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Sensor y dev elopmen t
When a baby is born its senses are still developing, it may have recognition of the voice of its
mother from its time in the womb, but eyesight will be out of focus and blurred. The baby can
taste milk and receive comfort from suckling. Babies use their mouths as a way of exploring
the world around them. A six-month-old child will grasp objects and put them in their mouth
using taste as a way of making sense of their world, which is an important part of the child’s
development.
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How a baby’s senses develop from birth
Vision - the stimulation of • At one month, babies enjoy looking at the human face
light receptors in our eyes and bright colours. They can see only 30cm in front of
interpreted by the brain as them.
visual images. • At two months, babies can follow an object when moved
in front of their face and see colours.
• At three months, a baby can focus on a face 1-2m away.
• At 7-12 months, a baby’s sight has developed to be the
same as an adult’s.
Hearing - the reception of • At one month, a baby’s hearing is the same as an adult’s
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sound, through a series of hearing. They recognise the voice of their parent or
complex steps that change caregiver from a distance such as the next room.
sound waves in the air • At four months, they start to communicate by babbling
into electrical signals. Our and recognise that tone of voice means different things.
auditory nerve then carries • At six months, babies start copying the sounds they
these signals to the brain. hear spoken. Even though they cannot say any words,
they can understand many of the words they hear.
• At 12 months, babies are beginning to use language,
and start to say their first word.
Touch - the stimulation from • Babies all enjoy the comfort of touch as it makes them
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touch receptors in our skin
that react to temperature
feel secure. Touch is part of the bonding process
between caregiver and infant.
and pressure.
Smell - The stimulation of • From birth, a baby’s sense of taste and smell is well
chemical receptors in the developed and they are attracted by the sweet smell
nose. and taste of their mother’s milk.
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Taste - The stimulation from • From six months, babies experience and explore objects
taste receptors that react to through taste and will put most things in their mouths.
chemicals in our mouth.
From their birth, a baby’s senses are constantly developing and are used to explore the
world around them. This is done through taste, smell, touch, sight and hearing. Using the
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senses is part of the learning process, and throughout life familiar smells, sights, tastes and
textures trigger our memories. It is important for children’s development that they are given
opportunities to learn, experience and explore through their senses. This is an important
aspect of brain development, as it builds neural connections and pathways within the child’s
brain. These pathways will develop to allow the child to complete more complex learning tasks
and promotes their cognitive development, problem-solving and analytical skills, motor skills
and social skills. It is for this reason that experiential learning is promoted in settings and
schools in Wales to allow children to learn through their experiences and explore the world
through their senses.
Sensory play is an important part of every child’s development and learning and is included
in most Early Years Curricula. It is especially important for children with certain types of
Additional Learning Needs. Sensory play includes all activities which stimulate the child’s
senses. Sensory play allows children to
build stronger connections in the brain
which support the processing of
sensory information. Sensory activities

stimulate the child’s natural curiosity
and allow them to explore, investigate
and discover whilst using creative
thinking and scientific techniques.
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Sensory play allows children to
experiment with textures, smells,
sounds and feelings that are unfamiliar
in a safe environment.
For example, a child who has

demonstrated a fear of water and
getting wet hands can learn through water play to trust and understand the properties of
liquids, and this can help them believe that getting wet is positive and it is safe to get their
hands wet, demonstrating how sensory play can help alter beliefs and behaviours.
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Why is sensory play beneficial to the development of children?
Research shows that sensory Sensory play supports

play builds nerve connections language development,
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Sensory play aids in
in the brain’s pathways, which cognitive growth, fine and
developing and enhancing
lead to the child’s ability to gross motor skills, problem
memory.
complete more complex solving skills, and social
learning tasks. interaction.
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Sensory play helps children Sensory play helps children

to feel calm and relaxed understand sensory
when they are feeling concepts, such as hot, cold,
anxious, bored or frustrated. sticky, smooth, rough etc.
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Key milest o nes of dev e l o p m e n t o f

gross a nd fine mot or s k i l l s an d
C oor d in a t ion
Babies are born with what are commonly termed as ‘primitive reflexes’. These reflexes are
termed because they are thought to be part of
the evolutionary process. All mammals have
primitive reflexes and they would have helped
babies to survive during the evolutionary
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past, such as the rooting reflex which helps
breastfeeding babies find their mother’s
nipple. Other reflexes include suckling and
grabbing which contribute to establishing
the bond between parent and child and
encourage the response of the parent with
love and affection. These reflexes are tested
by healthcare professionals immediately
following birth to ensure the central nervous
system is functioning correctly. Usually, they
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disappear by six months old when the baby starts to control its physical responses in a more
deliberate way. Physical development is the development of all the important skills we use
to control our bodies; from the development of the large muscles needed to crawl, walk, run,
skip and hop to the small muscles we use for tasks such as eating and writing and hand-eye
coordination. These are often termed as gross and fine motor skills.
• Fine motor skills need more precision and control in the small muscles of our hands,
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for example, holding a paintbrush.
• Gross motor skills use the large muscles of the body to control larger movements,
such as running or jumping.
There are typical ages when children develop different motor skills. Although all children will
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not reach these milestones at the same time, there are expected norms of development like
there is in other developmental areas. Some children may have a delay in developing these
skills and struggle to move in a coordinated and controlled manner. These children will need
to be assessed and possibly require extra support, such as physiotherapy or occupational
therapy.
Fine motor skills require children to coordinate the movements of their hands and fingers with
their eyes and need certain levels of manual dexterity. These skills include the ability to grip
and manipulate small objects and co-ordinating both hands to accomplish a task. They also
involve picking up objects with a finger and thumb rather than with the whole hand in a fist
grip; this is often referred to as the pincer grip. Activities that can be planned in a setting or
school to help develop children’s fine motor skills are craft and mark-making activities, using
tongs and other pincer-like tools and building with lego or small blocks.
Gross motor skills are movements involving large muscle groups and are a large part of
children’s physical play. They include walking, running and jumping and can also need hand-
eye coordination in the case of throwing or catching a ball, and also foot-eye coordination
when skipping with a rope or kicking a ball.
Assessing whether a child is reaching their physical developmental milestones is often easier
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with gross motor skills as it is easy to see if a child can walk or run and measure their ability to
accomplish physical activities.
Balance and coordination are necessary skills

for a child to develop in order to live a full and
active life. Balance is the ability of the child to
control and maintain their body position. Balance
is needed in many aspects of daily life, from
stepping down from a kerb to sitting up straight
in a chair. To be able to function physically
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will encounter, children need to be able to
balance when still and when moving the body, for example, when riding a bike. Balance
and coordination develop as the child grows and matures and is needed for taking part
in sports and all physical activities. It is important for children to be able to exercise and
participating in sport improves children’s social development. Balance and coordination also
protect children from injury as they will be less likely to fall and will have the correct postural
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response if they do fall, such as reaching out their hands to protect themselves. Balance and
coordination are also needed for tasks involving fine motor skills, such as sitting at a desk
and writing or painting at an easel. Gross and fine motor skills, balance and coordination
all develop as the child grows and matures. They are expected milestones in physical
development that the child is expected to reach by a certain age.
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1. Explain what fine and gross motor skills are, and how they can be
developed.
2. Discuss the importance of developing balance and coordination for children’s

development.
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Key Milestones of Development of Gross and Fine Motor skills and coordination
Age of
Expected Milestones
Child
New-born • Baby lies on back with its head to one side
• Baby shows primitive reflexes, such as suckling, rooting and grasping
• Baby’s head lags when pulled to sit up and needs adult support
3 months • Grasps objects when touched on palm of hand
• Hands grasped in tight fists
• Baby watches own hands when it moves them and plays with its hands and
fingers
• Can hold a toy or object for a few seconds when placed in hands
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• Can lift head and turn it from side to side when placed on its tummy
6 months • Can sit with support
• Can roll over
• Can push its head, neck and chest off floor when lying on its tummy using
arms as support
• Can pass a toy or object from one hand to another using its whole hand and
palmer grip
9 months • Can often crawl or shuffle as a means of mobility
• Sits alone without support and reaches out for toys whilst sitting
• Begins to use pincer grip for picking up small toys using its thumb and middle
or index finger
1 year • Can stand alone and starts to walk by holding on to furniture or objects
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• Want to feed themselves and can hold a cup and drink with support
• Can pick any small item from a table or floor using pincer grip
• Starts to show a preference for either right or left hand
18 months • Can walk unaided
• Can squat to pick up an object from the floor, and use a delicate pincer grip
for very small objects
• Can roll and throw a ball
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• Can hold a crayon or pencil in a tripod grasp to make marks and scribbles
2 years • Builds a tower of six bricks
• Climbs on furniture
• Can walk downstairs with both feet on the same step
• Can draw dots and circles, begins to draw representative images
3 years • Can draw a face
• Can pedal a tricycle or bike
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• Can kick a ball with ease

• Can turn individual pages
4 years • Can run, jump, skip and hop
• Can cut around objects with scissors
• Can hold a pencil correctly in a pencil grip
• Starts to form letters and write own name
5 years - • Can jump rope or ride a bike
8 years • Can draw or paint
• Can brush teeth, comb hair, and complete basic grooming tasks
• Can practice physical skills to get better at them
CASE STUDY
Sam is 18 months old and has just had his 18-month check with the Health
Visitor. The Health Visitor has told Sam’s mum that he has not yet met all his
expected milestones for his age. The Health Visitor suggested that Sam’s mum
could do some activities with Sam to promote his physical development.
1. Identify five milestones of physical development Sam might have been

expected to reach by 18 months.
2. Discuss how the Health Visitor could have explained what those milestones
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are to Sam’s mum and reassured her about why Sam has not yet fully
achieved them.
3. Suggest an activity Sam’s mum could do with Sam to support the

development of gross motor skills.
4. Suggest an activity Sam’s mum could do with Sam to support the

development of fine motor skills.
Pu b erty
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During puberty, a child’s body starts to develop and change. Girls develop breasts and they
start periods, boys’ voices become deeper and they develop facial hair. Puberty will begin for
girls at an average age of 11 whereas for boys it is 12, but puberty can begin anywhere between
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8 and 14 years and takes about 4 years. Both boys and girls reach maturity at 18 years.
Changes during puberty in girls Changes during puberty in boys

• Weight gain, which is normal as the body • Testicles get larger and redden
starts to change shape • Pubic hair grows at the base of the penis
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• Periods start about 2 years after the • Pubic hair becomes thicker
onset of puberty • Boys begin to sweat more, and
• Pubic hair grows and becomes thicker underarm hair starts to grow
• Girls begin to sweat more, and • The voice breaks and becomes
underarm hair starts to grow permanently deeper
• Acne and spots can develop • Acne and spots can develop
• Girls become taller and develop more • Boys become taller and more muscular
body hair on arms and legs • Facial hair grows and boys may begin to
shave
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During puberty, both boys and girls can suffer from mood swings as this is a difficult time
for children and they can often feel self-conscious about changes in their bodies, developing
acne or body odour. The effect of hormones and changes in their bodies can often have a
psychological and emotional impact causing depression, low self-esteem, mood swings and
aggressive behaviour.
Practitioners are interested in children’s holistic development, which includes
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their physical, cognitive and language development.
1. Describe, with reference to gross motor skills and fine motor skills, the key
milestones of physical development for a child aged between 0 and 2 years.
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Chapter 2: Cognitive/Intellectual development
The thin k ing pro cess
As babies take in and process information about their surroundings, they create neural
pathways as their neurons branch out and make new connections. Each neuron will have
multiple connections to other neurons. The neurons do not touch but pass information
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across gaps called synapses. Chemicals in our brains – called neurotransmitters – help to
send these messages. Some neural pathways are present at birth, such as those that control
breathing and circulation, whereas others need to be formed. These pathways are formed
by the child from birth based on their experiences and understanding of their environment.
Sound, sight, taste, smell, touch and feelings cause the brain to release neurotransmitters
which in turn help the child to form new neural pathways in their brain. The more a neural
pathway is used, the stronger it becomes. Those that aren’t used get weaker and disappear
because children have more neural pathways than are needed for their development. This
is a process called pruning. Pruning continues throughout childhood as children’s brains
have what is called plasticity, which means they
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can constantly build new connections and refine
existing ones. Plasticity is an important part of Keywords
cognitive development as not all children process
Neural pathways
information in the same way. For some children
their brains do not use neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters
as effectively which makes creating and Synapses
strengthening neural pathways difficult. This is
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Plasticity
why it is important to support children by giving
them enhanced opportunities to learn and
process information in different ways, to build
neural pathways by experiential learning, which allows neural pathways to be created in a
variety of different ways.
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Pr ob lem so lv ing a nd m e m o r y
Babies are born with excellent memories in order to process the vast amount of information
they encounter and understand how this information fits with what they already know and
understand. If a baby drops a toy from their pram, they will look for that toy and remember it
has dropped to the floor. They will often do this repeatedly to encourage the adult to retrieve
this which becomes a game but also reinforces their memory through repetition.
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Cognitive/Intellectual Development
Young children also demonstrate problem solving skills, concentration and attention. If they
cannot yet master a skill, they will keep trying until they can. For example, a child learning to walk
will fall but will keep trying until they master the skill. This demonstrates both concentration
and problem solving. If the child gave up they would never learn to walk, but they use the
information learnt in order to keep trying and achieve their goal.
Imaginative Play and Creativity
Imaginative play develops along with memory and language where children use everyday
objects to create imaginative games, such as turning a cardboard box into a train or a
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castle. Imaginative and creative play is a way for children to learn about the world. During
imaginative play children are able to act out different roles, interact with their environment,
manipulate different materials and express themselves through language and non-verbally.
It allows them to plan complex stories and scenarios, which are the skills they will later use
to create written stories, and is a way for the child to develop ingenuity, creativity, logic,
reasoning and problem solving skills. All activities can be part of imaginative play: dolls,
home corner, construction
play with blocks, lego or
bricks, painting, playdough,
messy play with sand and
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water and outdoor play, and
will further development.
Imagination in children
promotes cognitive and social
development. To ensure
children reach their full
potential in cognitive, social
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and emotional development
it is necessary to plan
activities where children can
experiment with new ways
to do things and discovering
new information. As part of children’s development goals in early childhood, critical thinking
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and creative problem solving are vital. Imagination boosts social development because
children can practice different interactions with others in different scenarios, giving them
confidence and developing empathy and language skills. Teachers and practitioners will plan
themed activities that inspire children’s imagination whilst they play.
Activities that involve imaginative play How activities benefit child development
• Spending time outdoors, learning about • Develops creativity through imaginative
the natural word through splashing play and problem-solving skills.
in puddles, drawing in sand, building Children develop their knowledge
castles and dens using natural objects, and understanding of the world and
digging in mud and making mud cakes, confidence in their abilities in a safe
craft activities using natural objects such environment.
as pinecones. • Develops language skills and develops a
• Providing activities and resources where more extensive vocabulary. Encourages
children can invent their own scenarios, children to develop social skills through
such as home corner, shop, hospital, playing with other children and acting
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café, puppets and dolls. Practitioners out adult roles. Children should lead
can join in and support play by taking a play, with adults joining in sensitively to
role in the scenario. Dressing up clothes build creativity and leadership skills and
and using equipment, such as pots organise their thoughts.
and pans or money and tools, can help • Painting and art allow children
children use their imagination. to express their feelings and
• Providing craft and art activities process emotions. This encourages
that are varied and interesting with concentration and attention whilst
many different materials to support giving a sense of freedom. It also
creative expression, such as paint, promotes imagination and creativity
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clay, sculpture, collage, junk modelling
and manipulating natural materials.
whilst developing fine motor skills and
hand-eye coordination, and improves
Children should be allowed to use their children’s confidence and self-esteem.
imagination freely and should not be • All sorts of literacy activities promote
directed to specific tasks by adults. cognitive, social, language and moral
• Songs, rhymes, plays and stories and development. They help children
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making up their own stories and songs develop their imagination and creativity
with props, puppets and story sacks whilst teaching them about right and
including stories with moral dilemmas. wrong and using stories to help children
understand dangers, such as road safety
and stranger danger.
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Reasoning and Logic
Reasoning and logic are thought processes that need to develop throughout childhood. One
of the first and most complicated concepts a child needs to understand is their own
existence as an individual being. To understand their own impact on those around them and
the world they need to see themselves as a separate person. From this understanding they
can start to realise how their actions can affect others. Children need to develop their own
identity and know they have a name which indicates that when used others are talking to
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Cognitive/Intellectual Development
them. It is from this concept of self that empathy for others can develop. In the early years,
children develop social skills quite slowly as they have not yet developed empathy which is
the ability to see things from the perspective or
point of view of another. They can be critical and
Keywords
lack understanding of others’ decisions, choices
and opinions. Children begin to think in a more Perception
logical way from about the age of 7, when they
Logic
are able to make connections and use their brains
to solve problems and process information they Reasoning
learn and connect it to what they already know.
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Perception
Children’s perception undergoes many changes from birth which we are only able to fully
understand by observing a child’s behaviour and the way they interact with the world around
them. When a child is around four months old, they begin dropping items, picking them up
and grasping objects that are within their reach. Research has shown this is part of the child’s
growing ability to differentiate between distances, which further develops as they need to walk
and determine the distance or number of steps to where they want to go. Babies recognise
voices from a very early age but need to learn individual sounds; by six months they can
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recognise the unique sounds of their native language. By the age of one year a child is starting
to experiment with cause and effect. Children will act in a way that causes a reaction, such as
pushing a button to make a noise on an electronic toy. They also begin to understand more
complex abstract concepts including the difference between inanimate and animate objects
and the fact that objects exist even when they cannot see them, for example if a ball rolls
under the sofa, the child knows the ball is still there even if they cannot see it.
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Concentration and Attention
Attention is the ability of the child to concentrate on a task for a period of time. Attention and
concentration can be influenced by the child’s motivation and self-esteem, their interest in the
task and how practiced they are at accomplishing the task and their age and ability.
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Attention is important to allow us to focus on what is important without being distracted

by other stimuli and sustain concentration. Children need to sustain attention to learn and
repeatedly practice tasks which is vital to develop skills. Attention and concentration are not
something children are born with. They increase as the child develops. Problems with attention
can develop for a variety of reasons, such as hearing difficulties or an environment which is
very noisy or busy which makes it difficult to concentrate.
Signs of attention problems in children Developmental difficulties in children
with attention problems
• Not able to complete a task when
requested • Not able to learn new skills
• Cannot follow instructions or miss details • Difficulties with social interactions
in instructions • Cannot follow instructions
• Repeatedly make the same mistake on • Difficulties remembering and learning

a task and are not learning from their new words
mistakes • Difficulties hearing
• Not able to complete a task as they are • Difficulties understanding new
easily distracted on a repeated basis information
• Cannot sit and settle to tasks • Difficulties completing a given task
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Children with attention difficulties also often
demonstrate other developmental difficulties.
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Chapter 3: Language Development
L angu a ge D ev elopmen t
In this chapter you will learn about children’s language development and how to support
and promote it. Language development is where children develop the higher cognitive skills
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needed to communicate verbally and communicate their wants, needs and opinions through
language.
Components of Language
Language development has four main components: phonology, semantics, grammar (syntax
and morphology) and pragmatics. Most children have developed all four components by nine
years of age and although some children might develop more slowly than others there is a
typical sequence for language development.
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The four components of language
• Phonology is rules involving the structure and sequence of the sounds we make
when speaking.
• Semantics is the way in which concepts are expressed through our words or
vocabulary.
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• Grammar involves syntax which governs how we arrange our words into
sentences, and morphology is the rules of grammar and the way they are formed
such as tense, parts of speech and intonation.
• Pragmatics are the rules by which we communicate effectively. This involves skills
such as greeting, changing your language depending on the audience, taking turns
to speak.
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Stages of Communication
The first five years of a child’s life are the most critical for developing language, but a child
will continue to develop their language skills throughout their childhood. As the brain
develops from birth, language stimulation is vital in the forming of neural pathways, as new
nerve cells develop to receive and express language. If a child is not stimulated through
the use of language in the early years, they could have poor communication skills, or their
language could develop more slowly. The more time caregivers spend talking to the child,
along with singing and reading, helps the child to develop language. The child’s brain is
pre-programmed to develop language and babies pay attention to the sounds we make when
we speak and mimic them. At first, babies will make their own sounds but later they repeat
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sounds they hear in their environment. Most children will say their first words between nine
and eighteen months which are usually mama or dada, whatever the language of the child.
Difficulties in Communication - Language Delay
This is a type of communication disorder which is identified when a child does not meet
their language milestones. This means their language abilities are developing more slowly
than other children of the same age and they may find it difficult to understand others and
communicate. Language delay affects up to 10% of children under five and can be caused by
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hearing or speech difficulties or a learning impairment. There are two types of language delay:
1. Receptive language delay: when a child has difficulty understanding language.
2. Expressive language delay: when a child has difficulty communicating verbally.
Some children have both receptive and expressive language delay.

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There are specific signs that practitioners and healthcare professionals will look for when
identifying language delay.
Signs of language delay

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• A child not babbling at 15 months

• A child not speaking by 2 years
• Not being able to speak in sentences at 3 years
• Difficulty following simple directions or instructions
• Problems with pronunciation
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Language Development
Possible causes of language delay Risk factors for language delay
• Hearing impairment • Premature birth

• Autism • Low birth weight
• Intellectual disability • Family history of speech or language
• Neglect by parents problems
• Poor nutrition • Low levels of parent education
• Brain injury
• Cerebral Palsy
• Down’s Syndrome
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After a speech delay is identified, a child will often be referred for speech and language therapy
or treatment for an underlying medical condition. Some children will catch up with other
children and meet future milestones whereas others may need continued help and support
as communication delays can cause other problems, e.g. problems with behaviour.
Impairments
There are many impairments and medical disorders that can affect a child’s language
development. Children with hearing difficulties find it hard to locate the source of sounds
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and may have a delayed response to the sounds they hear. They also often struggle to
understand speech in noisy environments. The impact on the child’s language will vary
for each individual child and due to the extent of the impairment. Children can often feel
isolated and have difficulties with their social development, confidence and self-esteem.
Hearing impaired children often have both receptive and expressive language delay and their
vocabulary may develop more slowly. Autistic children also sometimes have language delay
or may communicate differently to other children, such as non-verbal pointing at objects or
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repeating words and phrases. Autistic children find it harder to communicate and relate to
others and can have problems both understanding and using language. Autistic children often
use gestures and usually communicate for a reason rather than for social interaction, for
example, to express hunger. They are often unaware of the appropriate way to communicate
with others, such as taking turns or making eye contact.
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Activities that promote children’s How these activities are promoted by
language development practitioners in a childcare setting
• Offering children the chance to • They help children learn new vocabulary.
participate in real life experiences The more creative and inspiring the activity,
and interesting and inspiring the more children will develop ideas, ask
learning activities. questions and remember what they have
• Giving children time to speak and learned.

discuss their family and interests • It allows children to lead conversation,
at circle time. Introducing key develop social skills, learn respect and how
words in every session that are to listen to others and take turns. This also
accompanied by pictures to build builds children’s confidence and self-esteem
their vocabulary and help them in that their views and interests are important
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to understand that words have to others.
meaning. • It is an important part of language
• Asking children questions in an development, but it is also important not
effective way. Asking them to to over-question children. Using open-
describe what they are making or ended questions allows them to be creative
drawing and further develop this and scaffolds the children’s learning (see
to engage them in meaningful Vygotsky’s theories Chapter 08).
conversation. • Involving children in stories by asking
• Encouraging literacy and language questions about what happens next and the
development through stories, motivations of the characters can encourage
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songs and rhymes to increase children to invent their own endings to
vocabulary and develop creativity. stories and use their vocabulary and ability
to construct sentences. Asking children to
describe pictures using adjectives and adverbs
can also develop this.
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Language Differences
In Wales we live in a bilingual society where children learn both Welsh and English from an
early age. Whether they come from a household where predominantly Welsh is spoken or
predominantly English, they will be hearing both languages often in their everyday lives,
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particularly when they start nursery or pre-school. The Welsh Government are committed
to a truly bilingual Wales. ‘One of the key principles is that all children in Wales have the right
to feel a sense of belonging to Wales and to enjoy experiences in and of the Welsh language. The
Learning Country: Foundation Phase 3–7 years indicates clearly that, across this phase, children
will need more opportunities to experience and to enjoy using the Welsh language in their everyday
activities. Indeed, Iaith Pawb: A National Action Plan for a Bilingual Wales (WAG, 2003) sets out the
following key target: The long term goal for our early years provision is to achieve a situation in
which very many more under 5s have had sufficient exposure to Welsh to be able to move into either
Welsh-medium or effectively bilingual schools.’ (Welsh Language development. WG, 2008)
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Language Development
This makes education in Wales different to all other countries in the UK as children are
learning two languages from the age of 3 years, if not before. It is important that children from
households where the first language is not Welsh feel the same sense of national identity,
belonging, heritage and community as all other children in Wales. Learning the Welsh language
is an important part of this.
It is important when children start nursery or pre-school that they should hear Welsh spoken
in all aspects of the life of the setting. Children should hear incidental Welsh, commands,
greetings, stories and rhymes in Welsh, and displays and resources should be labelled in
Welsh. In this way, children will become familiar with the language and the way it sounds and
can develop an understanding of concepts, such as colours, numbers and body parts, in Welsh.
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Through their own use of Welsh words and phrases, children will develop confidence in their
use of both Welsh and English. Practitioners can develop this through praise and support.
Children’s literacy should be promoted through activities where they can explore books,
rhymes and songs in Welsh and become familiar with the names of Welsh letters and their
sounds and begin to understand the phonetic nature of the Welsh language.
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As they progress in their education through the Foundation Phase, children will learn to read in
Welsh and their familiarity with the language will give them the confidence to create complex
stories in Welsh and become confident users of the Welsh language in speaking, listening,
reading and writing.
Children in Wales are learning two languages, so the language skills learned in one language
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should support the development of the same skills in another. Some parents may worry that
speaking two or more languages will confuse their child and they will not learn either language
effectively, but children gain fluency in both languages. Speaking more than one language is
very good for a child as it boosts their identity and self-esteem and develops cognitive and
thinking skills. Settings and schools will often have children whose home language is not
English or Welsh. It is important that these children are supported to feel a sense of belonging
and that their language and culture is equally valued. Children and their families need to feel
they are respected and welcomed at the setting and feel confident their child is getting the
same standard of care and education as other children.
There are many ways to ensure children and their families feel welcome and
valued at a setting or school. Some of them are to:
• Work with parents to find out as much as possible about the child’s home language
and learn key words, such as hello, Mum, and thank you.
• Create a book for each language with key words and how to pronounce them
accompanied by pictures.
• Pronounce and spell children’s names correctly. If the language has a different script,
their name can be written in the familiar script alongside the script of the language
spoken in the setting.
• Use story sacks and tell stories with puppets, props and pictures and find stories in the
child’s home language.
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• Research festivals, special days and customs and celebrate them using key words from
the home language. The child’s parents can be asked for help.
• Listen to music and songs in the home language of the child.
CASE STUDY
Jan is five years old and has just started at the reception class of his local
A primary school. Jan’s parents are Polish, and he speaks only Polish at home
but his Dad has been teaching him a few words of English. He can understand
more than he can speak. The teacher has been trying to involve Jan in the
class activities but is worried he is feeling isolated as he rarely speaks and has
not made any friends. The teacher decides to display a selection of dolls in
national costume to encourage the children to discuss different nationalities
and cultures. Jan becomes very excited when he sees a doll wearing the Polish
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national costume, pointing and speaking to the teacher.
1. Explain why Jan was quiet when he first started school.
2. Explain why the Polish doll encouraged Jan to talk and join in activities.
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3. Discuss the effect the classroom assistant speaking Polish has on Jan.
4. Suggest three other ways to help Jan feel more confident to use language
in class.
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Chapter 4: Emotional and Social Development
E m otion a l a nd So cia l D e v e l o p m e n t
Social Interaction
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Children’s social interactions start from birth. Babies enjoy being around other people, not
only for comfort and security but to learn. Being around their parents, family members and
others stimulates all aspects of a baby’s development, particularly their language and cognitive
development as they learn how to speak and think. A baby’s primary socialisation is with
parents and family, but they will also experience secondary socialisation with everyone they
see outside of their immediate family. The more socialisation a child experiences early on, the
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more this benefits their development, particularly their language skills, self-esteem, creativity
and emotional development.
It is also important for children to socialise with their peers and experience environments that
promote and support their development, such as parent and baby/toddler groups, nursery,
pre-schools and schools. Socialising with other children their own age helps children learn
the vital skills they will need in later life. Interacting with others at nursery gives children the
chance to establish boundaries, note how others react to their actions and find ways to resolve
conflicts amicably; all valuable skills that they will take into adulthood.
Socialisation with peers is vital for the development of a child’s communication skills because
they learn how to communicate their own feelings and listen to the views of others. They will
learn through conversation, stories, songs and questioning that promotes their language and
intellectual development. Through socialisation in these types of settings children will develop
confidence and the social skills needed to interact with others. They will also further develop
their skills in listening and taking instructions, problem solving, resolving conflict, imagination
and creativity through playing with others and making friends and bonding with other children.
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Emotional and Social Development
1. Describe the expected emotional and social pattern of development

for an eight-year-old child.
2. Discuss the importance of social interactions with peers and adults for a three-
year-old child who attends nursery.
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Importance of Attachment
Attachment to an adult caregiver is of vital importance for all babies from birth as they rely on
their carer to meet all their needs. The type of attachment a child forms can have an impact on
their development throughout their childhood and into adult life.
Attachment theory was originally developed by a psychologist called John Bowlby - who will
be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5 - and is still an important aspect of psychology today.
Attachment theory studies the degree of attachment between the child and the caregiver and
how certain the child is that the caregiver is able to meet their needs. Attachment is part of the
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survival need of all infants as they are unable to care for themselves. Although some babies
have more secure attachments than others, an attachment to a caregiver is always formed.
This attachment is most commonly to the mother but can also be to the father, grandparent
or caregiver. Attachment is thought to develop in stages and there has been much research
completed on the subject. In 1964, Schaffer and Emerson found that babies formed a specific
attachment to 1 person by 7-9 months but by 10 months had formed attachments to multiple
people. There are four main classifications of attachment:
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1. Secure
2. Anxious/avoidant
3. Resistant
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4. Disorganised
Attachment helps children develop independence so they can go out and explore the world
from a secure base. Attachment influences not only how children will interact with others
but how they feel about themselves, including their sense of self. Attachment influences all
aspects of child development affecting how confident they are in themselves and others and
all their social interactions, including those at nursery, at school and with friends and family.
Children who have formed a secure attachment in childhood have better early communication
skills due to better interactions and engagement with their caregiver which promotes self-
confidence throughout their childhood and in later life. These children are more likely to form
strong attachments and relationships with others in adulthood, due to having their needs met
and trusting relationships from birth. These children are more confident in school and are
better able to form relationships with teachers, practitioners and peers.
Insecure attachment can often have a negative effect on children’s development, where
children may find it difficult to form successful relationships and this can continue into
adulthood. These children often display behaviour problems, such as being withdrawn, clingy
and having temper tantrums. They often have poor social skills and are less resilient than
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other children.
The Consequences of Separation from Primary

Carers
The attachment a child forms with the primary caregiver from birth will have a profound
impact on how the child’s development will be affected if they are separated from that parent/
caregiver. All children will suffer some form of separation anxiety when they first start nursery,
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or when their parent/caregiver leaves them to go to work with another carer. This is normal
and the more secure the attachment, the more confident the child will be that the parent/
caregiver will return, and they can socialise independently with practitioners and their peers.
A child is dependent on the parent or caregiver from birth for all aspects of their survival. Their
response to the child’s needs allows the child to trust the parent/caregiver and feel safe and
secure in the world around them knowing the parent/caregiver will protect them. This bond
between parent/caregiver and child allows the child to feel security, self-worth and happiness
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and develops positive self-esteem. The child can then feel safe and go on to build positive
relationships with others.
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Emotional and Social Development
Development of Feelings, Awareness of Oneself, and

Relationships with Others
Self-awareness is the ability to understand that the way we act affects others and to have
an understanding of our own thoughts, feelings and emotions. For children, self-awareness
develops over time. This begins when they can recognise and name their own emotions, likes
and dislikes and how they feel about certain situations or activities, e.g. sad, happy, excited.
Self-awareness is important for children; being aware of their strengths as well as things they
find difficult will help them develop their self-esteem. Children with strong self-awareness are
usually more resilient.
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Feelings towards others and empathy
The development of self-awareness leads to the development of empathy. The love given
to a baby by his caregiver helps them to give love to others and comfort them if they are
distressed. During the process of nurture, an infant develops a bond and strong feelings
of love towards their parent/caregiver, this allows the child to develop the capacity to feel
empathy as they get older. Empathy is a vital part of a child’s emotional development and is
grounded in the consistent and caring relationships a child has in early life, and is influenced
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by a child’s attachments in infancy. Whilst young children show sensitivity to the feelings
of others they do not yet feel empathy, but by watching a parent/caregiver or practitioner
comfort a child who is distressed and seeing this reaction continually modelled it eventually
becomes a part of the child’s behaviour. An example of this could be a child helping another
child who is crying to find a lost toy. They
realise the child is upset over the loss and
want to help by fixing the problem. This can
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be encouraged by adults saying,
“She has lost her toy and is upset. Shall we

help her find it?”
Children often try to comfort others when

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they are upset or distressed as they are

aware this is what adults do to bring comfort.
Children might hug or pat another child
to make them feel better as they have seen adults doing. Children can be encouraged to
recognise emotions and develop empathy through play. A practitioner at a teddy bear’s tea
party can use the teddies to portray emotions, such as “Teddy is hungry. Shall we get him a
cake?” or “Teddy is tired. Shall we put him to bed?”. By doing this, children are encouraged to
recognise their own feelings and emotions in others. It is important to encourage children to
understand that their actions can upset others.
CASE STUDY
Lily is two years old and has recently started attending a crèche for three days
a week. This is the first time that Lily has been separated from her mother for
extended periods of time. Lily is finding the change very stressful and this is
affecting her behaviour. To help young children settle into the crèche, and cope
with change, staff implement a robust routine and key person system.
1. Describe the purpose of the key person approach and analyse the potential
impact of this approach on Lily.
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2. Explain how attachment theory supports the use of key workers in Early
Years settings.
1. Explain the possible consequences for children of separation from

their primary carer.
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2. Describe the main features of insecure attachment in a child.
3. Describe the main features of secure attachment in a child.
4. Discuss why it is important for children to develop empathy.

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Unit 3
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Section 2
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Theories and Principles
of Child Development
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Chapter 5: Psychodynamic and Psychosocial Approach
to Children’s Development
Content
∙ How theories and principles relate to areas of children’s development.
Amplification
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Learners should understand:
∙ how the key psychological ∙ how techniques or approaches,

perspectives and associated arising from the theories, relate to
theories relate to child areas of children’s development,
development and behaviour: including:
∙ Psychodynamic: Freud, Bowlby ∘ play therapy

(with reference to the historical
significance of their work) ∘ child-centred therapy and
encounter groups
∘
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Psychosocial: Erikson, Rutter
∘ behaviour therapy, behaviour
∘ Humanistic: Rogers, Maslow modification, token economy
∘ Behavioural Theory: Pavlov, ∘ verbal and imaginative play with

Skinner/Watson peers and adultsw
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∘ Cognitive: Piaget, Vygotsky, ∘ cognitive behavioural therapy
Bruner, Ruth
∘ modelling, social skills training
∘ Social learning: Bandura and family therapy
∘ Biological: Eysenck, Cattell, ∘ physical/biological treatments

Gesell
∘ Egan’s ‘Skilled Helper’ model
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∘ Emotional Intelligence: Daniel

Goleman ∙ how these techniques and
approaches can be used to support
∙ the strengths and limitations of the children’s development.
different theories and approaches
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Psychodynamic and Psychosocial Approach to Children’s Development
The Psychody na mic T h e o r y o f C h i l d

Develop ment
Sigmund Freud and Freudian Theory
The psychodynamic theory or approach to child development and behaviour is a theory based
on the forces that drive an individual, particularly those that are unconscious or that the
individual is unaware of. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is often called the father of psychology
and he used this approach to explain the origins of how we behave. The first psychodynamic
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theory was based on Freud’s psychoanalysis but many psychologists have since developed
theories based on his approach. The theories of Freud were based on what patients told him
during therapy sessions. Psychodynamic therapists often treat patients for mental health
conditions such as depression.
The Psyche
Freud believed there were two parts to the human mind: the conscious and the unconscious
mind. The conscious mind is the things we are aware of in our thoughts. Freud divides our
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personalities up into three parts which he names the id, the ego and the superego.
Freud’s Theory of Personality -The Id, the Ego and the Superego
• The Id: The id is entirely unconscious and the source of basic urges. The energy of the
libido comes from this source.
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• The Ego: The ego is the part of our personality that is based in reality and ensures that
the urges of the id are met in realistic, safe and socially acceptable ways.
• The Superego: This part of our personality is based on the beliefs and morals we have
developed from our families and the society in which we live.
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In psychodynamic theory there is a belief that what happens to us in childhood has a significant
influence on our adult lives, and our personality. Freud believed that what happens to us in
childhood remains in the unconscious and can impact on us as psychological problems in
adulthood.
Psychosexual Development
Freudian theory is based on the concept that children go through psychosexual stages as they
develop. The libido is a pleasure-seeking energy that focuses on different parts of the body at
different stages.
Theories and Principles of Child Development
Freud’s five stages of psychosexual development
1. The oral stage (birth to 1 years) The libido is centred around the mouth of the baby
and pleasure comes from breastfeeding, sucking and biting.
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2. The anal stage (1-3 years) The libido becomes focused on the anus and the libido
derives pleasure from defecating. At this stage the child is becoming more independent
and understands they are a person in their own right. This is the stage the ego
develops, and the child can feel conflict with authority during potty training as adults
seek to control toileting.
3. The phallic stage (3-6 years) The libido is centred around the penis/vulva and children
become aware of the physical differences between boys and girls. At this stage Freud
believes children develop an attraction to the opposite sex parent called the Oedipus
complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls.
4. The latent stage (6 years to puberty) The libido is dormant as the child focuses their
energy on school, hobbies and learning new things.
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5. The genital stage (puberty to adulthood) The libido is focused on the genitals. This is
a time of sexual experimentation which Freud believed reaches a conclusion when we
eventually settle down into a one-to-one relationship.
The Influence of Freud on Modern Psychology

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Although Freud’s views have attracted
much criticism over the years, his work
has made an enormous contribution
to psychology. In a historical context
it changed the way we view mental
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illness and established the idea that

psychological problems do not necessarily
have a physical cause. Through Freud we
gain an understanding of how treatments
for mental health problems developed.
Freud was also the first person to develop
theories based on the importance of
childhood in mental health which is a
significant aspect of psychology today.
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John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
John Bowlby worked as a psychiatrist with children who were described as emotionally
disturbed in London in the 1930s. Bowlby was a psychoanalyst who, like Freud, believed
behavioural and mental health problems developed from experiences in early childhood. He
studied the importance of a child’s relationship with its mother and the impact of this on
emotional, social and cognitive development. Bowlby believed there was a link between an
infant being separated from their mother and difficulties in later childhood and adult life.
Bowlby believed attachment could be explained in terms of evolution and the need of an
infant for security and safety to increase its chance of survival.
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Bowlby’s theory of attachment
• Attachment is an evolutionary theory that children are programmed to form
attachments from birth to help them survive.
• A child forms an attachment to one primary attachment figure. This concept is called
monotropy, and this attachment is more important than all others.
• Disruption of the attachment between an infant and their primary caregiver results
in cognitive, emotional, and social problems for the child. This is called the maternal
deprivation hypothesis.
• Bowlby believed the relationship with the primary caregiver informs the social
relationships a child will form in the future.
•
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Bowlby’s evolutionary theory was influenced by his study of the work on imprinting by
Lorenz (1935) which showed how ducklings were programmed from birth to form an
attachment to their mother to ensure their survival.
• Bowlby believed that humans have evolved a biological need for attachment between
mother and infant.
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The Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
Bowlby theorised that when babies are born they display behaviours described as social
releasers which ensure their mother stays close to them. These include crying, smiling
and crawling which stimulate a response from the caregiver. Bowlby did not dismiss the
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possibility of the infant forming other attachments but believed there should be a primary
bond to one attachment figure, usually the mother. Bowlby believed that other attachments
could develop below the primary monotropy attachment to the mother, and that they would
include the father and grandparents. Bowlby believed there was a difference in the monotropy
attachment to other attachments and the failure or lack of this maternal attachment would
lead to serious developmental consequences such as affectionless psychopathy. This is his
maternal deprivation hypothesis.
The Internal Working Model
Bowlby theorised that a child’s monotropy attachment with the mother leads them to develop
what he termed as an internal working model where the child’s relationship with their primary
caregiver acts as an example for all future relationships.
The Psy cho so cia l T he o r y o f C h i l d

Develop ment
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Michael Rutter
Rutter was a theorist who also studied attachment and his theories dispute the findings of
Bowlby. In his book Maternal deprivation reassessed he stated that Bowlby had used the term
‘maternal deprivation’ for all types of separation from the attachment figure, including failure
to form an attachment, separation from the attachment figure and loss of the attachment
figure. Rutter argues this is an oversimplification as all these types of separation have different
effects. Rutter believed it was necessary to distinguish between ‘privation and deprivation’. He
states that privation is when a child fails to make an emotional bond with a caregiver, whereas
deprivation is the loss of or damage to an established attachment.
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Rutter’s theory on attachment, deprivation and privation
• Rutter’s research on privation suggests that privation leads to clinging, dependent and
attention seeking behaviour, initially, which leads to the child being unable to follow
rules, feel guilt or form lasting relationships.
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• Privation can lead to delays in language, intellectual and physical development.
• Delays in development are not due to the lack of a mother figure but the lack of
intellectual stimulation and social experiences children gain through attachments at an
early age.
• The problems associated with privation can be overcome if the child subsequently
receives the right sort of care.
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• Signs of attachment, such as protest and despair, can be seen with other attachment
figures not just the mother, e.g. grandparent, father.
• Rutter believes the quality of the attachment bond is more important than forming an
attachment during the critical period as stated by Bowlby.
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Test your knowledge
1. Explain Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.
2. Discuss Bowlby’s theory of attachment and monotropy.
3. Describe how Bowlby’s attachment theory influences practice in a childcare

setting with reference to key workers and admissions/settling in policies and
procedures.
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Erik Erikson and stages of psychosocial development
Erik Erikson developed one of the

most significant theories of child
development. He was influenced by
the work of Freud to develop a theory
based on stages of development,
but his theory was psychosocial not
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psychosexual.
Erikson believed that a child’s

personality develops in stages, and
he described the social interaction of
individuals across their whole lifespan
and the role of relationships in social
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development. Erikson believed
that each stage of development
builds on the stage before and
there is a sequence to his theory. During each stage there is a conflict which is based on
the development or a failure to develop to a new psychological stage. As the individual
successfully manages these conflicts they will develop new psychological strengths that
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they will use throughout their lives, but failure to deal with these conflicts can lead to the
individual not developing the skills needed for a strong sense of self. During times of conflict
the individual has the ability to either reach the full potential of their personal growth, but
there is also a high possibility of failure. At each stage the individual must gain competency in
a certain area of their life. If they achieve this, they will gain mastery which is often described
as ‘ego strength’. If they fail to feel this sense of mastery, they will feel an inadequacy in this
stage of their development.
Criticisms of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
There have been criticisms of Erikson’s theory because it is unclear which experiences allow
the individual to progress successfully to the next stage and resolve the internal conflict. His
theory informs practice today as it provides an overview of social development across the
lifespan, and emphasises the importance of social relationships in development. Erikson’s
research on the importance of identity has also informed more recent studies which agree
that those who form a stronger sense of self and personal identity in their teenage years have
more successful personal relationships in early adulthood, whereas conflicting research exists
to suggest the formation of identity continues into adult life.
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Erikson’s Stages
Age Conflict Life stage Outcome

Birth Trust vs The child is totally HOPE - If the child develops trust, they
to 18 Mistrust dependent for food, love, will feel secure. If the caregiving is
months nurture and their ability to inadequate or inconsistent, the child
develop trust is based on will develop mistrust and believe the
the caregiver. world is unpredictable and their needs
2-3
AAutonomy In this stage children
will not be met.
WILL - Children who have difficulty
years vs Shame develop more personal with potty training may feel they lack
and Doubt control and gain physical control and feel shamed by
independence making accidents. Children who succeed will
simple decisions about feel autonomy whereas those who fail
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choices and preferences and will feel shame and doubt.
completing some actions
alone.
3-5 Initiative vs In the third stage of PURPOSE - This stage involves
years Guilt psychosocial development asserting control and power over the
children start to have power environment where children develop
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and control over the world a sense of purpose. If children try to

through social interactions control their environment too much
and directing play. they may meet disapproval, causing
feelings of guilt.
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Age Conflict Life stage Outcome

6-11 Industry vs Through social interactions CONFIDENCE - Children who are
years Inferiority and education children praised by teachers and parents
develop pride in believe in themselves and their own
achievements. Children at abilities. Children who are not praised
this age need to cope with or encouraged doubt their own skills
expectations both socially and abilities. Finding a balance during
and in their learning. this stage leads to competence where
Those who succeed feel children believe in their own abilities.
accomplishment but those
who fail feel inferiority.
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12-18 Identity vs This stage is where personal FIDELITY - During this stage, if
years Confusion identity is developed that successful, Erikson believed we
will influence us throughout develop fidelity which he explained
our lives. Adolescents need as being able to live by society’s
to develop their sense of self standards and expectations. He places
and personal identity. emphasis on developing ego identity.
19-40 Intimacy vs Erikson believed at this LOVE - Erikson stated that a strong
years Isolation stage individuals need to sense of self is needed for this stage
have intimate and loving as each of his stages builds on the
relationships. Failure previous psychosocial stage. He
A leads to loneliness and believes a strong personal identity is
isolation and during this needed for strong relationships and
stage we explore personal those with a weaker sense of self have
relationships. fewer committed relationships.
40-65 Generativity At this stage individuals CARE - To achieve this stage we must
years vs need to nurture something feel pride in our accomplishments
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Stagnation that will be their legacy, and watching our children develop. A
like having children or successful relationship can be seen as
contributing something an achievement.
positive to society. Success
in this stage makes us feel
useful and that we have
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achieved something in our

lives.
65 and Integrity vs This final psychosocial stage WISDOM - Individuals who are
older Despair occurs during old age when unsuccessful at this stage may feel
we reflect on life and need they have wasted their life and can
to feel fulfilment which leads become bitter. Those who reflect on
to feelings of wisdom, whilst their lives and feel satisfaction over
failure can result in regrets what they have accomplished will
which lead to despair. attain wisdom.
Chapter 6: The Humanistic Approach to Development
The H um a nist ic Appr o ac h o f R o g e r s

a nd Maslow
Carl Rogers was a psychologist and an influential theorist in the humanist approach to
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psychology and development. He proposed a humanistic approach to psychology as he was
searching for a new theory that matched his research, observations, and beliefs. Although he
was the first to use this approach it was Maslow who invented the term humanistic psychology.
Maslow’s theory is based around the need for humans to find a state of fulfilment called self-
actualisation, where a person achieves the highest level of their capability. Maslow researched
the personalities of many successful people including Albert Einstein and Abraham Lincoln
and found they share many personality traits, such as being creative, loving and compassionate.
Key definitions
A Holistic - relating to the whole instead of a separation into parts.
Humanistic psychology - a psychological perspective which rose to
prominence in the mid-20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory
and behaviourism; this approach emphasises an individual’s inherent drive
towards self-actualization and creativity.
Congruity - an instance or point of agreement or correspondence between
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the ideal self and the real self in Rogers’ humanistic personality theory.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s most famous theory is the hierarchy of needs. He believes that humans all have the
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same needs, and these needs must be met in a certain order. He presents these needs in the
form of a pyramid with an individual’s most basic physical needs at the bottom and reaching
self-actualization at the top. Each step of the pyramid must be fulfilled before moving to the
next stage and the higher level of needs.
Maslow stated that individuals must have their needs met at each stage to move to the next.
Successfully meeting the needs at each stage was necessary for development of personality.
The highest level of needs, which is self-actualization, is when we reach our full potential and
therefore the highest level of psychological health. Maslow’s work is important because he
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The Humanistic Approach to Development
studies how those who do not have psychological problems can reach psychological health.
Maslow believed those who reached self-actualisation were high achievers in life, were more
resilient and formed healthy relationships.
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Criticism of Maslow’s Theories
Maslow’s theories have been criticised for demonstrating cultural bias because to reach self-
actualization it is necessary to first meet the needs of security – both economic and personal
safety – and this is not possible in all countries. Also, Maslow based his pyramid on values
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associated with ideologies and values of Western culture which may not reflect those of other
cultures and religions. His work has also been accused of being unscientific as the results
are subjective and there are not enough constants to ensure accuracy. It is also argued that
Maslow focuses too much on the individual and not how society can impact on personality.
Rogers has also been criticised for the lack of scientific evidence and the subjective nature of
his work.
The theories of Carl Rogers
• Carl Rogers was a humanist psychologist who believed self-actualization was important
in shaping personality.
• Rogers divides the self into two categories: the ideal self, which is the person you want
to be and the real self, who is who you actually are.
• He believed humans develop the concept of an ideal self, and congruity is how closely
the ideal self matches the real self.
• The theories of Rogers and Maslow focus on individual choices and using free will and
determination to become the best person we can and reach our full potential.
• Rogers believed if we develop our personality through experiences and aim to
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consistently fulfil our potential we can achieve the ‘good life’.
• Rogers thought ‘unconditional positive regard’ or ‘unconditional love’ were highly
important and allowed the individual to fully actualise and gain congruence, whereas
those growing up with only ‘conditional love’ have a greater distance between the ideal
self and the true self.
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Chapter 7: Behavioural theories of child development
Behaviou ra l t heories o f c h i l d
develop m ent
An important approach to child development is the behavioural perspective. It became an

important influence within psychology during the early part of the twentieth century. This
approach focuses on behaviour that can be observed and quantified and is seen as a more
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scientific approach to psychology than the humanist approach. Behaviourists believe human
behaviour can be explained in terms of the environmental factors that influence it. Behavioural
theories of development focus on explaining behaviour as a reaction to rewards, punishment
and reinforcement. The main exponents of this theory are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B.F.
Skinner. The two most influential theories are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s theory demonstrates how we can condition an individual to repeat an action without
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them realising they had been conditioned to do this. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who
completed an experiment on dogs which connected two stimuli. A neutral stimulus, which
produces no response, which was a bell in this case, and an unconditioned stimulus, which
produces an unconditioned or natural response. In this case, the unconditioned stimulus
was the sight and smell of the dog’s food and the unconditioned response was the dog
began to salivate in response to the food. By presenting the neutral stimulus (bell) and the
unconditioned stimulus (food) together, the subject will associate the two. Pavlov repeatedly
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rang the bell before feeding the dogs, and the dogs were classically conditioned to salivate
when they heard the bell as they associate the sound of the bell with the food even when the
food was not present.
1. The dog can see and smell its food; 4. The dog starts to associate the bell
the food is the unconditioned with being fed.
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stimulus or U.S.
5. When Pavlov rings the bell; this is the
2. A dog salivates when it sees or smells conditioned stimulus or C.S.
food; this is the unconditioned
response or U.R. 6. When the bell rings, the dog
salivates even when it cannot smell
3. Pavlov rings a bell every time the dog or see food; this is the conditioned
is fed, he repeats this action many response or C.R.
times.
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Criticisms of Pavlov’s Theory
One strengths of Pavlov’s theory is that it demonstrates how we learn from our
environment. It is scientific as it is based on observations carried out during a controlled
experiment, but it has limitations as it does not allow for the free will of the individual
and does not consider that each person is unique. It is also a simplification of the
complex nature of human behaviour. Classical conditioning also reduces complicated

patterns of behaviour into small parts to allow for scientific testing which does not give
the complete picture of human behaviour.
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The Theories of John B. Watson
John Watson was a behaviourist who claimed

all human psychology could be explained by
classical conditioning and was simply a response
to stimulus. He believed that even language and
emotional development could be simply explained
through this process. Watson conducted the ‘Little
Albert Experiment’, where a nine-month-old child
was introduced to a variety of items, including a
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white rat. Initially, Albert showed no fear of the
rat, but the next few times Watson showed Albert
the rat he made a loud noise with a hammer
which made Albert cry due to the sudden loud
noise. Albert would then cry every time he saw
the rat even though Watson no longer made
the loud noise. In this way, Albert was classically
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conditioned to fear the rat. Watson’s most
influential work was his study of emotions. He
believed emotions, such as love, anger and fear, were learned and not present in children at
birth and were just a physical response to stimuli.
Watson used the ‘Little Albert Experiment’ to claim parents could condition their children to
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behave in a certain way, and famously stated that he could condition any child to succeed in
any type of job he chose through classical conditioning.
Criticisms of Watson’s Theory
Watson emphasised the importance of nurture and the possibility a child could become what
they wanted in life. He also realised the significance of the environment in child development
and the importance of a positive and nurturing environment for a child’s healthy emotional
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Behavioural theories of child development
development. Watson’s treatment of little Albert during his experiment was seen as unethical
as he was conditioning the child to feel fear and distress, and at no point did he try to reverse
Albert’s fear of white rats. He also recognised the importance of nurture in child development,
but believed children should be treated like adults and not given lots of affection or attention
as they would develop unrealistic expectations of the world — a view that was widely criticised.
B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning where the consequence of a
subject’s response decides whether or not this response is repeated. Operant conditioning
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results in behaviour that is reinforced or rewarded being repeated, and behaviour which is
punished being eliminated or demonstrated less frequently.
Skinner’s theories developed from the classical conditioning of Pavlov and Watson, but he
believed classical conditioning was too simplistic to explain the complexities of human
behaviour. He believed the best way to study behaviour was to examine its causes and
responses. His work was based on an earlier theory called ‘Thorndike’s Law of Effect’ where
behaviour that has pleasurable consequences will be repeated. Skinner used the term
reinforcement to explain how behaviour that is reinforced will be repeated and behaviour that
is not reinforced is removed.
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Skinner conducted experiments using a ‘Skinner box’ or operant conditioning chamber which
allowed him to study the behaviour of rats objectively in a specified time frame, where he
rewarded or punished certain behaviours such as pressing a lever.
Response or operant identified by Skinner

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• Neutral operant - Does not increase or decrease the likelihood of behaviour being
repeated.
• Reinforcers - Responses to behaviour that increase the likelihood of it being repeated;
these can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers - Responses that decrease the likelihood of behaviour being repeated.
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Positive Reinforcement
Skinner believed that positive reinforcement to a response or behaviour is strengthened by

rewards leading to repetition of this behaviour. He demonstrated how this worked by placing
a rat in a ‘Skinner box’ with a lever on the side. Every time the rat accidentally touched the lever
it would drop a pellet of food. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever when being put
in the box, repeating the desired behaviour.
Negative Reinforcement
Skinner showed how animals could also be rewarded by the removal of an unpleasant
stimulus. Skinner placed a rat in the ‘Skinner box’ and sent an electric current through the box
that the rat would find uncomfortable. Every time the rat knocked the lever the current would
switch off; the rat then learned to press the lever repeatedly to remove the electric current. He
then turned on a light just before turning on the electric current, and the rats learned to press
the lever when the light came on to avoid the electric current. Skinner called these learned
responses by the rats ‘escape learning’ and ‘avoidance learning.’
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Punishment
This is the opposite of reinforcement and can decrease unwanted behaviour. It is often confused
with negative reinforcement but is not the same because punishment can cause rather than
cure behavioural problems in a variety of ways; behaviour returns when punishment is
over, punishment increases aggression and it creates fear. Reinforcement rewards desired
behaviour whereas punishment only shows an individual what behaviour they should not
demonstrate, not what they should replace it with.
Criticisms of Skinner’s Theories

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Skinner’s theory is typical of the behavioural approach as it sees psychology as a science, and
Skinner’s experiments were done in a laboratory under controlled conditions. Behaviourism
is concerned with learning from the environment; the rats demonstrated a certain behaviour
and learned to repeat it because they were rewarded with food. This is operant conditioning.
Skinner, like other behaviourists, saw little difference in studying the behaviour of rats to
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humans. Other psychologists argue that humans are physiologically different to animals and
have different experiences and cognitive abilities, such as memory and reasoning. Operant
conditioning does not take into account cognitive factors that may influence behaviour.

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1. Define the term conditioning.
2. Explain positive reinforcement.
3. Explain how Skinner’s theories influence ways of promoting positive behaviour in

a childcare setting.
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Chapter 8: The cognitive approach to child
development
The Cogn it iv e T heory o f C h i l d

Develop ment
Piaget and constructivist theory
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Jean Piaget was one of the first psychologists to research the way in which children develop
cognitively. His theory was that children’s intelligence develops as they grow and that learning
is not just the acquisition of knowledge, but that the child needs to construct a model of the
world through their cognitive process that they can build on. Piaget believed that children
construct this world through interacting with their environment and moving through a series
of stages that are dependent on their age.
Piaget’s Stages are:

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Birth to 18-24 months The sensorimotor stage - the child’s goal is
to develop object permanence
2-7 years The preoperational stage - the child’s goal is
to develop symbolic thought
7 -11 years The concrete operational stage - the child’s
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goal is to develop logical thought
From 12 years onwards The formal operational stage - the child’s
goal is to develop abstract thought
Piaget believed that this sequence of stages was the same for every child and always follows
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the same order but not always at the same rate. He believed these stages were the same
whatever the background or culture of the child. Piaget studied children from infancy to
adolescence by observing his own three children from which he wrote daily reports describing
how they developed. He also conducted observations and interviews with older children.
Piaget was interested in how children began to develop an understanding of concepts such as
time, numbers and quantities. Through his research, Piaget developed the following theories
about child development.
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Piaget’s theories of child development
• Children see the world in a different way to adults and think differently.
• Children actively interact with their environment to build their knowledge and
understanding of the world. They do not rely on adults to develop this understanding.
• To understand the way a child reasons we need to look at things from their perspective
or point of view.
• The development of a child is based on their maturation (age) and interaction with the
environment.
• Each stage of development involves a different type of intelligence and thought
process.
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• Piaget did not believe that each stage had to be reached at a given age, but the
descriptions of each stage would reflect the average age at which a child would reach it.
As a constructivist, Piaget believes children are actively constructing or building knowledge for
themselves, and are actively looking for solutions to problems which is the basis for discovery
learning and experiential learning which is an essential part of Early Years education today.
Children add new knowledge to existing concepts, making them more complex. Children’s
new experiences are part of an interplay between nature, which is their inherited cognitive
processes, and nurture, which is how they interact with experiences and opportunities in
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their environment. Piaget’s theory is called a stage theory as children move through a set of
stages in their intellectual development. Piaget believed children must reach a certain stage
in their development before they can move to the next. He believed that each new stage was
a development from an earlier one, involving reconstructing and transforming their earlier
knowledge.
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Characteristics and developmental changes at each of Piaget’s stages of
development
Stage of development Characteristics of the stage and developmental changes
The sensorimotor stage • The child learns about the world through exploring the
environment through their senses and actions.
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• Many cognitive abilities develop, such as object permanence,

self-recognition and representational play.
• They start to represent the world mentally.
• At about 8 months the child begins to understand the
permanence of objects and that they still exist even if they
can’t see them, and looks for them when they vanish from
view.
• Language development starts and the child begins to
understand that words represent objects or feelings.
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The cognitive approach to child development
The preoperational • Children can represent the world through language and
stage mental imagery.
• Children can think symbolically, where an object or word can
represent something else.
• Children show animism where toys or dolls have thoughts
and feelings.
• Thinking is egocentric based on the child’s view of the world.
The concrete • Children can think logically about concrete events,

operational stage understanding they can manipulate things around them.
• Children can mentally reverse happenings, and understand
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that although things may change shape, they are the same.
Children start to work things out in their head.
• Children become less egocentric and start to think about how
others may feel or think differently.
The formal operational • Formal operations are carried out on ideas rather than
stage concrete operations which are carried out on things.
• The child can understand abstract ideas and begin to think in
a scientific way.
• The child can think of hypothetical problems and decide on a
A range of solutions.
Schemas
Piaget believed that knowledge does not simply

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develop out of experiences, but that we have Keywords
internal building blocks – called schemas – that
help us make sense of the world around us. These Schemas
schemas are a way of organising knowledge when Adaptation
we experience the world around us. They help
Assimilation
us to process information and new knowledge
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and increase the number and complexity of our Accommodation

schemas. Equilibrium
Adaptation
Piaget believed cognitive development was a process where we adapt or adjust to the world
through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Through assimilation we fit new
information into an existing schema. To make sense of this information, we need to fit it in
with the knowledge we already have. For example, a child may see a picture of a zebra and
believe it is a stripey horse as they have not yet learned what a zebra is.
Accommodation is when we change an existing schema to incorporate new information,

adjusting the information we already have to add new information. For example, the child
will add the information that a zebra is not a stripey horse but a different animal entirely.
Piaget believed thoughts need order and structure and children do not like information that
contradicts other information already known.
Equilibrium is what happens when a child’s schemas are able to accommodate new information.
Piaget thought equilibrium was important to drive the process of learning through the need to
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restore balance by assimilating and accommodating new information.
How Piaget’s Theories Relate to Children’s Learning
Piaget has been one of the most influential theorists

in informing practices in children’s education for many
years. The Plowden report (1966) was based on a review
of primary education, and influenced policies and practice
in education based on Piaget’s theories. The Foundation
A Phase in Wales, which promotes children’s learning
through play and experiential learning, is underpinned by
Piaget’s theories. Piaget’s theories have an emphasis on
active rather than passive learning. Exploring the world
and discovery learning are key aspects of the Foundation
Phase and many other educational curricula today.
Teachers also emphasise student-centred activities to
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promote learning where children learn through active
discovery rather than direct tuition. There is a focus on
the learning process rather than the end product.
Piaget also recognised the importance of observing children to assess their developmental
level in order to plan task activities that are age and stage appropriate. This is an important
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part of session planning in settings. In work settings, children are given many opportunities to
learn and develop and are given the opportunity to use any resources and materials that are
necessary to the task. They have access to all resources that they need and have work that
is appropriate to their age and capability. There are many benefits to understanding Piaget’s
theories for Early Years practice. Piaget is well known for his stages of development, but these
stages are often very broad stages that do not take into consideration all children and their
needs. Piaget’s stages of development do not take into consideration that not all children
develop normally; many have additional learning needs that Piaget does not discuss. Piaget’s
theory is based on how children learn through play and the benefits of learning through play.
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His theory also provides a clear foundation for the education of children. It allows professionals
to gain knowledge on how they should work with children and ensure that children are given
the correct opportunities.
Piaget has been extremely influential in changing our opinions on how children view the world.
He was the first psychologist to systematically observe and research cognitive development,
and develop a theory based on children’s stages of development. Piaget has received criticism
for not considering culture or social setting in his studies, nor considering the effects of social
interaction or lack of it on cognitive development.
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Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory
Although Piaget’s work is influential in informing our understanding of children’s cognitive

development, other theorists have further developed Piaget’s ideas to take into account the
effects of other factors, such as social interaction and language, on children’s development.
The work of Lev Vygotsky has informed much

Keywords
of the recent research into children’s cognitive
development and has become known as
Zone of Proximal
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sociocultural theory. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky
emphasised the role of children’s social
Development
Scaffolding
interactions in their cognitive development.
Where Piaget believed children must develop More knowledgeable other
to a certain stage before learning can take Peer Tutorial
place, Vygotsky believed social learning came
before development. According to Vygotsky,
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learning occurs through social interaction with a ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO), who
models behaviour or provides instructions. The MKO is someone who is more able or has a
better understanding of a particular task. The MKO can be a teacher or parent but can also
be another child or peer who is older or further along in their development in a certain area.
The MKO is a central part of Vygotsky’s theories on the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ or ZPD.
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The ZPD is the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what they can
achieve with the help of a MKO. Vygotsky believed this zone is where a child can learn skills
through the sensitive guidance and instruction of another. Then the child can begin to use
these skills independently therefore developing intellectually through their ability to complete
more complex tasks and use higher cognitive functioning. Vygotsky believed that interacting
with peers is an important way for children to develop their learning. He encourages this in
planning teaching activities where children can work cooperatively, and where more skilful
children can help those who are less competent to develop these skills within their ZPD. This
is often called Vygotsky’s Peer Tutorial.
Vygotsky’s theories on the importance of language in
children’s development
Vygotsky believed that speech plays a crucial role in children’s development and that language
develops for communication through social interaction. He believed language is the way adults
transmit information to children and there are three types of language: social speech for
communicating with others which develops around the age of two; private speech for talking to
the self which forms part of intellectual development; and silent inner speech which develops
from private speech and is a way of regulating the self, and develops around the age of seven.
Vygotsky believed that when a child is born, thought and language are separate systems which
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become merged at the age of three when children start to think in their heads, and speech and
thought become interdependent as the child’s thoughts become verbal. Vygotsky thought it
was internal language that promoted cognitive development. Vygotsky theorised that through
internal language and private speech children could cooperate with themselves in tasks and
activities becoming their own MKO, and can verbally plan and organise their thoughts when
faced with complex or difficult tasks.
Vygotsky’s theories in practice in the setting

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Vygotsky’s theories have many practical applications that are implemented in settings today.
Vygotsky believed cognitive development comes from social interactions and his theories
of child development are termed social constructivism. He believed there are two levels of
children’s learning. Firstly, learning happens through social interaction with others and
secondly, the child incorporates this learning into their mental processes. Vygotsky’s theory
promotes child or student-centred teaching and the concept of scaffolding. Scaffolding is
where the teacher plans a task that helps the child structure their learning to move it from their
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ZPD to a zone of actual development with the MKO in a supportive role, where the child learns
rather than simply being spoon-fed information. There is a difference between what a child
can do independently and what they can do with some support – this is their zone of proximal
development. Scaffolding allows children to successfully complete a task or solve a problem
that is beyond their current ability. As practitioners, we can build a bridge between children’s
existing knowledge and the new knowledge we want them to learn, through observation of
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the child and appropriate planning. With the correct support, children can build on skills they
have already mastered to complete new activities and perform new skills. Observation is vitally
important in scaffolding to determine the stage of learning the child is at, and support them
to reach the next stage. Activities should be provided that are slightly above the children’s
abilities. When the children are supported to learn something new, they will then be able to
complete the task independently in the future. Modelling and demonstrating is an important
part of this process, modelling language and social interactions can help children build social
skills. Using questioning and prompts is also an effective way to scaffold children’s learning.
Prompts can be used to help children think and use their creativity and imagination, such as
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“What other ways do you think we could do this?” or using open ended questions, like “What
would happen if…?”
Criticisms of Vygotsky’s theories
There has been less criticism of Vygotsky’s theories than those of Piaget’s, mostly because he
wrote in Russian. It was many years before his theories became widely known in the west and
it took some time for a full translation of his works. There are also less definite hypotheses
in his work, so less research has been done to try to disprove them. One criticism has been
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that he stated his theories were relevant to all cultures, but his theories on scaffolding rely
on language and verbal instruction, whereas some cultures rely more on observation and
practice for learning.
1. Explain how Vygotsky’s theory can help our understanding of cognitive

development of children.
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2. Describe how Vygotsky’s theories influence practice in a childcare setting.
3. Discuss what a schema is and how this relates to cognitive development.
4. Explain Piaget’s process of adaptation.

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Jerome Bruner and the spiral curriculum
Jerome Bruner believed the aim of education is to create autonomous learners who have
learned how to learn. He introduced three models of representation as part of his learning
theory and introduced the concepts of discovery learning and the spiral curriculum.
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Three Models of Learning
• Enactive representation (0-1 years). This is based on action and storing action-
based information in the memory, such as a baby will remember the action it uses
to shake a rattle and store it within the memory. He believed both children and
adults can recall tasks through muscular memory.
• Iconic representation (1-6 years). This is based on images and our ability to store a
mental picture in the mind. This is why when children are learning new information,
it helps them to have visual images and diagrams to reinforce verbal explanations.
• Symbolic representation (7 years and over). This is based on language and is a

more complex way of learning where the mind stores information through symbols
and codes. Language, words, mathematical signs and other symbols can be mentally
sorted and classified. His constructivist theory suggests that all learners, including
adults, should pass through all three models of learning from enactive through
iconic to symbolic.
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Spiral curriculum and discovery learning
The spiral curriculum is based on the concept that a child of any age can be taught complex
information if it is in an age and ability appropriate form. Bruner believed information should
first be learned in a simplified form, and then added to at a later stage in a more complex form.
In this way, any concept or subject can be taught at gradually increasing levels of difficulty.
Bruner’s theory states that children construct their own learning through organising and
categorising and then coding information. Bruner believed the most effective way to do this is
to discover information rather than being told it by a teacher. The teacher’s job is to support
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and facilitate learning by aiding the process of discovery.
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura developed social learning theory which is seen as an important link between
behaviourism and cognitivism. Bandura believes the learning process has three central
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components: observation, imitation and modelling. He stated that behaviourism could not
account for all types of learning and developed a theory that was a combination of behavioural
theory, where behaviour is the result of conditioning, and cognitive theory which depends
on memory and attention. Bandura added a social element to behaviourist theories, such
as conditioning and reinforcement, and believed that new information and behaviours are
developed through watching others.
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The Bobo doll experiment
Through the Bobo doll experiment Bandura showed that children will copy violent behaviour
once they have observed it, and this is learned behaviour. He identified three types of observed
behaviour; active, which is imitating the behaviour of a real person; verbal, which is following
written accounts of behaviour; and symbolic, which is imitating the behaviour of fictional
characters or real people observed through the media. For quality learning to occur Bandura
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believed certain features must be present: attention, as learning is negatively impacted if the
learner is distracted or not engaged; retention, where learning is stored; reproduction, to
practice what has been learnt to advance the learning; motivation, where there is intrinsic
reinforcement which is pride and satisfaction in the new knowledge.
Social Learning Theory
Motor
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Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation
Stimuli Rehearse Practice Reward

Focus Encode Feedback Reinforce
Bandura believed that children observing reinforcement or punishment in others could be

as effective as their own experiences. In the setting, social learning theory emphasises the
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importance of practitioners acting as positive role models as it shows how children will imitate
and learn behaviour from others. The Bobo doll experiment also illustrates how any negative
behaviour will also be copied. There is some biological support for Bandura’s theory with the
discovery of ‘mirror neurons’ which suggest that humans are genetically programmed to copy
the behaviour of others.
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Chapter 9: The Biological Theory
The Biolo g ica l t heo ry o f d e v e l o p m e n t

- p er sona lit y t ra it s
Raymond Cattell
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Psychologists who believe in the biological approach to child development have theories
explaining how our personalities are inherited or influenced by physiological processes
rather than our background, culture and environment. Personality is composed of
many different traits. Theorists have identified central personality traits, such as loyalty,
kindness and friendliness, and secondary personality traits, which are demonstrated
under certain sets of conditions and are not always present or obvious. For example,
somebody being grumpy when woken up in the morning. In an effort to make the list of
traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell conducted research to narrow down the amount
of identifiable personality traits an individual might
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have. He identified 16 factors or dimensions of
personality which are: warmth, reasoning, emotional Keywords
stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness,
Temperament
social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness,
privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self- Extroversion
reliance, perfectionism, and tension. From this he Introversion
created an assessment for personality based on those
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Neuroticism
16 factors which he named the 16PF. He scored each
trait a person might have in a range between low and
high.
Eysenck’s theory of temperament

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Hans and Sybil Eysenck were personality theorists who developed a theory on temperament
which they believed was the personality differences we have that are inborn and based on
genetics. They believed our personality is mostly influenced by biology and that people have
two main personality dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability. Eysenck
believed there were biological causes like extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism for each
personality dimension and these are dependent on the autonomic nervous system and the
balance between its excitation and inhibition processes. Based on these two dimensions
Eysenck’s theory divides individuals into four temperaments: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic,
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The Biological Theory
and sanguine. These temperaments were originally identified in ancient times by the Greek
physician Aelius Galenus to describe the effect
of these humours on human behaviour.
Eysenck added a third dimension to his

work at a later stage; psychoticism/superego
control. In this dimension, individuals who
show high levels of psychoticism are anti-
social, independent thinkers, cold, and
hostile. Individuals with high superego
control are more empathetic, cooperative,
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and conventional with the ability to control
impulses.
The Biolo g ica l t heory o f d e v e l o p m e n t
Gesell and maturational-development theory
Arnold Gesell was a clinical psychologist who researched and observed children’s development.
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He found patterns in development that all children pass through in a similar sequence,
although the rate the child passes through the sequence differs. His theory was called the
maturational-development theory and many other theories of human development are based
on his work. The observations Gessell did were of children who followed the normal patterns
of behaviour and those that did not, and his research has influenced our understanding and
knowledge of the expected developmental milestones in child development.
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Gesell believed that development was dependent on both internal and external factors.
The internal factors included genetics, personality, temperament and physical and mental
growth. External factors are culture, background, environment, health conditions and social
interactions. Gesell was the first theorist to identify that a child’s stage of development can be
different from their chronological age.
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The Cyclical Spiral
Gesell described children’s growth as a cyclical spiral. Each cycle of the spiral is the time
it takes the child to complete six stages of development. This is very rapid at first and
slows down as the child gets older. The six stages are: Smooth, break-up, sorting out,
inwardizing, expansion, and neurotic “fitting together”. See figure below of the cycles
of development.
Disequilibrium Equilibrium
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9 years
Neurotic
"Fitting Together" 8 years
Cycle V
Expansion
7 years
Inwardizing 6½ years
Sorting Out
5½ - 6 years
Break-up 5 years
Smooth
A 4½ years
Neurotic 4 years
"Fitting Together" Expansion
Cycle IV
3½ years 3 years
Inwardizing
Sorting Out
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2½ years
Break-Up 2 years
Smooth
Gesell’s research has informed normative trends in child development to the present day,
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which are the motor, adaptive (cognitive), language and personal-social behaviour areas of
development. Gesell’s ‘Developmental Schedules’ first published in 1925 was updated in 2010
and is still used as a guide for child development.
Criticisms of Gesell’s maturation theory
Theorists, including Piaget, believed that children are more influenced by their environment
than physiological factors. More up-to-date research demonstrates that the age milestones
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The Biological Theory
suggested by Gesell are inaccurate and children can accomplish some of their milestones at
a much earlier age. Gesell also did not consider factors such as culture and background in his
milestones, as his observations were all conducted on white, middle class children.
G o lem a n’s emot iona l i n t e l l i g e n c e

th eory
Daniel Goleman was not the first theorist to identify the concept of emotional intelligence, but
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he has brought much attention to the theory through his works which has had a considerable
impact on education today. It is now recognised that emotional intelligence is just as important
as intellect and this has resulted in social and emotional learning becoming part of educational
curricula all over the world. Research has shown that having a high intellectual ability or IQ
does not always lead to success in education or a career and other skills that are important for
processing emotional information are needed for success, leadership and relationships. Two
psychologists, Mayer and Salovey, developed the theory that there are four types of what they
termed emotional intelligence:
• Identifying emotions on a non-verbal level
•
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Using emotions to guide cognitive thinking
• Understanding the information emotions convey and the actions emotions generate
• Regulating one’s own emotions for personal benefit and for the common good
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Emotional intelligence and its use in education
Schools that promote social and emotional learning produce children with a high emotional
intelligence, which Goleman believes reduces bullying and disciplinary issues. Academic
performance also improves as children have more motivation and enjoy learning and gain
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a sense of achievement. A child’s emotional intelligence will also be dependent on their

background and home environment, and some children may need support to improve the way
they express emotions. In 2002, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization) launched a campaign to promote emotional intelligence in schools all over the
world.
Chapter 10: Play therapy/Child-centred therapy
H ow tec hniques o r ap p r o ac h e s ,
a risin g fro m t he t heo r i e s , r e l ate t o
a reas of child dev elo p m e n t
FT
For children, play is not just an activity but a way of expressing themselves and their
thoughts and opinions on the world around them. Early years education encourages play-
based activities through which children can learn. Play is the child’s language and the way
in which they understand and communicate their experiences and feelings. It is important
for all children that they have the correct opportunities provided to further develop this
language through inspiring indoor and outdoor play spaces; play and social interaction with
others, both their peers and adult; resources, toys, equipment and real objects, including
those from the natural world, allowing them to make choices and decisions on what, where
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and how they play and manipulate their environment directing their own play and learning.
The practitioner or teacher needs to plan a range of activities and play opportunities that are
relevant, inspiring, and challenging and promote development for children to truly benefit
from their play. Play is not only fun, it can also be therapeutic for children who are troubled
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Play therapy/Child-centred therapy
or having problems. Therapists can use play to help children explore emotions and deal with
trauma. Through play, they can learn new ways to cope and new patterns of behaviour. Play
therapy generally has a positive effect on children, and as they gain trust in the therapist they
usually become more creative in their play.
Benefits of play therapy When is play therapy used?

• Developing coping strategies • For children with developmental delay or additional
and problem-solving learning needs
• Promotes self-respect • For children facing serious illness or medical
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• Children feel less anxious problems
• Children have more respect for • Children with behaviour problems in school
others and empathy • Children showing angry or aggressive behaviour
• Increased ability to express • Family problems, such as divorce or death
feelings • Natural disasters or traumatic events in a child’s life
• Better social skills and family • Abuse, neglect or domestic violence
relationships • Eating disorders
• Improves language and motor • ADHD and Autism
skills
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Play therapy helps to improve the child’s communication, improves their impulse control and
the way they cope with anxiety or frustration. It can remove problems the child might have
with engaging in normal play and helps the child begin to trust others.
Play therapy helps a child’s development in many ways, like all play does. It allows children to
express their emotions and feelings through creativity, for example, malleable materials like
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play dough and clay allow children to express aggression, sadness and concerns. Drawing
often helps children understand their inner self and can be used to create a representation of
a traumatic event. Finger painting often encourages children to express joy. Imaginative play
promotes the development of social skills. Puppets and soft toys can be used to help children
act out social interactions and acceptable behaviours, they can also be used to represent a
child’s emotions or feelings about an event; expressing these symbolically through a toy can
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help children to distance themselves from memories that are too painful to express verbally.
Child-centred therapy and encounter groups
Virginia Axline stated that child-centred therapy focused entirely on the child and not on their
problems. She believed a therapeutic relationship is based on genuineness and authenticity,
positive regard and empathy for the child to support their development and growth.
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Axline believed that encounter groups or group therapy was a helpful way of dealing with
children with social issues or problems with relationships. It allows children to practice
encounters in social situations and new behaviours. Whilst observing the reactions of others,
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children are able to learn about themselves and others. Child-centred group therapy has
been used for children who have experienced
domestic violence, grieving children and abused
children. For these children, they were able to
Keywords
understand that they were not alone in their
Child-centred
situation and a relationship of trust developed
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between the therapist and all children in the group. Group therapy
Cognitive
Behavioural
Therapy (CBT)
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Chapter 11: Behaviour therapy
Behaviou r t hera py
Behaviour therapy or modification has been

developed from Skinner’s theory of operant
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conditioning. This is generally the reinforcement
of desired behaviour and ignoring or punishing
unwanted behaviour. It also takes its inspiration from
Bandura’s social learning theory and demonstrates
the practical ways in which children’s behaviour can
be adjusted to give them the best possible outcomes.
This is where targeted or desired behaviours are

exchanged for tokens, such as stickers, stars and
certificates, which are later exchanged for rewards,
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such as privileges or favoured activities. This is often
used by practitioners in the setting; giving out stickers,
the chance to take responsibility or help out at snack
time as a reward for good behaviour. It is important
that all children get a chance to be rewarded and take
on extra responsibilities, not just the children who
generally behave well.
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Behaviour shaping and modification
This is rewarding a child as they improve their ability to perform a target skill. It could be putting
on their coat without help, or potty training. Shaping is leading children through teaching and
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encouragement to begin the first steps in learning a complex behaviour and then rewarding
them as they complete each step towards achieving their target or goal. The practitioner needs
to observe and assess children to identify strengths and weaknesses in a specific skill and then
break the skill down into smaller steps. This could be a child who struggles to write their name;
they will first learn to shape the first letter and be rewarded, and then learn to complete the
second letter and be rewarded and so on until they can write their whole name. The child
learns the basis of the task and the behaviour is reinforced as the child develops and grows.
This procedure of slow steps takes time, but through rewards the task can be embedded
deeply in a child’s memory.
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Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
It is important to help children to develop an awareness of how thoughts can influence emotions
and behaviour. Whist children and young people are developing cognitively and emotionally,
it is a chance to reframe the thinking and beliefs that are behind counterproductive thought
processes. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) can alter how they interpret and evaluate
their emotions and behaviour when coping with negative experiences. It is important children
realise that their emotions and behaviour can be regulated and managed; this helps them
develop emotional awareness and self-control. Research has shown that CBT can be effective
for children and adolescents to treat anxiety disorders, eating disorders, depression, bullying
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and self-harm. CBT challenges unhelpful thoughts and behaviours and replaces them with
more realistic thoughts and ways to adapt and cope in challenging or difficult situations; this
can address some of the symptoms and issues that these conditions cause.
Modelling
Children learn by copying the behaviour of adults. To shape children’s behaviour, it is

important to model appropriate or good behaviour. This includes saying please and thank
you, so children learn manners; not shouting at others; taking turns, showing how to resolve
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conflicts in a calm and polite way. It is important that, if children do show unwanted behaviour,
it is discussed with them and they are given an explanation of why it is inappropriate and what
the appropriate behaviour would have been.
Social skills training

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There are a wide variety of problems children and young people can experience that can affect
their mental health but also disrupt social development. Anxiety, depression and ADHD can
cause children to fear social interaction and feel they do not belong, and are not accepted by
peers. Children may need support to find positive ways to form social relationships. Through
role modelling and CBT children can engage socially in enjoyable and non-threatening ways.
This includes children with Autism or Asperger’s Syndrome who learn to respond to facial
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expressions and social cues. Social skills training can help children change unrealistic and
critical beliefs about themselves that have made them anxious and socially withdrawn and
find more comfortable ways of engaging with others socially so they can improve their self-
image and feel less worried about social interaction.
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Behaviour therapy
Family therapy
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Family therapy benefits both the child and their family and helps them overcome difficulties
and problems. It is not just for children and their parents, it can include the extended family
such as grandparents. The family therapist will help direct discussions to stay focused, and
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can see the issues in a neutral and objective way. Family therapy can be helpful for families
in crisis, and is often used when there are relationship difficulties between parents, for
child mental health issues or behavioural problems, eating disorders, substance abuse or
domestic violence. There are many emotions and different relationships within families
and frustration and resentment can often cause arguments and communication difficulties.
Family therapy is a safe and supportive space where families can work through emotions
and difficulties in a constructive way and learn new ways to communicate and work through
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family problems.
Egan’s skilled helper model
Gerard Egan’s skilled helper model is a structured and solution-based model of counselling.
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It is a three-stage model in which the therapist uses each stage to help their client to move
forward. This model is based on a theory by Carkhuff, of high-level functioning helpers who
have the skills of empathy, respect, confrontation and immediacy, and on Bandura’s learning
theory where skills are acquired by understanding the learning process and achieving goals
through learning new and useful behaviours. Egan’s skilled helper approach encourages
clients to actively interpret their world and give meaning to situations, overcome challenges,
and establish goals. It introduces positive behaviours and problem-solving skills. In this model
the therapist helps the child to develop techniques that continue to solve problems that might
arise in the future.
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Unit 3
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Section 3
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The importance of
play in learning and
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development
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Chapter 12: Definitions of play and play-work
Content
2.3.2. The importance of play in learning and development
∙ definitions of play and play-work ∙ stages of play
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∙ the purpose of play ∙ types of play
This includes: play is an essential part of every child’s life and is vital for the
enjoyment of childhood as well as social, emotional, intellectual and physical
development; for most children play is natural and spontaneous although some
children may need help and encouragement.
Amplification
Definitions of play and play-work
∙
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Play can be defined as: ‘what ∙ Play-work can be defined as
children and young people do the process of creating and
when they follow their own ideas maintaining spaces for children
and interests, in their own way, and to play. It is a skilled profession
for their own reasons.’ Play means that enriches and enhances
to engage in activity for enjoyment children’s play. The theory and
and recreation rather than a serious practice of play-work recognises
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or practical purpose. It consists of that children’s play should ideally
those activities performed for self- be ‘freely chosen, personally
amusement that have behavioural, directed and intrinsically motivated’
social, and psychomotor rewards, and that children and young
and the rewards come from within people’s capacity for positive
the individual child; it is enjoyable development will be enhanced
and spontaneous if given access to the broadest
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range of environments and play

opportunities.
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In this section you will learn about play and play-work and their importance in supporting
children’s learning and development.
Play is an integral part of the life of every child and is vitally important in their physical,
intellectual, emotional and social development. It is part of how children learn and grow by
experiencing their world and environment by playing.
Definitions of play
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Play is one of the most important ways in which children gain knowledge and skills.
Play is meaningful
Children play to make sense of the
world around them, and to find
meaning in an experience by
connecting it to something already
known. Through play, children
express and expand their
understanding of their experiences.
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Play is joyful Play is actively engaging
Look at children – or adults – playing, often Watch children playing, and
smiling and laughing. Of course, play may you will usually see that
have its frustrations and challenges (Who they become deeply
gets the first turn? Why can’t I make this involved, often combining
block building stay up?), but the overall physical, mental and verbal
feeling is one of enjoyment, motivation, engagement.
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thrill and pleasure.
Play is iterative Play is socially interactive

Play and learning are not Play allows children to
static. Children play to communicate ideas, to
practice skills, try out understand others through
possibilities, revise social interaction, paving
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hypotheses and discover the way to build deeper

new challenges, leading to understanding and more
deeper learning. powerful relationships.
We all recognise play when we see it in schools, nurseries, homes and gardens, in the park or
on the street. Whatever children’s cultural or economic background, they all enjoy and learn
from play. There are many other definitions of play and its importance in children’s learning
and development. It is difficult to define play as it takes many forms, but researchers and
theorists agree on many of the key elements of play as shown in the diagram from the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). An important aspect of children’s play is that they are able
to direct and control their own play experiences. It is important to trust children to create
their own play and see this as their work as they learn and grow as capable and autonomous
individuals.
The importance of play in learning and development
Jean Piaget has been quoted as saying, “Our real problem is – what is the goal of education?
Are we forming children that are only capable of learning what is already known? Or should
we try developing creative and innovative minds, capable of discovery from the preschool age
on, throughout life?”
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A Child’s Right to Play
All children have the right to play, and this has been incorporated into Article 31 of the United
Nations Convention on the rights of the Child (UNCRC). The United Nations States,
“Play and recreation are essential to children’s health and wellbeing. They promote the
development of creativity, imagination, self-confidence, self-efficacy and physical, social,
cognitive and emotional strength and skills. They contribute to all aspects of learning. They
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are also a form of participation in everyday life, and are of intrinsic value to the child, purely
in terms of the enjoyment and pleasure they afford.”
“‘Play’: Children’s play is any behaviour, activity or process initiated, controlled and
structured by children themselves. Play is non-compulsory, driven by intrinsic motivation
and undertaken for its own sake, rather than as a means to an end. It may take infinite
forms but the key characteristics of play are fun, uncertainty, challenge, flexibility and non-
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productivity. While play is often considered non-essential, the Committee reaffirms that
it is a fundamental and vital dimension of the pleasure of childhood and is an essential
component of children’s development.” (Summary United Nations General Comment No. 17 on
the right of the child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities, cultural life and the arts (Article 31).)
The United Nations has also stated that governments who have signed up to the UNCRC must
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encourage the provision of appropriate opportunities of all the rights in Article 31, including
children’s right to play. In their ‘Play Policy’ (2002), the Welsh Government recognised the value
of both children’s play and the need to extend the range of environments and opportunities
available for children’s play whilst ensuring their physical well-being. Legislation and policy in
Wales have since recognised and promoted play in all aspects of children’s education and daily
lives.
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Definitions of Play - From the Welsh Government’s Play Policy (2002)

• Play is the elemental learning process by which humankind has developed. Children
exhibit a behavioural imperative and instinctive desire to play. It has contributed
significantly to the evolutionary and developmental survival of our species. Children use
play in the natural environment to learn of the world they inhabit with others. It is the very
process of learning and growth, and as such all that is learnt through it is of benefit to the
child.
• Play encompasses children’s behaviour which is freely chosen, personally directed and
intrinsically motivated. It is performed for no external goal or reward, and is a fundamental
and integral part of healthy development - not only for individual children, but also for the
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society in which they live.
Definition of Play-work
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Play-work is a way of working with children which supports and promotes children’s play and
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the process of play through creating flexible environments which children can adapt to meet
the needs of their play and learning. The play space offers a rich environment with many quality
playing experiences for children. Playworkers are there to facilitate the children’s play but not
lead or direct it. Playworkers will plan an environment with a wealth of play opportunities
to allow children to play in the way they need. They will only intervene when necessary. The
focus is not on the outcome but on the play itself. The practitioner will observe the children
at play and reflect on these observations. Play-work enriches and enhances the provision for
children’s play. Playworkers are skilled practitioners who support and facilitate play for its own
sake rather than to meet specified educational outcomes.
Definitions of play-work
• ‘Qualified, skilled playworkers are trained to put children’s play needs at the centre of their
work in a variety of settings, enhancing the range and quality of play experiences for all
children. They are the best people to run staffed play provision for school-aged children.
The role of the playworker is as important as that of any skilled professional working with
children and should be respected and rewarded accordingly’. (Play England)

• ‘Play-work is an emerging professional field with an increasingly recognised and qualified
workforce. Play-work offers services which open up opportunities for children to play and
have the freedom to choose what they want to do’. (Play Scotland)
• ‘…Playworkers enable children to extend their own play and they protect and enhance the
play space so that it is a rich play environment. Playworkers ensure that the play space
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is inclusive – supporting all children to make the most of the opportunities available in
their own way. Playworkers see children and young people as competent individuals. They
understand the need for children to encounter and create uncertainty and challenge as
part of their play. Playworkers neither direct nor organise play, they are trained to judge
when or whether to intervene’. (Play Wales)
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Chapter 13: The purpose of play
Content
Content Amplification: The purpose of play
∙ Play is an essential part of every of ‘give and take’; patience and
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child’s life and is vital for the perseverance, an understanding
enjoyment of childhood as well as of others, teamwork and a sense of
social, emotional, intellectual and belonging; play underpins all areas
physical development; children of learning in the Foundation Phase
have a right to play; play allows Framework.
children to use their creativity
while developing their imagination, ∙ Play underpins learning and
dexterity, physical, cognitive, and all development; through play,
emotional strength; through play children develop language skills,
children engage and interact in emotions, creativity, social skills,
the world around them; regular intellectual skills; for most children
active play helps babies, children play is natural and spontaneous
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and young people to develop a
lifelong habit of daily exercise and
although some children may need
help and encouragement, such as:
life skills such as: communication play therapy, play-based learning
and social skills, an understanding strategies, and purposeful play.
of social rules, friendships; a sense
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The Pur po se o f P la y
Research from Piaget to the present day has shown the wide range of benefits for children from
play. Play does not just benefit the child, it benefits families and the community. It improves
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children's learning, their health and their quality of life. Children are able to socialise and
communicate with peers promoting language skills, keep active both physically and mentally
and are given the freedom to use their creativity and make their own decisions. Research
demonstrates that access to high quality play provision has many benefits for children and the
whole community.
Benefits of play for children Benefits of play for families and
communities
• Increases their self-esteem and
self-respect. • Parents can feel secure knowing that their
• Improves and maintains their physical children are happy, safe and enjoying
and mental health. themselves.
• Gives them the opportunity to mix with • Families benefit from healthier, happier
other children. children and play provision is often a focal
• Allows them to increase their confidence point for communities.
through developing new skills • It offers opportunities for social interaction
• Promotes their imagination, for the wider community and supports
independence and creativity. the development of a greater sense of
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• Provides opportunities for developing community spirit and social interaction.
social skills and learning, and for children • Outside spaces, such as playgrounds
of all abilities to play together. and parks, have an important role in
• Builds resilience through risk-taking and the everyday lives of children and young
challenges, problem-solving, and dealing people, especially as a place for meeting
with new and novel situations. friends.
Play is a way through which children develop their physical, cognitive and emotional skills
whilst developing their imagination and creativity. Play is vital for a child’s brain development,
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and is the way that children begin to interact with their environment from infancy. Through
play, children create a world that they can explore and investigate, discover new meanings and
control and conquer. Children can practice different roles through imaginative play with their
peers and adults, and develop new skills and competencies that let them master their world,
leading to increased confidence and self-esteem that help them to develop the resilience they
will need to face challenges in the future.
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Play is important for developing social skills that will be used throughout life. Children learn how
to work in groups and as part of a team, learning how to share, negotiate, and solve conflicts.
It is important that practitioners let children direct their own play rather than controlling it, or
children will lose the benefits of developing creativity, leadership, and group skills. Play is also
an important way for children to develop an active and healthy lifestyle which can encourage
them to take exercise and prevent obesity in childhood and later life. Play also helps children
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to develop their language skills, increasing vocabulary and allowing children with language
delay or younger children to express themselves, their views and feelings through play. Play
is vital to the development of a child’s academic abilities, learning behaviour, problem-solving
skills and their social and emotional readiness to start school. Play is an important part of
social emotional learning through children’s early interactions with peers and adults.
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The purpose of play
The skills children learn through play

Play encourages Play gives children the opportunity to explore and investigate new
investigation and sensory stimulus and feeds their natural curiosity about the world.
feeds children’s Children are natural learners and want to discover new things. They
curiosity through can discover science and nature and learn how to interact with their
discovery environment.
Play allows Social play is where children are given a variety of opportunities to play
children to and interact with others around them. Social play allows them to develop
understand their social skills. They are able to understand social rules, such as give
social rules, and take, cooperation and sharing. These are all things that children
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negotiate and should learn and support their moral development. Children will develop
solve problems friendships and relationships with their peers and learn to compromise.
Children Playful children are more cooperative and popular with their peers than
learn to play those who play less, they are also more able to control their emotions.
cooperatively, Through play, children learn to recognise emotions and feelings, like
share resources anger and fear, and how to manage them. Children learn how to
and understand communicate and express themselves successfully. Unstructured play
the feelings of with friends is an opportunity for children to develop social skills and gain
others an understanding of others. Teamwork and a sense of belonging develop
through social and cooperative play.
Play develops
children’s
A Children practise and develop their fine and gross motor skills, reflexes,
coordination and balance. Playing encourages children to take risks in a
physical skills safe environment which leads to a sense of achievement and promotes
self-esteem.
Play supports Children should be encouraged to take the lead. Directing their own play
cognitive choices develops concentration, patience and perseverance. Through
development and their own play, they develop their creativity.
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creativity
Play promotes Outdoor play is important as it encourages a healthy, active lifestyle,
physical health preventing obesity, diabetes and high cholesterol in adulthood. The
and well-being chance to run, jump, hop, and climb allows children to become more
physically fit and healthy. Regular active play in a variety of settings
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encourages children to develop a habit of regular activity and exercise.

Play supports Children develop their communication skills through play and should
communication have opportunities to explore and experiment with mark-making using
skills, including chalk, pencil and paper or paintbrush. Mark-making as part of play is a
mark-making way of developing their pre-writing and emergent writing skills.
and emergent
writing
The skills children learn through play
Play encourages When children take risks and overcome physical and emotional
positive risk challenges at playtime, they gain self-confidence and have higher self-
taking and esteem. They learn to believe in their own abilities and how to assess and
self-esteem manage risk and danger.
Play promotes Role playing helps children to understand the viewpoints of others and
understanding to feel empathy. Children can act out adult roles and practice acceptable
of the world and social behaviours. They can also use their imagination to create their
empathy own stories and plays which develops their creativity and gives them the
beginning of story writing skills they will need later in their education.
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The Foundation Phase in Wales and learning through
play
The Foundation Phase is the statutory curriculum for all 3 to 7-year-olds in Wales. It encourages
children to be creative, imaginative and learn through play, which makes learning more fun
and more effective. Children will be given opportunities to explore the world around them
and understand how things work by taking part in experiential activities related to their
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developmental stage. They will be challenged through practical activities and develop their
thinking with open-ended questions. Children will be encouraged to explore concepts and
share ideas for solving problems.
The Foundation Phase has seven areas of learning which are delivered through active learning
experiences both indoors and outdoors.
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The areas of learning are:
• Personal and Social Development, • Knowledge and Understanding of the

Well-being and Cultural Diversity World
• Language, Literacy and • Physical Development

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Communication Skills
• Creative Development
• Mathematical Development
• Welsh Language Development
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The purpose of play
Each of these areas are interdependent, ensuring that the children participate in activities that
cover all areas of learning and development. At the beginning of their Reception year, children
will be formally assessed in four areas of learning:
• Personal and Social Development, Well-Being and Cultural Diversity
• Language, Literacy and Communication Skills (English or Welsh)
• Mathematical Development
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• Physical Development.
These assessments are carried out by observing children during their usual classroom
activities. The observations will give the practitioners information about where the children are
at in their development stages. Practitioners will then use this information to plan appropriate
active learning experiences for the children. This allows the children to learn and develop
through play and learn new skills through the opportunities given to them. Within settings,
there are often different areas within the classroom that encourage play and development,
such as construction, home corner, creative or craft area, imaginative play, discovery area,
mathematics area and language and literacy area in order for children to develop their skills
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across all the developmental areas.
1. Describe the purpose of play and assess the potential impact of

creative play on the development of a five-year-old child, with
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reference to two examples.
2. Explain the importance of play in the Foundation Phase for the development of
knowledge and understanding of the world.
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Chapter 14: Stages and types of play
Content
Content Amplification: stages of play
∙ Learners should be able to describe environment • unstructured play
the six main stages of play: • self-directed play; child directed
unoccupied; solitary; spectator/ play (free play); child directed play
onlooker; parallel; associative; with adult support (scaffolding/
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cooperative. guided play); adult facilitated play;
adult directed play (games); adult
∙ Learners should know the different controlled play (direct instructions);
types of play: creative play;
physical play; imaginative/pretend ∙ Learners shoud know how the
play or role play; environmental different types of play support the
play • playing in a structured key areas of development.
There are six stages of play during early childhood, and these can be observed in an early
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years setting by looking at the types of play children are engaged in and comparing that to the
age of the child. All of the stages of play involve exploring, discovering, using imagination and
being creative. Children’s play changes by age as they grow and develop their skills.
Unoccupied play (birth-3 months)

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At this stage baby is just making a lot of movements with their arms, legs, hands, feet, etc. They
are discovering how their body moves.
Solitary play (birth-2 years)

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This is the stage when a child plays alone. They

are not interested in playing with others. Solitary
play is where children prefer to play on their own
as they are taking the opportunity to explore their
environment. This can be from the sound of their
voice to the feeling of their body parts. It is also
normal for older children to want to play on their
own. They can spend long periods concentrating
on a particular activity.
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Stages and types of play
Spectator/onlooker behaviour (2 years)
During this stage a child begins to watch other children playing but does not play with them.
This is a healthy form of learning through play. It could be that the child feels shy or is unsure
of the rules, or prefers to watch before joining in play. Watching helps a child develop confidence
and learn the way children play together. During onlooker play, by observing, a child is building
their own skills. Children in onlooker play may comment on the observed activities. They are
learning about how children interact ready for their eventual participation in such group play.
Parallel play (2+ years)
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When a child plays alongside or near others but does not play with them, this stage is referred
to as parallel play. From age two to three, children prefer to play alongside other children, but
tend not to interact with them. They may be participating in similar activities, or sometimes
activities that are completely different, but they like to be around other children that are of a
similar age. Although practitioners believe that the children do not care about the presence
of the children, if they are separated it becomes clear that the contact with other children is
important to them.
Associate play (3-4 years)

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This is when a child starts to interact with others during play, but there is not a large amount
of interaction at this stage. A child might be doing an activity related to the kids around them
but might not actually be interacting with another child. For example, children might all be
playing on the same piece of playground equipment but all doing different things like climbing,
swinging, etc.
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Cooperative play (4+ years)
When a child plays together with others and has

interest in both the activity and other children
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involved in playing, they are participating in

cooperative play. They will discuss aspects of
their play, make rules, take turns and share
demonstrating the social skills they will need throughout their lives.
Cooperative play is where all the stages come together, and children begin playing together.
This usually occurs between four and five years of age. This is the main type of play seen in
children of this age, although, the earlier stages of play will still be observed as children use all
types of play to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding.
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Typ es o f pla y
Other types of play that support children’s learning and development

Description of the type of play Benefits of the type of play for children’s learning
and development
Creative play is when children This type of play is important as it develops skills in
engage in play where they make problem-solving, language skills and abstract thinking.
the rules and are free to use their Children can use creative play to express their emotions
imaginations to invent games, act through art, and develop social skills by teaching them to
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out stories, invent stories or songs. respect the feelings and ideas of others. It is important
Creative play is unstructured and to create an environment that supports creativity with
self-directed and all children should arts and craft like crayons, markers, paper, modelling
be given opportunities to engage in clay; dressing-up clothes, props for dramatic play;
creative play every day. musical instruments; and imagination toys, such as dolls,
shop and home corner.
Physical play includes all types of Physical play helps children to develop their gross and
children’s physical activities from fine motor skills, to develop fitness skills, and to enjoy
throwing a ball, climbing, play physical activity. It also gives them opportunities to take
equipment, swinging, skipping or risks and test their abilities in a safe environment, giving
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riding a bike.
Through imaginative/pretend
them confidence and self-esteem.
Through role-play, children develop the social skills and
play or role play the child uses behaviours they need for adult life by acting out adult
their imagination and creativity roles, such as doctor, nurse, teacher, shopkeeper, police
whilst they learn how to take officer. They also develop an understanding of how
turns, cooperate, share, and work society and communities work and the various roles
on language development. within them.
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Many schools and nurseries are Environmental play promotes discovery as children learn
incorporating environmental about the world through their senses. This can include
play into learning and meeting sensory gardens full of sounds, smells and colours;
children’s need for play with vegetable and flower gardens; treehouses and dens;
natural elements. It is important different natural materials, such as wood, stones, shells;
to have a diverse and varied and water play, which encourages discovery, creative
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environment, including trees, logs, thinking and problem-solving. Environmental play also
grass, stones and stepping-stones; supports the development of gross motor skills that
different textures, such as pine can be manipulated in open spaces, such as large-
cones and bark; and activities that scale art and crafts, balls, hoops, tyres and stepping-
promote discovery and curiosity stones. Children can also gain confidence and a sense
that develop children’s knowledge of achievement through growing their own plants and
and understanding of the world. vegetables and developing an understanding of the
need to respect living things.
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Stages and types of play

Structured play activities can be Structured play allows children to use logic to solve
organised sports and games, craft problems whereas unstructured play, or free play, is
activities where children create a creative and open-ended. It is important to observe
model with a specific goal or end the way children learn through play and give them
product in mind. Practitioners structured activities that encourage a love of learning.
can create a structured play Adults can praise children’s accomplishments and
environment indoors or outdoors achievements, such as completing a prearranged
with a specific set of goal- obstacle course and children can develop confidence
orientated activities to complete. and self-esteem.
Unstructured play is any period Unstructured play builds empathy and creativity in
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of child-led play, motivated by children and can help reduce depression, anxiety, and
their own interests and curiosity stress. It also allows children to follow their interests and
and is guided by their own set of develop the motivation to learn, explore and discover.
rules. Children willingly engage Children can manipulate their environment in order to
in this activity, deciding when the create things — building things with blocks and sand.
activity starts and ends. This type of play allows children to experiment with
materials and find out what works. This type of play gives
children a sense of achievement, as they have been able
to experiment and build items from their play.
Self-directed play Self-directed play is allowing children to play without
A direction or interference from adults. It is defined as
‘freely chosen’ with the child determining and controlling
the content of their play. It is personally directed and
follows the child’s own instincts, ideas and interests. It is
also described as ‘intrinsically motivated’ which means
playing in their own way for their own reasons.
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Child-directed play (free play) Child-directed learning activities and environments
motivate children to engage in play and exploration for
the experience rather than with an end goal in mind.
They are choosing the activity because it is fun and they
enjoy it.
Child-directed play with adult When adults support children’s play through guiding
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support (scaffolding/guided play) play in a sensitive way, it provides a balance between

is when children are given goals structure and freedom that promotes exploration and
slightly beyond their current ability discovery. Guided play results in deeper and more
by the adult and is supported extensive learning. Adults can support this learning in
to reach their next stage of guided play by having clear learning goals for an activity
development. (See Vygotsky's while allowing children to maintain control over their
theories in Chapter 8). learning.
Adult facilitated play provides The adult role involves being aware of when is an
children with the support, appropriate time to observe the children and give them
materials or resources, time and space to play, but also to be aware of when they should
space to play and develop their intervene. This again provides a balanced approach
skills. between the adult and the child directing play and can
keep children focused on desired learning outcomes
whilst allowing them to use their imagination and
creativity freely
Games can be great fun for There are many games adults can direct with children
children, and they promote that can promote learning in a variety of ways. The
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development. Practitioners games encourage the children to listen and follow
should ensure the correct balance instructions, and improve concentration. Games are
between adult led and child also fun, and this sort of physical activity can encourage
directed activities. Adult directed children to work as a team and support and encourage
games can help improve children’s others whilst developing both fine and gross motor
listening skills and teamwork. skills.
Adult controlled play (direct The adult will supervise and observe the activity to
instructions) is where an adult assess the child’s learning and development, and this
carefully plans activities to develop is used by practitioners to assess the developmental
a specific skill or learning outcome. stage of the child and plan appropriate activities to
A
Resources are chosen by the adult support and promote their development. An example is
and the child must work through a a practitioner asking a child to place all the circle shaped
series of steps to meet the desired items in the box which demonstrates the child can
outcome. recognise a circle.
R
1. Describe the purpose of child-directed play in the Foundation Phase

Framework.
2. Assess how imaginative play can promote the development of language for a child
D
aged 13 years.
3. Justify how structured play and unstructured play can support the development of
intellectual skills.
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Unit 3
FT
Section 4
A
Behaviour of children
and young people
R
D
91
Content
2.3.3. Behaviour of children and young people
• factors that affect the • strategies and approaches that
behaviour of children and support children and young
young people people to develop positive
behaviour patterns.
This includes:
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• sociological, psychological and • how parents and those working
biological factors in childcare can promote
positive behaviour patterns in
children and young people.
Amplification
the different factors that affect the behaviour of children and young
people; that these factors also impact on development
Sociological: psychological:
•
A
family: parenting styles, • self-esteem, self-concept,
relationships, divorce, adoption, mind-set, child mental health,
fostering; separation, poor attachment,
adverse childhood experiences
• lifestyle: diet, exercise; (ACEs), including grief and
• environmental: housing, loss, e.g. divorce, bereavement,
R
neighbourhood location, violence and bullying, including
opportunities for play/ domestic violence;
resources; • life experiences: moving home,
• cultural: ethnicity, education, birth of a sibling, bereavement,
travel, cultural experiences, being a refugee, sadness/
D
custom and tradition, attitudes, depression;

values and beliefs; • transitions: moving school,
• friends: socialisation, isolation, moving classes or groups;
stereotyping, peer pressure; • biological: gender, transgender,
• socio-economic: poverty/ genetic disorders, inherited
affluence, discrimination, disorders, learning disabilities,
influence of society and the disabilities/ill-health/disease,
media, role models; injury.
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Chapter 15: Factors Affecting Children’s Behaviour
and Development
There are many factors that can affect children’s behaviour and all aspects of their development.
These factors can affect children and their behaviour in either a positive or negative way. These
factors can be external or internal and can have a significant impact on children’s life chances.
Socia l Fa ct o rs
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Family
The family is where children’s primary socialisation occurs and where they learn the values of
their family and the community they live in. Children learn acceptable norms of behaviour from
their family. The first three years of life are the most significant in children’s brain development,
when they are highly sensitive to external factors that impact on behaviour and development.
If a child has a stimulating environment that is rich in language and communication with secure
attachments and bonds with the caregivers, this will enhance their development. In contrast,
A
if this does not happen within the family, the child can have delays in their development and
not reach the expected milestones for their age. Children who experience a stressful family
environment in their early years will have more chance of developing a learning disability or
mental health issue such as depression.
There are different types of family structures in modern society and the structure of a
child’s family can impact on their behaviour and development.
R
How different family structures impact on children’s behaviour and
development
The Nuclear Family • In the nuclear family, children have the attention of two parents
and may benefit from this in comparison to those who live with
D
one parent or in a stepfamily, where they may have experienced

stress, insecurity and loss due to separation, divorce or parental
death.
One Parent Family • Children in one parent families do not always receive the same
levels of care and attention due to only having one parent to
fulfil all roles. They often work long hours as there is only one
wage to support the family and often face poverty and live in
poorer housing than children in two parent families because
their income is lower.
93
How different family structures impact on children’s behaviour and
development
Stepfamily • Stepfamilies often lead to problems for children as they might
not have a good relationship with stepparents or stepsiblings,
and can feel resentful about sharing their parent and home with
the new family. Children can often feel jealous and insecure
especially if they are used to a parent’s undivided attention.
Foster/Adoptive • Foster families often care for children short-term, whereas
Family adoptive families will legally adopt the child and become their
parents for life. In both cases the child might have suffered
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trauma or distress before arriving due to separation from birth
parents, family breakdown, abuse or neglect. Foster children
feel insecure as they do not know if they will stay with the
foster family, return to parents or get moved elsewhere. They
are often insecure, confused, distraught and resentful and can
find it difficult to bond with the foster family. Adopted children
can also find it difficult to adapt to the new family environment
and parenting styles and often idealise their birth parents and
former family life.
Extended Family • Children who live in extended families often live with their
A parents, grandparents and other family members. In some
cultures, this is the most common family structure.
Shared Care • Children in shared care families have often experienced the
families trauma of family breakdown, separation and divorce. They
may feel insecurity and have divided loyalties which can cause
stress and unhappiness. As they spend time with both parents
R
in different homes, they may feel confused about where they
belong and be given mixed messages and different boundaries
by their parents and find it difficult to understand differences in
values and parenting styles.
D
Parenting Styles
Different parenting styles have a significant impact on children’s behaviour and development.
Young children find it difficult to behave in a way that is different to the beliefs, values and
attitudes they have learned within their family.
A family’s attitude towards education can impact greatly on the child’s motivation to learn and
achieve from the early years and throughout their education. Some parents will see education
as necessary for social achievement and economic stability in adulthood. They will encourage
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Factors Affecting Children’s Behaviour and Development
their children’s learning at home and ensure the child has the best educational opportunities,
seeing this as a valuable and positive experience. These parents will also be keen for their child
to attend an early years setting and develop their learning and social skills in preparation for
school, giving them an advantage over children who have not had this opportunity.
Parents who have a positive attitude towards society and their role in the community will
encourage their children to have the same values and attitudes. In families where parents
do not work and feel less strongly about contributing to society, education will not be valued
as highly and attitudes towards work, volunteering and taking on community roles will be
less evident. Children’s language and what they consider socially acceptable behaviour is also
influenced by parenting styles within the home. If parents swear, shout at others and are
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verbally aggressive, the child is more likely to display this behaviour at home, in the setting,
and at school. Parents who teach children manners, appropriate language and behaviour, and
are considerate to others will promote this in their children. Behaviour and moral values are
taught through primary socialisation, and parents who set boundaries for their children and
give rules and guidelines whilst giving love, warmth and support are more likely to produce
children who are independent, happy and successful.
L i festyle F a ct o rs
A
It is important for children’s health, well-being, development and behaviour that they have a
healthy balanced and nutritious diet and are active individuals who exercise regularly. Good
nutrition and exercise are essential for healthy brain development and growth. Many children
are not getting the right nutrition and exercise; some children live in poverty and often go
hungry or eat cheaper, less nutritious foods. One in four children in Wales are classed as
overweight or obese.
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Children who exercise regularly and eat healthily are more likely to:
• Perform better at school

• Have higher self-esteem and feel more confident about their bodies and physical
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abilities
• Cope with stress and regulate emotions
• Avoid mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety
• Participate in team sports where they gain social skills, make friends and feel a sense of
accomplishment and achievement
• Continue to have a healthy lifestyle, good nutrition and regular exercise in adulthood
En vir on ment a l F a ct or s
Where children live geographically and

the home in which they live can have a
significant impact on their development
and behaviour. The community in which

they live and the behaviour of their
peers, as well as the opportunities in
the community for education, play and
social interaction will all act as external
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influences on the child. Children living
in a community with parks, libraries,
sporting facilities, community centres and
opportunities to be physically active in the
outdoors, are given the opportunity to
develop their skills, interests, talents and
behaviours.
Children living in communities which are more socially deprived and have fewer facilities,
where there are high incidences of unemployment, poor housing, crime and drug misuse
A
and where outdoor spaces for play are often unsafe and poorly maintained have less play,
educational and recreational opportunities.
Environments can influence children’s behaviour and attitudes in either a positive or negative
way. Air quality can also impact on children negatively if they live in areas with high levels
of pollution. Children with pollution-related health concerns often also have behavioural
problems. Breathing poor quality air regularly causes lifelong health issues, including asthma,
R
chronic bronchitis and anxiety.
Housing
Many children live in homes that are too small for them to sleep comfortably, have privacy
D
or maintain good hygiene. Many lack spaces to complete homework and live in damp, dirty
or unsafe housing. Mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, have been linked to
overcrowded or poor-quality housing. These children are more likely be absent from school
often due to illness, and have delayed cognitive and language development. Children living in
overcrowded or unfit housing are more likely to have behavioural problems, such as aggression
and hyperactivity, which impact on their education and social relationships with peers.
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Neighbourhood Location
Children who live in deprived areas of Wales with high levels of poverty and unemployment are
in the lowest performing categories when they start school, and often have more behavioural
problems and health issues than those living in more affluent areas. Not all areas where
children live in poverty are under the Welsh Government’s Flying Start scheme and do not
qualify for extra support. Children who live in rural areas may benefit in some ways from
outdoor space to play and explore but can have less access to facilities, such as healthcare,
and fewer choices of nurseries and schools, and fewer community based services, such as
parent/toddler groups promoting children’s social development. Children who live in urban
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areas have less safe outdoor space and may not have gardens to play in which promotes
physical development, but they can have more access to health services, choice of childcare
settings and community services.
C ultu ra l F a ct o rs
Ethnicity
A
Ethnicity is a cultural factor that impacts on children’s development. Many children from ethnic
minority families live in the most deprived areas of Wales and the UK, and often face
discrimination which can negatively affect their self-esteem.
Racism can be very hurtful for children and their families and can damage self-identity and
cause them to feel they are seen as inferior to others by the wider community. This can
affect children’s behaviour and confidence and their
R
motivation to learn. It also affects their life chances and
Keywords
choices. It is important children understand racism is
not their fault and they have done nothing to cause
Ethnicity
it - it is an issue for communities and wider society.
Racism can also negatively impact children from Environmental
white backgrounds, it can make them less empathetic Deprived
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and sensitive to others and give them biased and

misinformed attitudes, such as only white people
are Welsh or British. Studies show that from the age of four, children from minority ethnic
groups start to feel dissatisfied with their appearance as they look different from the majority
of people in their local area, which is why it is vital for practitioners within early years settings
to celebrate diversity, so all children are equally valued and learn to respect differences in a
positive way.
Education
The attitudes of a child’s parents, community and culture towards the importance of education
can impact on children’s behaviour and development. The parents’ level of education can
impact on a child’s education as those parents who have been to university are more likely to
place high importance on doing well at school and gaining qualifications. Parents with good
levels of education often have higher income jobs and can afford to support their children’s
education with IT equipment or private tutoring. Adults with good levels of education are
also more likely to read to children and supervise and assist with homework. Children from
communities where higher education is less prevalent often gain less educational achievement.
In contrast, in some cultures, children are expected to achieve high educational attainment
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and are sometimes expected to follow certain career paths, such as medicine or law, and
are expected to be dutiful and obedient and comply with their parents’ wishes, rather than
following their own preferences.
Travel and cultural experiences
Travel has a positive effect on children and can be an important educational experience that
boosts creativity and imagination and develops social and language skills. They get to meet
new people, develop an understanding of different cultures, explore new types of food and
A
hear different languages. These experiences develop children’s senses and give them respect
for other cultures and languages.
Customs, traditions, attitudes, values and beliefs
The customs, traditions, attitudes, values

R
and beliefs of children’s parents, families
and the communities they live in can have
a significant impact on their behaviour.
Food, clothing, music and religion are
all part of the customs and traditions
of a child’s culture and gives them their
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sense of identity and belonging from

a very young age. It is important for
practitioners to develop an awareness of
how children’s cultural background impacts
on their development. Today's society is
increasingly multicultural; within Wales and
the UK there are many ethnic backgrounds, languages and beliefs all with a different set of
values and attitudes. Practitioners must respect and value all backgrounds to promote the
development of each individual child.
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Some of the ways in which customs, attitudes, values and beliefs impact on
children’s behaviour:
• Cultures that incorporate music and song into family and community life promote
creative behaviour in children.
• Cultures that value maths and science encourage their children to take interest in these
fields.
• Cultures with a custom of conflict between different ethnicities or where one gender
is seen as more valued than another can influence children to continue to display
discriminatory attitudes.
• Children from families who have strong religious convictions may have emotional and
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spiritual support within their religious community which supports moral development.
This can also impact on the child negatively if they feel they cannot live up to these
values or have developed different attitudes and values from those of their parents
and religious community.
• Some cultures express emotions more than others; children from more reserved
cultures may not have the same exposure to outward expressions of emotion.
• Cultural identity can help with social development through shared interests and
activities. Children can discuss their culture with others, comparing interesting cultural
topics with each other.
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How a child’s friends can affect their behaviour
• Socialisation is a vital part of a child’s development helping them learn how to

Socialisation and isolation
interact with others. If a child is not given the opportunity to build these skills, it
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can delay their social and emotional development.
• Preschool is the foundation for social development and often the first time
for children to learn how to interact with their peers. Children who miss this
opportunity find it harder to develop social skills, including interacting with
peers, problem-solving, and appropriate behaviour.
• A lack of social relationships affects behaviour and development in many ways.
D
Socially isolated children often have lower educational attainment and as

adults will be less economically stable.
• Socially isolated children are at increased risk of loneliness and physical and
mental health problems in adulthood. A lack of social relationships has a
negative impact on brain development.
How a child’s friends can affect their behaviour
• A stereotype is an over-generalised belief about a particular category of people.

Stereotyping
These beliefs can be widely held by people with little experience or interaction
with those being stereotyped. There are different stereotypes, such as gender
stereotypes, sexual orientation-based stereotypes, racial, ethnic, national or

religious stereotypes.
• Stereotypes are not based on reality and can make children narrow minded
with a limited understanding of society and the opportunities available to
them and others; therefore, stereotypes create barriers. Stereotypes can limit
children’s imaginations and cause them to doubt their ability to achieve targets
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or complete tasks that are not assigned to the stereotype they think they
belong to, such as a female child believing that science is a subject better suited
to boys.
• Stereotypes can decide what is acceptable or otherwise, creating pressure on
children to try and ‘belong’ to one of the desirable stereotypes. Stereotypes
can make children insecure over their skin colour, body type, height, and many
other factors. This damages confidence and self-esteem, especially for those
who believe they belong to a less favoured group due to gender or sexual
orientation.
A
• Peer-pressure influences all children but can impact on some more than
Peer-pressure
others. Peer-pressure is the influence that friends and other children have on
the child. Adults can underestimate the effects of peer-pressure on children
and young people. It can affect confident children by causing low self-esteem
and a lack of confidence, negatively impacting on well-being.
• Children’s education can be affected; by trying to fit in with their peer group
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they place more emphasis on being social rather than on education, and the
opinions of peers become more important than those of their parents and
teachers.
• Some types of peer-pressure can influence a child to develop bad habits, like
drinking alcohol, smoking, and drug abuse. This is motivated by the need to
feel accepted. Teenagers are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour and
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often don’t think of the possible consequences.

• Children who come from poor economic backgrounds can feel ashamed about
themselves and their family because they think their peers will see them as
inferior as they don’t have the latest phone or expensive clothes.
• Teenagers often think nobody understands them and that the whole world is
against them. The influence of peer-pressure can isolate teenagers from family
and friends and they start to mix with others who are a negative influence, and
can get involved in illegal or risky behaviour.
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Socio-economic fa ct o r s
Poverty/affluence
Poverty can have a significant impact on the behaviour and life chances of children. Children
from poor families are more likely to have emotional and behavioural problems by age 5.
Studies have shown a significant link between poverty and poor educational outcomes for
children. There are significantly more children with behavioural issues from poorer families
than those who are more economically stable. Parents from low income families are often
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more stressed and worried about debt and paying bills which can impact on children, making
them also feel stressed and anxious.
› WORRIED ABOUT
PARENTS
› UNHAPPY
› FRUSTRATED › FEW
› ANXIOUS OPPORTUNITIES
› WORTHLESS
› HOPELESS
›
›
A
EXCLUDED
CONSTRAINED
› SOCIAL
INSECURITY
› CONFLICTED
› EMBARRASSED
HOW
POVERTY
FEELS TO
R
CHILDREN
› ISECURE, › ASPIRATIONS
OVERCROWDED › HOPES ABD
HOMES DREAMS
› NO PLACE FOR › RESILIENCE
HOMEWORK OR PLAY
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› IMPORTANT
› BULLIED & JUDGED
› TEACHERS DON’T
UNDERSTAND
› NO SCHOOL TRIPS
(source. Child Poverty action group. The effects of poverty | CPAG )

Children from families with more affluence or a higher income achieve better results in
education and have better emotional and physical well-being.
Children are often embarrassed about being poor and can be excluded and bullied by their
peers. Children living in poverty often face discrimination as they are unable to go on school
trips, afford new school uniforms, have holidays or invite friends over to their house which
significantly impacts their social relationships with peers. Poor children suffer more problems
with their mental health than affluent children. Poverty impacts on every part of a child’s life:
at home, in school, with friends and their ability to enjoy and achieve in childhood.
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Influence of society and the media
A
R
Social media, computer games, television, websites and magazines can all have a significant
impact on children’s behaviour. It is important for parents to monitor their children’s exposure
to such influences as there can be inappropriate content and children can be exposed to
grooming and predatory behaviour. There can be other issues associated with children’s
overexposure to electronic devices, such as shortening attention span, sleep disruption,
distortion of body image and aggressive or anti-social behaviour.
D
Television and the internet can be useful tools for education but advertisements and
unrealistic images of celebrities can cause harm to children’s images of themselves and the
world. Advertising often encourages unhealthy food choices and sitting watching a screen for
long periods can cause a lack of exercise, which leads to obesity. Children also see unrealistic
images of how celebrities look which encourages children and teenagers to see themselves
in a negative way in comparison, which can lead to eating disorders, obsessive exercise and
steroid abuse. Computer games can also be violent which can encourage aggression and lack
of empathy for others.
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Role models
Children learn much of their behaviour by observation and imitation and role models can
affect their behaviour in both a positive and negative way. Role models can be teachers,
sportspeople, celebrities or peers. Children often admire those who have achieved success
in their career through hard work and this can be a positive role model. Children’s attitudes,
beliefs and personality can all be influenced by role models, and this can become ingrained
at a very early age. Positive role models can influence the career path children want to take. If
children grow up and see positive role models who are happy and successful in their careers,
they may pursue those same careers for themselves when they're older. Role models can also
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be negative as children might aspire to be like someone who is pictured making unhealthy
lifestyle choices, smoking or drinking alcohol or having extreme religious or political views.
Psyc holo g ica l fa ct o rs
There are a range of psychological factors that can impact on children’s

behaviour, some of which are explained below:
•
A
Low self-esteem
Children with low self-esteem feel adults and peers in their lives do not accept them
or really care about them. Negative self-esteem develops from low self-confidence,
insecurity, anxiety and depression. The self-esteem of young children is based largely
on their perceptions of how the important adults in their lives judge them which is
why it is important for practitioners to show children they are valued and accepted for
R
who they are. Children who have been abused or who have faced discrimination often
suffer low self-esteem. Low self-esteem can cause insecurities about appearance and
intellect and a negative self-concept causing children to be easily embarrassed and
shy, withdrawing from peers and becoming isolated.
• Mindset
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Children face many challenges in their development and need to process their
emotions and develop emotional intelligence and resilience. To do this, children need
support to develop a positive mindset and outlook on life. If adults demonstrate
positive attitudes, it will encourage children to do the same. Negative incidences should
be discussed as learning experiences and viewed in a positive light. Children can
develop resilience and a positive mindset by learning to overcome challenges.

Mental health
Children’s mental health has a big impact on their behaviour and can have many different
underlying causes. One in ten children are reported to be suffering from a mental health
problem, such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder). Children’s
mental health issues are often caused by what is happening in their lives. It is important for
children to have good mental health to have the resilience to cope with life. Mental well-being
is as important as physical health.
Factors promoting positive Factors that lead to negative mental health:
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mental health:
• Dealing with change and traumatic events can
• Good physical health, balanced negatively impact children’s mental health
diet and regular exercise • Moving home or school, or the birth of a new
• A variety of play opportunities sibling can make children anxious and insecure
indoors and outdoors • Separation from a parent or a poor attachment
• A happy family life • Having a parent who has had mental health
• Going to a school that promotes problems, problems with alcohol or drugs
well-being and provides many • Experiencing the death of someone close to
opportunities to learn and them
succeed • Having parents who separate or divorce
•
•
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Feeling loved and safe
Feeling a sense of belonging
• Having been severely bullied or physically or
sexually abused
at home, in school and in their • Living in poverty or being homeless, experiencing
community discrimination because of their race, sexuality or
• Feeling positive and having religion
control over their lives and • Acting as a carer for a relative, taking on adult
being resilient enough to face responsibilities
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challenging times in their lives • Having long-standing educational difficulties.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

D
The experiences of a child throughout their early life has a huge impact on their behaviour
and development, including mental and physical health. Whether a child has a secure or
insecure attachment to the parent or caregiver will become a template for the child’s future
relationships. (See Attachment chapter and Bowlby chapter).
A positive relationship with their caregiver will give the child a positive attitude towards
other relationships and themselves, whereas a negative experience when the caregiver fails
to meet the child’s needs consistently will make it difficult to maintain positive relationships
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in the future and positive mental well-being. Adverse Childhood Experiences are traumatic
events which occur during childhood or adolescence. They can be single events or prolonged
traumatic experience that threaten the child’s well-being, trust, or security.
Examples include abuse, parental drug or alcohol abuse, domestic violence, a parent with
mental illness, or the loss of a parent due to divorce or death. A study in 2014 discovered
47% of people had experienced at least one ACE. ACEs can lead to an increase in physical and
mental health problems, including depression and anxiety. The more ACEs a child experiences,
the greater the impact, which can make it difficult to manage their emotions and behaviour at
home and in school and to maintain friendships and relationships
FT
1. Outline three factors that lead to negative mental health in children.
2. Explain the impact of factors that promote positive mental health on children’s
behaviour.
A
R
D

Biologic a l fa ct ors
There are a range of biological factors that can impact on children’s behaviour and practitioners
need to develop an understanding of how this can affect the individual child.
Transgender Children develop their gender Genetic/inherited disorders These are caused
over time. Research suggests that children by an abnormality in the genome. Abnormalities
who assert a gender-diverse identity know can range from a small mutation in a single
their gender as clearly and consistently as gene to the addition or subtraction of an entire
their peers and benefit from the same level of chromosome. Most genetic disorders are present
support, love, and social acceptance. Attempts from birth, are heritable and are passed down
at suppressing their skills, talents, and genuine- from parents’ genes. Other defects are caused
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self can cause low self-esteem, depression by new mutations to DNA. Disorders can cause
and isolation. When a child’s interests are not poor social skills, being easily distracted, reduced
what society expects, they may be subjected self-esteem, poor understanding of appropriate
to discrimination and bullying. It is natural for social interaction, language difficulties, problems
parents to have gender-based expectations, but with reading and writing, immature play skills/
it is important to show they love the child for interests, and difficulties with coordination and
who they are and provide safe places for them development of fine and gross motor skills.
to express their identity.
Physical disability/disease/injury There Learning disabilities Children with learning

are many physical disabilities that can affect disabilities can also have behaviour problems
A
children, such as delayed walking, deafness
or visual impairment. Cerebral palsy is the
or disorders, including acting out, avoidance,
aggressive behaviour, social isolation and
most common physical disability in childhood. emotional outbursts. Behaviour problems
There are conditions that may not be seen as are often due to reduced self-confidence and
disabilities but impact on children through increased anxiety and stress. Signs a child has a
missing school or not being able to join in learning disability include: anxiety; depression;
physical play, e.g. asthma or diabetes. Children bullying their peers; physical ailments, such as
with disabilities are at higher risk of lower social-
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headaches; not wanting to go to school; self-
emotional well-being. They are more likely to be critical comments; refusing to follow classroom
bullied and have fewer friends, and engage in rules; saying the work is too difficult and missing
fewer extracurricular activities than their peers. classes. In some cases, children will intentionally
Disabled children have more social, emotional engage in behaviours that force their removal
and behavioural difficulties at ages four and from the classroom.
five.
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Gender
The hippocampus (the area of the brain that supports memory) develops slower in boys so it is harder
for them to retain as many instructions as girls can. The corpus callosum, linking the two halves of the
brain, is smaller in boys with fewer connections, making it difficult to do two things at once. Boys also
have more dopamine which increases risk-taking and experimentation behaviours. Studies have shown
that girls and boys socialise differently. Girls prefer one-to-one interactions and boys prefer to socialise
in groups. Most gender-specific behaviour develops from society’s expectations. Boys are expected to
be competitive and assertive whereas girls should be more sensitive and supportive.
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ACTIVITY
Complete the table by deciding the type of factor affecting behaviour that is in
the given scenario and the effect this has on the child.
Type of
factor
Scenario Effect on the child
affecting
behaviour
Example: Environmental Mental health issues, such as anxiety and
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A three-year-old Housing depression, due to overcrowded/poor quality
child living in a two- housing. More likely to have high levels of
bedroom house with absence from school due to illness, and
their parents and four delayed cognitive and language development.
siblings. The house More likely to have behavioural problems,
is damp and poorly such as aggression and hyperactivity,
maintained. which impact on their education and social
relationships with peers.
A six-year-old child Cultural-
who has just moved to Ethnicity
A
Wales from Pakistan
and speaks no English
Culture and
traditions
or Welsh.
A teenager with anxiety
and depression and
is often absent from
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school.
A child with learning Children with learning disabilities can also
disabilities who has just have behaviour problems or disorders,
moved to secondary including acting out, avoidance, aggressive
school behaviour, social isolation and emotional
outbursts. Behaviour problems are often due
D
to reduced self-confidence and increased

anxiety and stress.
A teenager whose
parents cannot afford
to send them on an
educational school trip.
A ten-year-old child
whose mother died last
year

FT
A
1. Explain the importance of friends and the ways in which they can
influence the behaviour of a 12-year-old child.
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2. Describe the potential effect of adverse childhood experiences on children’s
behaviour.
3. Discuss how children’s different family backgrounds can impact on their

behaviour.
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Chapter 16: Strategies and approaches that support children
and young people to develop positive behaviour patterns
Content
(b) Strategies and approaches that support children and young people to de-
velop positive behaviour patterns
Amplification
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∙ how parents and those working ∙ create a behaviour policy which:

in childcare can promote positive justifies expectations which
behaviour patterns in children includes children’s input, expresses
and young people: modelling, rules positively, include rules about
setting boundaries, consistency, group behaviours, promoting
reinforcement, creating an resilience strategies, what is meant
environment for good behaviour by behaviour that challenges,
strategies and interventions to deal
with behaviours that challenge in
A children and young people
It is important for both parents and

practitioners to promote positive
behaviour patterns for children
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and young people, both in the
home and at childcare settings
and schools. Children need to
learn what is acceptable behaviour
and the rules that govern this
within our society. Adult support
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is needed for children to learn

these rules and it is necessary to
understand the factors that can
cause children’s behaviour rather
than focus on the behaviour
they are demonstrating. For
both practitioners and parents,
understanding some key facts about children’s behaviour is vital to be able to promote
positive behavioural patterns.
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Key facts about children’s behaviour:
• Children’s behaviour is learned not programmed from birth
• It is important for parents and practitioners to show children they are rejecting the
behaviour not the child
• What is seen as acceptable behaviour in some cultures may not be acceptable in others
• Practitioners and parents influence children’s behaviour in both positive and negative
ways through their own actions
• It is important for adults to be a role model to children and demonstrate positive
behaviour
• Expectations of children’s behaviour should be based on their age, abilities,
developmental stage, family background and prior experiences
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• Children need to learn behaviour in the same way they learn physical and cognitive
skills
• Children learn behaviour in a social context, such as a family home or setting, and not
in isolation
• Children need encouragement and praise to reinforce positive behaviour
Mod elling
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When children first start to attend a childcare setting, they are still learning what appropriate
behaviour is, and what behaviour is expected of them in a social context. Examples of
challenging behaviour can be general disruption, rudeness, pushing, hitting and throwing
toys.
It is important that practitioners promote positive behaviour, such as developing positive

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relationships, self-awareness, empathy and emotional intelligence. According to Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory children learn by watching others, and children often imitate adult
behaviour (see Bandura and the Bobo Doll experiment in Chapter 6). It is important practitioners
and parents follow their own behavioural rules and model appropriate behaviour. It is not
helpful to shout, ‘don’t shout’ as the child has just watched you do exactly that. It is important
for children to learn empathy, kindness and being respectful to others. Saying please and
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thank you shows children the correct way to behave towards others. If practitioners in the
setting are kind, polite, respectful and helpful to each other, to parents and to children this
will demonstrate the type of behaviour expected. It is important to help children develop an
awareness of the feelings of others and discuss how others might feel if a child has called one
of their peers a rude name or snatched a toy away. Parents and practitioners should model
how to manage emotions, such as anger or frustration, and talk about appropriate ways to
deal with these feelings rather than having a tantrum or blaming others. Practitioners should
encourage children to talk about their own emotions and why they feel that way.
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Strategies and approaches that support children and young people to develop positive behaviour patterns
Setting bo unda ries
Boundaries are set to keep children

safe, and to ensure the setting is a safe
environment for all children. If children
are allowed to do whatever they please
they could harm themselves or others.
It is important to explain to children why
boundaries are there. If a child is playing
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by throwing all the bricks out of the box, it
is important to explain they cannot do that
as the bricks might hit another child and
hurt them.
Children will resist if they are told not

to do something which is interesting or
fun, so it needs to be explained why it is
important to stop.
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Boundaries are about what behaviour is unacceptable and cannot be allowed to happen either
in the home or setting. It is important to explain why there are certain boundaries and help
children to understand and agree to them in age-appropriate and developmentally-appropriate
ways. When children understand why there are boundaries, they are more motivated to
cooperate as they can see the risk or danger of not observing them, which could be putting
themselves or others in danger of harm or hurting the feelings of others. Children will test
boundaries and will need reminding of them, and as a child gets older boundaries will need to
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change to meet their level of independence or responsibility. Boundaries can make children
feel safe, secure and cared for, and when children keep within the set boundaries, they should
be given praise and positive attention. Children will need to practice these behaviours. They
will overstep boundaries sometimes and need reinforcement of the importance of boundaries
for their own well-being and that of others.
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C onsistency
Consistency is important in a childcare setting for behaviour management as well as for dealing
with challenging behaviour. It is important for practitioners to demonstrate a consistent
approach to promote an atmosphere in the setting where children feel secure and safe to
play and explore. Consistency helps children understand boundaries and what is acceptable
behaviour, allowing them to learn effectively and achieve positive outcomes. If boundaries

and rules regarding behaviour are not implemented consistently by staff, children will feel
confused and uncertain. If a child is demonstrating challenging behaviour, practitioners should
work with parents to ensure consistency of approach between the home and the setting. To
ensure consistency in the setting children should be regularly reminded of the rules and these
should be displayed as a reminder. Rules should be positive, stating acceptable behaviour,
rather than negative ones based on what children shouldn’t do. Rules and expectations should
be shared with parents, and practitioners and parents should be familiar with the Behaviour
Management policy in the setting. Unwanted behaviour should be dealt with in the same way
by all practitioners. It is important not to label children as naughty or difficult as other children
will pick up on this. All practitioners should stress that it is the behaviour that is unwanted and
not the child.
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R einfor cement
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Positive reinforcement can be very effective for behaviour management in a setting or for
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classroom management in school. Positive reinforcement is about rewarding good behaviour

and ignoring bad behaviour and is based on the Behaviourist theories of Pavlov and Skinner
(see Behaviourist theories in chapter 5). Practitioners and teachers can change children’s
behaviour by conditioning them to respond in a certain way. Positive reinforcement is
successful as it builds positive relationships, self-esteem, confidence and rapport.
If a child feels confident, valued and happy, they usually show desired behaviour. Younger
children respond to stickers, gold stars and being given extra responsibility, such as helping
with snack time. Adolescents would not respond to this so well, so reinforcement needs to
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be age-appropriate. Praise and positive comments on written work can be effective for older
children along with rewards and privileges, such as finishing the lesson early when they have
worked well and allowing them to listen to music.
C reating a n env iro nme n t f o r g o o d

beh a viour
A positive environment is essential to promote
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good behaviour in the setting; this is not only
the physical environment but the attitudes
and behaviours of everyone. A stimulating and
challenging environment where children feel safe
and secure to explore and play promotes positive
behaviour as children are more likely to present
unwanted behaviour when they are bored or
lack stimulation and challenge. Activities and
resources should be challenging yet appropriate
for children’s developmental stage as both
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frustration and boredom can lead to unwanted
behaviour. The play space should be colourful
and inspiring with displays of children’s work
to boost self-esteem and make the child feel
valued and have a sense of belonging. For older
children and young people, a positive learning
environment that is friendly, comfortable and
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welcoming with interesting and informative wall
displays will encourage learning and positive
behaviour.
Classrooms should not be too hot or cold, appropriately lit and decorated in a way that is
appealing to children. Children should feel safe from any bullying or discrimination, so it is
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important that there is good classroom management, boundaries and consistency. Children
should be included in creating the environment and choosing the theme and design of wall
displays and have artwork or accomplishments posted on walls. Praise, rewards and positive
feedback are important to provide positive reinforcement to children and young learners. This
gives children freedom and motivation to learn, explore and try new things. It is important
there are rules and boundaries during learning and playtime activities including consequences.
Negative behaviours affect other children, so the environment should discourage disruptive
behaviour and promote positive behaviour.

Cr eating a B eha v io ur P o l i c y
It is important for settings and schools to create a ‘Positive Behaviour Policy’ which is available
to all staff and parents. The policy should include what is expected of the children, how staff
should react to negative behaviour and reinforce positive behaviour. The policy can then be
used to create rules for behaviour that is appropriate for the age and developmental stage of
the children. Rules should be created with the children so that they feel their opinion is valued
and will be more motivated to abide by them.
The key aspects and functions of a behaviour/behaviour management policy
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It justifies Any behaviour policy must explain the expectations of the setting
expectations or school on what appropriate and inappropriate behaviour is to
for children’s ensure a consistent approach from educators, and so parents are fully
behaviour informed of the rules children must follow and the consequences if
they don’t.
Includes Any behaviour policy must take into account the views and opinions
children’s input of children, whatever their age, as children will be more motivated
to follow the rules and understand the expectations of the school or
setting.
Expresses rules Rules should be worded in terms of the positive behaviour expected
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positively rather than a list of ‘do nots.’ For example, ‘Please walk in the
classroom’ rather than ‘Do not run in the classroom’.
Includes rules It is important to recognise the impact of group behaviour, and
about group children should be praised and rewarded as a group for positive group
behaviours behaviour. There should also be rules about the bullying of groups or
individuals by other groups, especially where there is an imbalance of
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power. Such as a group of children in year 9 intimidating a group of
year 7 children.
Promote Resilience can be promoted through behaviour management policies
resilience by setting goals and targets for the child and giving praise and rewards
strategies when the targets are met. Ensuring it is the behaviour that is seen
as unacceptable, not the child themselves. Children should never be
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humiliated or segregated as this will damage self-esteem. Children

can be helped to develop skills to regulate emotion through discussing
the cause and emotion, and developing an action plan to help them
recognise emotions like anger and frustration and use the action plan
to regulate these.
Explains what All behaviour policies should be clear in defining what challenging
is meant by behaviour is within the setting as children from different backgrounds
behaviour that and cultures could have differing views on what challenging behaviour
challenges is.
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The key aspects and functions of a behaviour/behaviour management policy

Includes It is important a behaviour policy clearly states the strategies and
strategies and interventions the setting or school will use to deal with challenging
interventions behaviour, so parents are aware of the consequences for their
to deal with children and are aware of the ethics of the school. Practitioners can
behaviours also use the document to inform practice and ensure consistency.
that challenge Strategies can include planned ignoring, prompting, active listening,
in children and redirecting and distracting and time out.
young people
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CASE STUDY
Nathan is an eight-year-old boy who has recently moved into a new area with
his family: his mother, father, his twin brother Aaron and his sister Gwen, who
is 6 weeks old. Since Gwen was born, the household has been extremely busy
caring for the new baby and having lots of visitors. Nathan and Aaron have
started at the local primary school and have been placed in the same class.
This is causing some issues because Nathan and Aaron are unfamiliar with
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the setting. Nathan’s parents are concerned because he sometimes presents
challenging behavious and this has become more frequent in the last few
months. Nathan’s behaviour includes becoming distressed if his daily routine is
changed, preferring to play independently rather than with others, taking toys
away from other children, and becoming overwhelmed in a noisy environment.
Nathan’s parents try to reward his positive behaviour, but increasingly let him
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have his own way because they find his reactions challenging and demanding
of their time. Nathan is most comfortable when he is able to follow a familiar
pattern of activities and when his twin brother is close by because Aaron
supports Nathan throughout the day. Nathan has some difficulties moving
around the classroom, he sometimes falls over and bumps into furniture
and other children. This can be upsetting for Nathan and the other children
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concerned.
Nathan’s language is not well developed, and this can hinder him when he tries
to communicate and express his feelings. This can lead to Nathan becoming
overwhelmed and withdrawing from class activities. However, Nathan does
enjoy art and creative work, where he is able to express himself in a different
way. Nathan finds physical education difficult, particularly when he is a member
of a team. However, Nathan likes to cheer for his twin brother when Aaron

plays football at the weekends. Because they are worried about Nathan, his
parents have arranged to meet with his teaching team to voice their concerns.
Nathan’s mother has kept an on-going diary of challenging incidents during the
last few months to discuss with the teaching team at school.
1. Outline three factors that may be influencing Nathan’s behaviour.
2. Explain how Nathan’s positive behaviour can be promoted at home and in

school.
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3. Assess the potential impact of two sociological factors which may affect
Nathan’s behaviour.
1. Outline the important aspects of a behaviour management policy.
2. Explain why children should have an input into a behaviour policy.

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Chapter 17: The three aspects to promoting positive
behaviour
Content
(b) Strategies and approaches that support children and young people to de-
velop positive behaviour patterns
Amplification
Learners should understand that there are three aspects to promoting positive
behaviour:
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∙ A learning environment that is ∙ Strategies for decreasing undesired
positive and supportive: uses behaviours: quiet time, restorative
positive behaviour management practices, use of interventions,
techniques and rules, follows including diversion and distraction,
routines, sets expectations, limits Social and Emotional Aspects
and boundaries, promotes choice, of Learning (SEAL), Social Use of
responsibility and independence. Language Programme (SULP),
the Thrive Approach, discussions
∙ Strategies for building skills and with key person, managing the
strengthening positive behaviours: environment, being consistent,
reward charts/cards, positive key person, staying calm, creating
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reinforcement (praise the good and behaviour or routine cards,
ignore the negative), antecedents, continuing observations and tuning
behaviours and consequences in to what the child is really trying
charts (ABC charts). to say through their challenging
behaviour, and counselling for older
children and young people.
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Positive a nd Support iv e l e ar n i n g
e n vir on ment s
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Children achieve the best outcomes in a positive environment where they know what is
expected of them and are able to develop their play and learning without fear of being bullied,
hurt or discriminated against. Adults have a vital role in modelling behaviour and consistently
encouraging positive behaviour that promotes children’s welfare and development. Children
can develop their independence, self-discipline and self-esteem in an atmosphere of mutual
respect and encouragement. Children will develop positive behaviour and learn best when they
are praised and rewarded when their behaviour is appropriate. In a positive and supportive
environment practitioners act as good role models and use praise and positive reinforcement.
It is important that the setting has a routine, so children know what to expect and understand
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that appropriate behaviour is different during circle time and snack time as opposed to
outdoor play. Established routines make children feel safe and secure and make them feel
a sense of belonging in the setting. Practitioners should praise group behaviour as well as
individuals, as this encourages children to feel part of a community within the school or setting
and take pride in the group. Rules should be positively phrased and guide children on what is
expected of them, encouraging sharing and negotiation. Practitioners should ensure all rules
are applied consistently, giving children the security of knowing what to expect and building
up positive behavioural habits. Friendliness, care and courtesy are modelled to encourage
children to behave in the same way, and practitioners should praise desirable behaviour, such
as kindness and willingness to share. It is important that practitioners seek children’s opinions
when creating boundaries and rules because it helps children understand the consequences
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of their behaviour. Children should be supported to be responsible, for example, tidying up
and helping at snack time. Being given responsibility and praise will help children take pride
in their achievements and repeat desirable behaviour. The environment created in the setting
should be positive and children should be provided with a stimulating environment with age-
appropriate and challenging activities, where they can explore, make choices, solve problems
and develop their creativity.
Stra tegies fo r buildin g s k i l l s an d

stren gth ening posit ive b e h av i o u r s
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It is important that practitioners use strategies in the setting to support children to build skills
and strengthen positive behaviour. It is important to give one-to-one adult support to children
who misbehave so that they understand what they did wrong and work towards a better
pattern of behaviour. Practitioners should always make it clear to the child, or children, who
are misbehaving that it is the behaviour and not the child that is unwelcome or undesired.
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They should never humiliate, segregate or isolate children as a way of managing children’s
behaviour, as this will have a negative impact on their self-esteem. It is important not to shout,
as children will imitate the behaviour of practitioners and think shouting is an acceptable
type of behaviour within the setting. Where possible, practitioners should ignore unwanted
behaviour and focus on praising the wanted behaviour instead. This demonstrates to the child
and other children at the setting that unwanted behaviour does not gain attention and stops
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the behaviour being reinforced with the reward of more attention for the child. Behaviour
expectations should be appropriate for the developmental stage of the child; what is expected
behaviour for a three-year-old is inappropriate for a seven-year-old child, so practitioners
should take into consideration individual children’s level of understanding and maturity.
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The three aspects to promoting positive behaviour
Reward Charts
Reward charts are a visible way

to show positive behaviour
for the child to achieve, such
as saying ‘please’, setting the
table or tidying the toys. The
chart shows how often the child
succeeds in their behaviour
goals. The chart will have spaces
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for ticks or stickers. A certain
number of ticks, stickers or stars
adds up to a reward for the
child.
Reward charts can encourage desired behaviour, such as putting all the bricks back in the
box, or discourage unwanted behaviour, such as pushing or hitting. Reward charts are
motivators for children to change their behaviour. The rewards reinforce good behaviour
and make it more likely to happen again. Reward charts allow practitioners to focus on the
positives in a child’s behaviour and give less attention
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to negative behaviour. It is important to talk to the
child about the behaviour they need to change and
Keywords
positively describe the behaviour you want to
Antecedent
encourage using positive descriptions. Children’s
behavioural problems should be dealt with by the Consequence
setting in partnership with parents to ensure Strategies
consistency between home and school. Observations
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of a child can be used by practitioners to identify the
underlying causes of problem behaviour and analyse possible triggers. When analysing
children’s unwanted behaviour, one effective method is the ABC formula: Antecedent,
Behaviour, and Consequence. All behaviour, whether positive or negative, follows this
pattern.
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Antecedent: the development of events, the contributing factors, and sometimes the triggers
that lead to a child’s behaviour.
Behaviour: the response of the child as a reaction to the antecedent.
Consequence: what happens after the behaviour that makes it more or less likely the
behaviour will be repeated.

Practitioners will consider the antecedents, or triggers, that led up to the behaviour. For
example, young children often demonstrate unwanted behaviour if they are hungry or tired. If
a child has a tantrum around 11am every day this could be the time they start to get tired, or
if it is half an hour before snack-time they become sulky and bad tempered, this could be an
indication they are hungry. In this way, practitioners can amend routines within the setting to
promote more positive behaviour.
Stra tegies fo r decreas i n g u n d e s i r e d

b ehavio urs
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Practitioners use a variety of strategies to decrease undesired behaviour in the setting. One
strategy is the key person approach which enables the child to form an attachment with one
key practitioner, who will also build a positive relationship with the child’s parents to encourage
a consistent approach to any behaviour issues between the home and setting.
The key person will continually observe the child and identify the antecedents or causes of
any behaviour problems and work with parents to eliminate any unwanted behaviour through
regular discussions on the child’s progress and giving feedback. The key person can also work
with the child on strategies to eliminate unwanted behaviour using behaviour or routine cards.
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The child will have developed a strong relationship with the key person and will find it easier
to express their feelings and frustrations to them instead of displaying challenging behaviour.
It is important to stay calm when dealing with any challenging behaviour as this calmness will
model appropriate behaviour to the child and avoid escalating the situation. Practitioners who
observe children should tune in to what the behaviour is revealing and what the child is trying
to communicate.
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The three aspects to promoting positive behaviour
Intervention techniques used for decreasing undesired behaviours

• Planned ignoring and not giving the attention to minor attention-seeking behaviour
encourages these behaviours to die out.
• Redirecting/distracting works to refocus the child away from what they are doing
now, on to something else as a way of avoiding problem behaviour or conflict.
• Directive statement is a clear instruction to the child to stop certain behaviour or
start something else.
• Quiet time is asking children to move away to another or quieter area to calm down.
Once they have calmed down, this time should be used to talk to the child about their
behaviour.
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• SEAL to support positive behaviour is a strategy now used in many schools. Social,
emotional and behavioural skills are part of every aspect of school, home and
community life, which include effective learning and getting on with other people. They
are an important part of improving behaviour and learning in schools. If children have
good skills in these areas and have a school environment which supports emotional
health and well-being, they will develop self-awareness, empathy and social skills, and
will be able to manage feelings.
• SULP (Social use of Language Programme) is a programme which supports
communication skills in schools. It helps children develop skills which will help them
manage school life and learn effectively. It is an intervention that enhances children’s
communication and develops awareness skills through teaching modules that focus on
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different aspects of communication to develop skills such as eye contact, turn taking,
listening, anger management and solving conflict.
• Thrive: developing resilience and confident children. The Thrive Approach has
developed over the last 25 years. It provides those who work with children and
young people with the knowledge, skills and tools to promote social and emotional
development, focusing on the relationship with the child or young person by teaching
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them to deal with stress which can have a negative impact on mental and physical
well-being. Research has found that resilience helps individuals to successfully cope
and adapt to stress, and helps children regulate and manage emotions and be socially
competent. The thrive approach enables children to defend themselves against the
effects of stress, as they develop into strong and capable adults, through building their
resilience.
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• Counselling can help older children understand their behaviour and offers a safe,
confidential and non-judgemental space in which young people can discuss any issues
that are upsetting them at school, at home or at play. Treatment methods may include
talking therapy and behavioural therapy, which help a child express how their feeling
and learn how to cope with their emotions in a safe, effective way.

1. Explain two strategies for promoting children’s positive behaviour.
2. Describe how the key person approach decreases undesired behaviours.

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Unit 4
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Section 5
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Children and young
people's needs
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Content
• the importance of meeting • the types and purpose of
children’s and young people’s assessment in providing
physical, cognitive, language, appropriate and timely support
intellectual, emotional for children and young people,
and social needs at all the which includes the importance
development stages of meeting each of these needs
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through child-centred care and
• types of transition, experiences the possible effects if these
and life changes which may needs are not met, barriers
affect the resilience and which may be experienced by
development of children and children and young people
young people needing to access care and
• understanding and responding support services to meet
to complex health and care specific needs.
needs of children and young
people
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Chapter 18: The importance of meeting children and
young people's needs
Content
2.4.1 Children and young people’s needs
(a) the importance of meeting children and young people’s physical, cognitive,
language, intellectual, emotional and social needs at all the development
stages Learners should understand:
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Amplification
Learners should understand that there are three aspects to promoting positive
behaviour:
∙ children and young people’s needs ∙ barriers which may be experienced

at all development stages, which by children and young people
includes: needing to access care and
support services to meet specific
∙ physical: shelter, food and clothing, needs: eligibility criteria, distance/
medical care, protection from harm geographical location, mobility
issues, availability of transport, cost
∙
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intellectual/cognitive: stimulation,
education ∙ how access to services varies
depending on geographical
∙ language: speech and location (postcode lottery)
communication
∙ lack of information
∙ emotional: love, security,
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consistency, stability ∙ socio-economic status
∙ social: opportunity for interaction ∙ language

with others, social skills
∙ the importance of meeting each of

these needs through child-centred
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care and the possible effects if

these needs are not met
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Ch ild r en ’s phy sica l n e e d s
From the time they are born to reaching adulthood children will need to have their physical
needs met. Children have many needs but the most important are some of the most basic.
Basic needs are as simple as food, water and shelter but for children to develop to their full
potential their basic needs can be very complex. Parents and practitioners need to meet these
needs, both at home and in the setting.
Children’s Physical Needs
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Shelter is important Children need shelter but to meet their needs their environment
for children because needs to be warm, safe, secure and stable. A stable living
when they are born environment is a peaceful and safe place that the child can call
they cannot care for home. Older children will need privacy and their own room.
themselves and need Poor housing which is damp or poorly maintained can have
somewhere safe and a negative impact on children. Children also need to live in a
warm in which they can stable environment. Arguments between parents, shouting
be cared for. and violence will cause trauma and have a negative impact
on children’s behaviour and emotional stability. Moving to a
new house frequently can also cause a child to have a less
A stable environment. In the setting, it is important to provide a
welcoming and positive environment where children feel valued
and individual needs are met.
Food and clothing In order to grow and develop healthy bones children must
Children need adequate be given a healthy and nutritious diet consisting of plenty of
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food and clothing in protein, calcium, vitamins and minerals. In addition, children
order to survive, to have must drink plenty of water. In the setting, it is important to
the correct nutrition to provide healthy nutritious snacks as children will use a lot
grow and develop and of energy when they play and learn and therefore will get
to keep them warm and hungry and tired. Some children will have individual dietary
comfortable. requirements due to intolerances, allergies and religion. The
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individual needs of each child must be met to ensure they are

healthy and nourished. Children need to have clean clothes
that are appropriate for the weather and the activities they
are participating in to ensure they are not too hot or cold.
Inadequate, dirty clothing sometimes indicates a child is
neglected as their needs are not being met.
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The importance of meeting children and young people's needs
Children’s Physical Needs

Medical care For children to grow up healthy and happy their need for
Children need adequate medical care must be met. Children are monitored from birth
medical care to monitor to ensure they are not suffering from any hereditary conditions
their development, or illnesses that might affect development, and for any signs
ensure they are healthy of developmental delay or growth problems. Children are
and growing properly given vaccinations against childhood illnesses and have access
and treat any illnesses to medical care if they are injured or ill. In the setting, it is
or injuries. important to meet the medical needs of children. Settings will
have a policy regarding the administration of medication. If
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children have a medical condition, their key worker will have
discussed it with parents so they are aware of how to help the
child. Conditions common in childhood are asthma or severe
allergic reactions that lead to anaphylaxis.
Protection from harm When children are born, they are reliant on adults for all aspects
Children are more of their protection and are unable to look after themselves.
vulnerable than adults Children have to learn about the dangers in the world as
and more likely to be they grow. In the setting practitioners, have a duty of care to
abused. safeguard all children and must be aware of the signs and
A symptoms of abuse. All settings must have a safeguarding policy
which states the procedures for reporting suspicions of abuse.
Settings also have a duty to ensure they abide by all health and
safety regulations and requirements to ensure the welfare of
each individual child.
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Ch ild r en ’s int ellect ua l / c o g n i t i v e
need s
Children have a right to an education and to have their intellectual and cognitive needs met
which will change and develop as they grow. Parents are the primary educators of their child
and it is important that parents promote children’s development through talking to the child,
reading, singing songs and providing toys, resources and play opportunities to stimulate their
child’s cognitive development. Children also need opportunities to explore their environment
and discover new things both indoors and outdoors. Children benefit from having their
intellectual and cognitive needs met through high quality childcare provision where there
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are many opportunities for play and learning, designed to meet the individual needs of the
children in their care. A child’s cognitive development and needs will depend on the child’s
individual pattern of development. Practitioners are trained to observe and assess children
and their developmental needs in order to inform planning in the setting based on the needs
of each individual child. To meet children’s cognitive needs, they need to stimulate different
aspects of their intellect.
Stimulating children through learning and play to meet intellectual needs

• Creativity - Children need to express themselves through their creativity using their
•
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imagination and ideas in a unique way
Memory - Children need to develop their ability to store and recall information through
questioning, writing or drawing past events, learning days of the week, stories and
songs
• Concentration - Children will concentrate if they are interested in or stimulated by a
task or activity. They need concentration to store and sort information and to develop
their academic abilities
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• Reasoning - Children need to understand that activities have a cause and effect
• Concepts - Children need to develop an understanding of concepts and putting
information into an understandable form; this includes numbers, colours, shapes, time,
volume and mass
• Imagination - Children need to stimulate their imagination through role play, games,
stories, drawing, painting and dressing up
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• Problem solving - Children need to develop skills to solve simple and difficult problems
through trial and error, identifying a problem and discovering the solution
Children’s needs should be met through a stimulating educational environment throughout

their development from birth to adulthood to allow them to achieve the best possible outcomes
for their future. From the home to nursery, primary and secondary education children should
be challenged to reach their full potential.
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C hild r en ' s la ng ua g e ne e d s
Children need to be constantly stimulated by language to develop their cognitive and

communication skills. From the moment a child is born parents should meet their needs by
talking to the child and giving them as many experiences of language as possible. Communicating
with children both verbally and non-verbally through speech, gestures and body language
meets their intellectual and cognitive needs. The growth of language and the ability to
communicate needs and preferences is one of the most dramatic signs of intellectual
development. Reading to children, playing with them, stories and songs all stimulate the
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development of language and communication. Talking and understanding others is a vital part
of children’s development and helps them organise thoughts and make sense of the world. It
helps children ask questions and develop simple ideas into more complex ones.
A
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In the setting, practitioners understand that children have different language needs that have
to be met. Some children will speak clearly and develop vocabulary quickly, developing their
skills from simple words and sentences to more complex ideas. Other children will develop
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their speech more slowly and may have a language delay that will need support both within
the setting and by outside professionals such as a speech therapist. Children with hearing
impairment or additional learning needs may need extra support, and it is important to
meet the unique needs of each individual child. Practitioners in the setting should constantly
encourage children to use language and develop their vocabulary through creative play,
discovery play, imaginative play, stories, songs and circle time.

Ch ild r en ’s emo t iona l n e e d s
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All children need love and security and to form a bond with their primary caregiver, and
other caregivers, in order to explore the world from a safe and secure base. Love, security,
consistency, and stability are necessary for children to grow and develop. Children need to
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make attachments and know their needs will be met consistently. If children’s needs are not met
in a consistent way, they will not form a secure attachment and this can lead to problems with
emotional and social development, negative behaviour, poor resilience and difficulty forming
relationships. In the setting, practitioners are aware that to meet children’s emotional needs
they need to form an attachment to a key person, and this informs the key person approach.
The key person will know all the child’s needs, including what developmental stage they’re at,
additional learning needs, medical needs, likes, preferences, interests and background. The
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key person will form a positive relationship with the parents/caregivers and work to form an
attachment with the child. In this way the child will feel secure, welcomed and valued in the
setting, and feel less separation anxiety when their parents/caregivers leave. This benefits the
development of the child as they feel confident to explore, play and learn knowing their needs
will be consistently met.
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Ch ild r en ’s socia l nee d s
Children need opportunities to interact with others and to develop their social skills. Parents/
caregivers are the first people to teach the child social skills and as children all have different
backgrounds, their early social experiences will all be different. It is beneficial for a child’s
development to have the opportunity to engage in social interactions with adults and their
peers.
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Parent/baby and toddler groups, play areas and other groups can help children in their early
socialisation. When children start at a setting, practitioners will observe their interactions with
peers to assess what support they need in their social development. Keyworkers can support
children to socialise through supporting the child to join in play activities with other children.
Children with additional learning needs, disabilities and behavioural problems may find social
interactions more difficult and need additional support.
The im p o rt a nce of me e ti n g c h i l d r e n ’ s
n eed s th roug h child- c e n tr e d c ar e
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a nd the p ossible effec ts i f t h e s e
n eed s a re not met
Every child is unique and has individual needs that need to be met, first by parents/caregivers
and then by settings and schools. It is important to understand that each child is different and
while they will have the same basic needs, they will also have individual needs that must be
met. Practitioners take a child-centred approach at settings through the key person approach,
and by respecting the diversity of children’s backgrounds within the setting. It is important to
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provide an inclusive environment where all children feel welcomed and valued, and have the
security to develop and grow.
Bar rier s which ma y be e x p e r i e n c e d

by c hild ren a nd y oung p e o p l e
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n eed ing t o a ccess ca r e an d s u p p o r t
s ervic es t o meet speci f i c n e e d s
There are a variety of factors that prevent children accessing care and support services that
meet their needs, including lack information or knowledge on the services available to them.
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Individuals may face more than one barrier to accessing services.

Barriers to accessing care and support services
• Geographical barriers can impact on children as some will live near health, social
care and early years services and others may live some distance away. Often public
transport is limited and not at a convenient time to get to an appointment. Specialist
treatment can be many miles away and families find it difficult to get there.
• Due to mobility problems some children and families cannot walk a short distance to
the health, social care and early years services. Mobility is a physical barrier and can
prevent children accessing buildings where services are available, e.g. a wheelchair user
is unable to enter a building because the doorway is too narrow or there are steps so
they can’t get to the entrance.
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• Socio-economic status can be a barrier due to what it might cost to access a service.
If the health, social care or early years service is some distance away they may not be
able to afford the transport costs to get there.
• Cultural and language barriers can cause difficulties, e.g. if the information (signs,
leaflets, posters) about health, social care and early years services is in Welsh/English
only then those with a different first language or cannot understand Welsh/English will
not be able to find out more about those service. If the information contains specialist
language, the parents or child might not understand this.
• Access to services and postcode lotteries can be barriers as there are wide variations in
the quality of services delivered by Local Authorities across Wales, including disability
grants and help for children needing special assessments for education.
•
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Eligibility criteria can also be a barrier. In Wales, all 22 local authorities have
communities covered by Flying Start schemes, but many families living in the greatest
deprivation live outside those designated geographical areas, which means children
living in poverty are likely to be excluded from Flying Start support.
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1. Explain how geographical barriers can prevent children accessing care

and support.
2. Outline how language can be a barrier for children and their families in accessing
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early years services.
132
Chapter 19: Types of transition, experiences and life
changes which may affect the resilience and development
Content
(b): Types of transition, experiences and life changes which may affect the
resilience and development of children and young people
Amplification - Learners should understand:
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∙ the types of transition, experiences and development of children and
and life changes which may affect young people, including: positives
the resilience and development such as being able to adapt to
of children and young people, different situations, rely on own
including: inner resources, fulfil own potential,
cope with stress, develop a positive
∙ educational: moving school, self-concept – self efficacy, develop
moving classes or groups a more realistic and accurate view
of the world, progress on from
∙ personal: birth of a sibling, failure; and negatives such as
bereavement, refugees, negative self-concept, stress/anxiety
immigration, moving to a new and inability to cope, sadness/
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house, going on holiday, extra- depression, relationship breakdown,
curricular activities/hobbies, marginalisation and social
achievements, adverse childhood exclusion/social isolation, labelling
experiences (ACEs) and stereotyping, addiction, self-
harming, bullying and how these
∙ the impact of transition, may impact on care and support
experiences and life changes provision.
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which may affect the resilience
There are many transitions, experiences and changes in life that children and young people
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experience during their lives. These can be educational or personal and have either a positive
or negative impact on their resilience and well-being.
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Ed uc a ti o na l t ra nsit io n s
Educational transitions are the moves children and young people make to schools, within
school classes and between schools. These can be stressful times for children, parents and
carers. For most children, worries about starting school or moving school are over after
the first year in the school. Some children who are more vulnerable due to risk factors in
their early life experiences or
ongoing difficulties will find
these transitions some of the
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most difficult times of their
lives.
Children’s background,
parents/caregivers,
community, health and well-
being can impact on their
ability to cope with transitions
and this can have a negative
impact on their social,
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emotional and academic
outcomes. School transitions
are challenging for children
because they worry about
new environments, expectations and making new friends. Children starting full time school
from pre-school or nursery may struggle to cope with more formal teaching and learning and
fewer opportunities for play. Similarly, children moving from primary to secondary schools
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worry about academic expectations, bullying, making friends, homework and exams. Schools
need to put systems in place to ease transitions for children, such as visits, school experience
days, discussions and visits for parents/caregivers and close links with the child’s former
school or setting to establish each individual child’s academic abilities, support needs and
social needs.
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Children from poorer families and ethnic minorities can find transitions more difficult as their
families may be less engaged with the new school due to cultural or language differences
or a lesser involvement in their children’s education. Children who move schools during the
academic year find it more difficult to adjust to the new school routine and make friends.
Children with additional learning needs are often most affected in a negative way by educational
transitions. They can have less developed cognitive, language and communication and social
skills, and can find it challenging to make new friends and form positive relationships with
teachers.
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Types of transition, experiences and life changes which may affect the resilience and development
Personal t ra nsit ions
Personal transitions
• Birth of a new sibling - This changes the family structure for children, and children
need to adapt when a new sibling arrives. This exciting family event can leave children
unsure and anxious about their place within the family. Children can become angry
and seek attention and affection from parents. Their behaviour may regress, and they
might act in a more babyish way and start to lack confidence.
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• Bereavement - Losing a member of the family or someone close can have a significant
impact on children, and can cause them to lose their appetite, lack motivation and
concentration, have difficulty sleeping and withdraw emotionally and socially.
• Moving to a new house - This can be very unsettling for young children as they will
have a change of routine and environment. Until they adjust to new surroundings they
can be confused and unsettled.
• Refugees/immigration - Children who move from another country can have
difficulties adjusting to the new language and culture. They may struggle to make
friends due to language barriers and struggle to understand the different social and
behavioural expectations of the new country. This can have a negative impact on their
confidence and sense of belonging in the community. Some children who are refugees
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may have suffered adverse life experiences in their birth country which can leave them
traumatised.
• Extracurricular activities/hobbies - getting involved in extracurricular activities or
hobbies is a transition that can have a positive impact on a child’s confidence and self-
esteem. It can build confidence and self-esteem which will help the child make new
friends and develop their social skills, promoting positive behaviour.
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• Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) - Adverse childhood experiences make
children more vulnerable to the negative impacts of transitions. Risk factors, such as
abuse, being in foster care, separation from parents, divorce or family breakdown,\
can affect children’s confidence and self-esteem and lead to children leaving the family
home, living with one parent or living with a foster family. Children can experience
guilt, loss and long-term impact on their emotional well-being.
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The p os it iv e impa ct o f t r an s i t i o n s
on c hild ren’s resilien c e an d
d evelop ment
Whether the impact of transitions is positive or negative for children can depend on the
support they are given to help them negotiate the transition and deal with the challenges
they might face. Children need support, stability and comfort to give them the opportunity
to develop strategies to manage emotions and control their behaviour. Parents, practitioners
and teachers can help children at this difficult time by encouraging children to express their
feelings, teach children strategies to deal with stress whilst being role models for positive
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behaviour. Children deal better with transitions when they have been properly prepared for
expected transitions, such as moving school or the arrival of a new sibling, through discussions,
stories, positive attitudes towards the transition and visits to the new school to familiarise
themselves with the environment. Transitions that are successful, when the child is properly
prepared and supported, can teach the child to develop resilience and new skills, such as
being able to adapt to different situations, rely on their own inner resources, cope with stress
and develop a more realistic and accurate view of the world. Coping with transitions as a child
in a positive way helps children to cope with difficulties in the future and learn to move on
from failure.
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The negative impact of transitions on children's
resilience
When children are not fully supported through transitions it can have a negative impact on
their resilience and development. Children can become quiet and withdrawn, or angry and
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aggressive. They may feel stress and develop anxiety and inability to cope with the present and
future transitions. A negative transition can be traumatic for children and lead to difficulties
in regulating mood, sadness and depression. Children who find transitions difficult are less
resilient, leading to problems in the future, such as the inability to maintain friendships and
relationships which leads to social isolation. These individuals often have negative feelings
towards themselves and their ability to cope with life and this can lead to negative behaviours,
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such as addiction, self-harming and bullying. It is important for practitioners, schools and
carers to identify children who are at risk of negative transitions and provide extra support.
Children who are more at risk of negative outcomes from transitions are those who have
experienced trauma, such as bereavement, parental divorce, abuse, or separation, those with
prolonged ill health or additional learning needs, those with poor physical or mental health and
children who live in poverty, have poor parental support or poor social/behavioural skills. With
the correct support from schools, settings and outside agencies who specialise in supporting
children through transitions the negative impact can be reduced.
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Types of transition, experiences and life changes which may affect the resilience and development
1. Outline three personal transitions that children experience.
2. Assess the positive and negative impact of transitions on children’s resilience and
well-being.
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A
R
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137
Chapter 20: Understanding and responding to complex
health and care needs of children and young people
Content
(c) Understanding and responding to complex health and care needs of
children and young people
Amplification
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∙ Learners should understand why adverse childhood experiences
some children and young people (ACEs)
may have complex care needs
which may be physical, cognitive, ∙ how complex care and support
emotional sensory or additional needs are understood and
needs, including genetic disorders responded to within different
such as Down’s syndrome, cystic settings to achieve personal
fibrosis, haemophilia; conditions outcomes including, allocation
caused in utero or birth; infectious of key workers, differentiation,
diseases; chronic/life limiting additional resources, use of
illnesses; mental ill health; Individual Education Plans (IEPs),
additional learning needs (ALN); (Additional Learning Needs (ALN)
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others such as stroke, sensory plans, Individual Behaviour Plans
impairment; impact of divorce; (IBPs), use of aids and adaptations,
social deprivation; vulnerability; such as physical aids: equipment
homelessness; impact of death of to assist with mobility/transport,
a parent; child in need, fostering personal care; assistive technology:
and adoption; refugee/migration, computer hardware and software,
including language and culture sensory rooms, conductive
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needs; young carers; child of parent education and other specialist
with drug or alcohol dependence; development programmes.
Some children and young people may have complex care needs which may be physical,
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cognitive, emotional or sensory, or additional needs. Practitioners and teachers will need to
adapt both their practice and the environment within the setting to support the needs of
each individual child. Schools and settings will need to form positive relationships with other
professionals involved in the care of the child to fully support their holistic development. Local
Authorities, schools and settings have a duty to provide education, play and learning for all
children whatever their needs and must work with the child’s caregivers to ensure the child
can reach their full potential.
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Understanding and responding to complex health and care needs of children and young people
Some of the complex needs that children and young people may have which
may be physical, cognitive, emotional, sensory or additional needs
Genetic disorders such If a child has a genetic disorder or health condition identified
as Down’s syndrome, at an early age, they could be referred by a health professional
cystic fibrosis, for a local authority statutory assessment. The local authority
haemophilia conditions will consider individual support based on the child’s needs. A
caused in utero or birth. statement of needs will be issued for children with complex
These are caused by needs. Some children will have their needs met through
an abnormality in the mainstream education or a combination of mainstream
genome. The impact on education and extra services. Some children will not be able
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the child can be mild or to use the same educational facilities as other children due
severe, causing speech to complex needs that can only be met in designated settings
and learning difficulties, with additional facilities, such as physiotherapists, nurses
poor social skills and who can administer specific medication or occupational
self-esteem, problems in therapy. Practitioners can support children through praise,
physical development. encouragement, simplifying activities, using simple language
and instruction, and one-to-one support in the setting.
Chronic/life-limiting Many children with life-limiting or chronic illnesses will meet
illnesses/stroke. These the criteria of the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice.
illnesses could impact It is important to take into account parents’ wishes and the
on a child’s education child’s needs in terms of care and support. Multi-agency
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as they might have working and good communication with families will be needed
to miss school due to meet the child’s needs. Practitioners should have awareness
to hospital stays and and empathy and all decisions should be in the child’s best
medical appointments. interest. All children in schools with medical conditions need
They may have personal to be properly supported to play an active role in the school
care needs or medical and meet their academic potential. Support should be put in
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needs that should be place based on the needs of the individual child and how their
supported. medical condition impacts on their school life.
Mental ill health - 1 in 5 Mental ill health can have a significant impact on academic
children have a mental performance and adequate support should be provided.
health disorder and 1 in Children should be educated to have an awareness of mental
4 of those do not get the health to be aware of the signs, know how to get help and
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support they need. how to help others. Early detection and intervention help
young people’s resilience and their ability to succeed at school
and in life. Practitioners and teachers should have mental
health training to help meet needs. All schools should have
a space where children can discuss problems with a trained
professional and teachers should be aware when to refer a
child to the community health team.

Some of the complex needs that children and young people may have which
may be physical, cognitive, emotional, sensory or additional needs
Sensory impairment is Children with hearing or vision impairments can have mild,
when one of the senses moderate or severe impairment. Children will often wear a
is not functioning hearing aid to amplify their hearing, or glasses to aid their
correctly, usually vision vision. Most children will have hearing or visual impairments
or hearing. identified before entering early years settings or school,
but practitioners should be aware of the signs of hearing or
sight loss in children. Practitioners should discuss the child’s
individual needs with the parents, and in cases of severe
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impairment specialist teachers or support assistants will have
input into meeting the child’s needs and practitioners will
need to adapt the environment and learn to use specialist
equipment to ensure the child’s needs are fully met.
Impact of divorce, Many adverse childhood experiences, such as divorce or
social deprivation/ death of a parent, being fostered or adopted, poverty, being
vulnerability, a young carer or a child of a parent with substance abuse,
homelessness, death of can have a profound impact on a child’s needs. Schools and
a parent, child in need, settings should have counselling services for children or
fostering and adoption, refer them to services where trained professionals can meet
young carers, child of their needs. Practitioners and teachers might need to involve
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parent with drug or mental health teams, substance abuse support workers or
alcohol dependence, bereavement counsellors to fully support and meet children’s
adverse childhood needs.
experiences (ACEs).
Refugee/migration, Schools and practitioners need to provide culturally
language and culture appropriate educational provision which respects diversity
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needs. and understands cultural and religious practices. The needs
of the child should be assessed for support with language,
communication and social interaction.
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140
Ho w c om plex ca re a nd s u p p o r t
n eed s a re underst oo d an d
resp ond ed t o wit hin s e tt i n g s t o
a chieve p ersona l out c o m e s
Differentiation
Differentiation is a way for teachers and practitioners to plan lessons and activities that are
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suitable to all children. Differentiated teaching provides an appropriate level of challenge for
all children through implementing a range of teaching strategies for different abilities and
learning styles, and planning tasks that support children to work at different levels and at
their own pace. Using differentiation means better learning and outcomes for children who
are struggling with the work and also those who are ahead in their learning.
Allocation of key workers
When allocating key workers settings take into account the needs of the child. Often a child
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will have formed an attachment to a certain practitioner during the settling-in period, and
that would seem the natural choice as key worker, but if children’s needs are complex some
practitioners may be better trained to be that child’s key worker. If a child has a hearing
impairment and a practitioner has training in Makaton or British Sign Language (BSL) they
would be best placed to meet the child’s needs. A key worker with training in additional learning
or other specific training could be the best person to meet the needs of a child with disabilities.
The key person should have input into the meeting of the child’s needs by creating activities
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that will benefit the child’s progress, and using characteristics of effective learning statements
to plan for the child’s individual needs. They should be aware of what the child’s individual
needs are, including culture, background, learning disabilities, ability, dietary requirements,
and inform other staff of these to ensure they are met.
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Use of Individual Education Plans (IEPs), Additional
Learning Needs (ALN) plans, Individual Behaviour
Plans (IBPs)
IEPs
To meet children’s individual complex care and support needs practitioners will work with
parents/caregivers, other professionals and agencies to build up a picture of the child’s
complex care and support needs and assess and identify the best ways to promote their
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development. Every individual child at a setting will have an IEP to help teaching staff to plan,
teach, and review progress. The IEP has short-term targets and strategies for an individual
child, additional to those in place for the whole group. The document must be agreed, with
parents/caregivers and the child, if the child is old enough. The IEP documents, the child's
targets and the type of support needed should be frequently reviewed.IEPs focus on three or
four key short-term targets that relate to communication, literacy, mathematics, behaviour
and social skills.
ALN Plans
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The Additional Learning Needs and Education Tribunal (Wales) Bill was passed by the National
Assembly for Wales on 12 December 2017 and became an Act on 24 January 2018. It has
created the legislative framework to improve the planning and delivery of additional learning
provision through a person-centred approach to identifying needs early, putting in place
effective support and monitoring, and adapting interventions to ensure they deliver desired
outcomes. There will be more information sharing by agencies, and children’s rights are
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promoted so children can reach their full potential.
IBPs
Individual Behaviour Plans are targets for children who consistently do not comply with school
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rules or expected behaviours in the setting. IBPs can be for mildly disruptive behaviour, such
as not taking turns or following instructions, minor disruptions, such as talking out of turn and
getting out of their seat, to more serious issues, such as aggression. IBPs are made for individual
students not the whole class and teachers will work with parents/caregivers to support children
in behaving more appropriately. An IBP should be clear about the interventions to improve
behaviour, be implemented by adults consistently and be positive.
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Use of a ids a nd a da pti o n s
It is the responsibility of the setting or

school to ensure children’s complex
needs are met and ensuring the
environment, activities and routines
within the setting are adapted to be
inclusive of all children. If a child has a
physical disability then physical aids, such
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as equipment to assist with mobility,
transport and personal care, will need to
be introduced to the setting.
The layout of playrooms or classrooms

may need to be adapted to ensure easy
access for wheelchairs or mobility aids,
and ensure the child has the same access to activities and resources as other children. To
meet complex needs assistive technology might be needed such as hearing aids to help
people hear or hear more clearly; cognitive aids, including computer or electrical assistive
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devices to help people with memory and attention; computer software and hardware, such
as voice recognition programs, screen readers, and screen enlargement applications to help
people with mobility and sensory impairments use computers.
Sensory rooms
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There are many therapeutic benefits
to sensory rooms for all children,
especially those with complex needs.
Many schools now have sensory
rooms to help children with special
needs, specifically autism and sensory
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processing disorders. It offers a safe

space for children to practice gross
motor skills and build confidence in
those skills. Sensory rooms reduce
disruptive behaviour, help with anxiety
and enhance learning as multisensory
environments stimulate different areas
of the brain simultaneously, which helps
learning by building neural pathways

more quickly.
Conductive Education (CE)

CE is a system that promotes the concept that everyone has the capability to learn and develop,
whatever their ability. Children with disabilities are often assessed on what they ‘cannot do’
rather than their potential. Conductors are trained to identify a child’s potential and nurture
their development, designing structured programmes to enable their success. CE combines
education, psychology and medical science and considers the holistic developmental needs
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of the child.
Test your knowledge
1. Explain how Individual Education Plans (IEPs) help practitioners to

meet children's complex needs.
2. Discuss the importance of adapting the environment in a childcare setting to meet

the more complex needs of individual children.
A
R
D
144
Chapter 21: The types and purpose of assessment in providing
appropriate and timely support for children and young people
Content
(d) The types and purpose of assessment in providing appropriate and timely
support for children and young people
Amplification
Learners should understand: • the types of assessment that may be carried out
to identify the support needs of children and young people:
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∙ using conversation as assessment child does, what those needs are,
assess the development needs
∙ childhood screening programme of the child, identify outcomes
that the child, and person(s) with
∙ Foundation Phase profile parental responsibility, wishes to
achieve and the extent it considers
∙ observations appropriate, while having regard to
the child’s age and understanding,
∙ the purpose of assessment in assess whether the provision of
providing appropriate and timely care and support, preventative
support for children and young services, information, advice or
people, to build resilience, to meet
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basic and specific needs, including
assistance (or other matters) could
contribute to the achievement of
health, social, emotional and those outcomes.
cultural.
∙ the principles underpinning the
∙ the five elements of assessment: approach to assessing children and
The Social Services and Well-being their families, so that assessments
(Wales) Act 2014 and its associated are child centred, are rooted in
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regulations introduce assessment child development, are holistic in
and eligibility criteria based on their approach, ensure equality of
a comprehensive analysis of five opportunity, involve working with
inter-related elements to ensure children and families, build on
that a local authority considers strengths and identify difficulties,
the person’s circumstances in the are inter-agency in their approach
round. to assessment and the provision of
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services, are a continuing process,

∙ where it appears to a local authority not a single event, are carried out in
that a child may need care and parallel with other action and the
support in addition to, or instead provision of services, are grounded
of, the care and support provided in evidence.
by the child’s family, the local
authority must: assess whether ∙ how early intervention can delay
the child does need care and the use of managed care services.
support of that kind, and if the

Typ es o f a ssessment
Conversation as assessment
Having a conversation with children and their parents when they need to access education,
care or support helps you find out what is important to them, what they want to achieve and
how they want to be supported. This supports children in ways that reflect their needs and
wishes and those of their caregivers. It allows child-centred care and support to meet the
child’s needs.
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Childhood screening programme
The childhood screening

programme in Wales is used to
ensure any diseases or conditions
are identified and treated as early
as possible. It has been recognised
by the Government in Wales
A
that the early years are vitally
important to the future health
and well-being of all children,
to ensure positive and equal
developmental outcomes. This
has led to increased investment in
prevention and early intervention
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services in pregnancy and early
years, including screening tests, immunisations, developmental reviews, and information and
guidance to support parenting and healthy choices. It also aims to identify families in need of
additional support and children who may risk poor outcomes.
The Welsh Government wants to support each child to reach their full potential for health
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and well-being. Through the Healthy Child Wales Programme (HCWP) the NHS will give
support from pregnancy through the first seven years of a child’s life and early education. The
HCWP promotes three areas of intervention: screening, immunisation, and monitoring child
development. This covers a wide range of services, including maternity, health visiting, school
nursing, mental health, social services, education, dentistry, and Flying Start who give advice
and support to families during the early years. There is now an all-Wales approach to child
surveillance by Health Visitors and School Nurses with a schedule of health visiting and school
nursing contacts for every child (see Chapter 1).
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The types and purpose of assessment in providing appropriate and timely support for
Foundation Phase profile and observations
As a key part of the Welsh Government’s Early Years

Developmental Assessment Framework (EYDAF), the
Foundation Phase Profile (the Profile) is a means of
supporting the assessment of children’s learning and
development throughout their time in the Foundation
Phase. It provides a nationally consistent baseline
assessment. Through observations and formative
assessments, the Profile helps practitioners to plan a
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holistic curriculum which supports the development of
all children.
The Profile matches with assessments carried out by health professionals to support early
identification of developmental delay or Additional Learning Needs (ALN) so children can
access the correct support. It helps all professionals who work with children to identify where
they are in their learning and development, and supports transitions between settings and
schools. The Profile allows practitioners to assess children’s skills using observations, and
produces outcomes for the child across four areas of learning. Children’s skills should be
observed across a wide range of experiences in all the Foundation Phase areas of learning.
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Pu rp ose of a ssessmen t
The purpose of assessment is to provide appropriate and timely support for children and
young people to build resilience, and to meet basic and specific needs, including health, social,
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emotional and cultural needs.
Assessment of children The Act introduces five key elements that must be
by the local authority considered during an assessment. This requires a local
should take account of: authority to:
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• the child’s • assess and have regard to a family’s circumstances

developmental needs • have regard to a child’s personal outcomes (see below)
• the parents’ or • assess and have regard to any barriers to achieving those
caregivers’ capacity to outcomes
respond appropriately • assess and have regard to any risks to a child or to others
• the wider family and if those outcomes are not achieved
environmental factors. • assess and have regard to a child’s strengths and
capabilities.

Personal outcomes
The Welsh Government has issued a well-being statement for people who need care which
says that they should decide their own personal outcomes. In the case of a child, these are the
outcomes both they and their parents or carers hope to achieve.
What children and their parents/carers should consider when deciding the
outcomes they want to achieve
• physical and mental health, and emotional well-being
• physical, intellectual, emotional, social and behavioural development
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• protection from abuse and neglect
• education, training and recreation
• domestic, family and personal relationships
• contribution made to society
• securing rights and entitlements
• social and economic well-being
• suitability of living accommodation
The local authority will conduct a ‘needs assessment’ which will determine what support a
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child or young person needs. Social services use eligibility criteria from the Social Services
& Well-being (Wales) Act 2014, to work out who they will give care and support to. This has
introduced an eligibility level that is the same across Wales. Having an assessment of needs
does not mean that the child automatically receives support.
An assessment will result in one of the outcomes listed below

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• there are no needs to be met
• a more comprehensive assessment is required, which may include more specialist
assessments
• needs can be met through the provision of information, advice or assistance
• needs can be met through the provision of preventative services
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• needs can be met, wholly or in part, by a child or parent or any other person playing a
parental role (with or without the assistance of others)
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The types and purpose of assessment in providing appropriate and timely support for
The p rinc iples underp i n n i n g t h e

a p p roac h t o a ssessing c h i l d r e n an d
th eir fa milies
There are important principles that the local authority must keep to when assessing children.
The process of assessment is about ensuring that the best interests and well-being of the child
are met, and children are safeguarded so that they reach and keep the best possible level of
health and development. The primary duty is to safeguard children and young people and to
promote their well-being.
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Important principles that underpin the If a child or young person is eligible for
approach to assessing children and their services, social services will develop
families. Assessment must: a care and support plan. The support
plan must include the following
• be child-centred
information:
• be rooted in child development
• be holistic in approach • the outcomes which have been
• ensure equality of opportunity identified
• involve working with children and their • the actions to be taken by the local
•
families
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build on strengths as well as identify
authority and other persons to help
the child achieve those outcomes
difficulties • the needs that will be met through
• include an inter-agency approach to the delivery of care and support
assessment and the provision of services • how progress towards achieving
• be a continuing process, not a single event those outcomes will be monitored
• be carried out in parallel with other action and measured
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and providing services • the date of the next review of the
• be grounded in evidence-based knowledge. care plan.
The Welsh Government has provided a framework for assessing the care and support needs
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of children in Wales through legisaltion in part 3 of the SSWA’s (Social Services and Well-being
(Wales) Act 2014) Code of Practice (assessing the needs of individuals), the framework for
which is shown below.

PAR
M EN TA L N E EDS
OP
EN
EL
T
EV
IN
› Health
G
SD
Education › Basic Care
CA
› Ensuring Safety
ILD
PA
› Emotional and
› Emotional Warmth
CI
CH
Behavioural Development
TY
› Identity › Stimulation
› Family & Social › Guidance and
Boundaries
Relationships CHILD › Stability
› Social Presentation
› Selfcare Skills
Safeguarding
and
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promoting
welfare
› Family History &

Functioning
› Wider Family
Housing
› Employment
› Income
› Family’s Social Integration
A FA
Community Resources
MI
TO
RS
Y
L
& ENVIRONMENTAL F A
C
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Pr even t ion a nd ea rly I n t e r v e n t i o n
Prevention and early intervention is one of the five principles of the SSWA 2014. For children
who do not currently have health, care or support needs, organisations such as GPs, schools,
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early years workers, health visitors and the NHS provide advice and early intervention that can
support and promote healthy and active lifestyles or put in place strategies to avoid children
needing care in the future. Local authorities have a duty to identify services in a child’s local
area to help meet these aims and this includes voluntary groups or charities. Preventing
the need for care and early intervention is a very important part of the Social Services and
Well-being (Wales) 2014. It ties in with the promotion of well-being, which is at the core of the
Act, but if the need for care can be delayed through early intervention and support for the
child and their family then the child will not become dependent on care services and this will
cost less for the local authority or NHS.
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Chapter ??: ????
Content
(d) The types and purpose of assessment in providing appropriate and timely
support for children and young people
Amplification
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The children and young people’s ∙ A care package is a result of care
continuing care process should adhere and support plans and personal
to a set of core values, promoting plans, and is a combination of
children’s and young people’s rights, services put together to meet a
with consistent key principles and child or young person’s assessed
timeline, make the child or young needs as part of the care plan
person and their parents and carers the arising from an assessment or a
focus of the continuing care process, review, defines exactly what that
facilitate the provision of personalised child or young person needs in the
packages of care, be developed and way of care, services or equipment
owned locally by a multi-agency to live their life in a dignified and
team, cross organisational and inter- comfortable manner and achieve
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agency boundaries, thus reducing wellbeing.
the possibility of multiple or repeated
assessment or fragmented care, ∙ Some of the services included
include measurement of outcomes in a care package are help with
and promote continuous quality daily living activities, disability
improvement, recognise language as a equipment and adaptations to
care need. the home, daily assistance with
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personal care, day centres/day care,
respite care and admittance to a
care home.
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Ch ild r en a nd y o ung p e o p l e ’ s
con tin uing ca re proc e s s
The Children and Young People’s Continuing Care Guidance helps to plan and provide children’s
continuing care services in Local Health Boards (LHBs), local authorities and their partners. It
describes how agencies should work together to assess needs and provide individual packages
of continuing care for children and young people. Continuing care is defined as care provided
over a long period of time to meet physical or mental health needs children have as a result of
illness or disability of the mind, and injury or disability requiring medical or dental treatment
or nursing.
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The guidance will help The children and young people’s continuing care process
agencies ensure that: should:
• children, young • adhere to a set of core values, promoting children’s rights,
people, their families with consistent key principles and timeline
and carers are • make the child or young person and their parents and
actively engaged in carers the focus of the continuing care process
the continuing care • facilitate the provision of personalised care packages
process • be developed and owned locally by a multi-agency team
•
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the continuing
care process is
• have cross-organisational and inter-agency boundaries,
thus reducing the possibility of multiple or repeated
co-ordinated and assessments or fragmented care • include measurement
consistent between of outcomes and promote continuous quality
Local Health Boards, improvement
National Health • recognise language as a care need. Language is vital to
Service, health, care and children who need long term care are particularly
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education and social vulnerable with many having Welsh as a first language.
care practitioners and The quality of care provided will suffer if children do not
service users. receive care and services in their first language.
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Packages of continuing care should be recorded in a care plan and worded so they are
understandable to the child or young person, their family and the different agencies involved
in the continuing care of the child. The child or young person and their family, the NHS
multidisciplinary team, the local authority, the school and any other agencies involved in care
need to be informed of any decision, and the child or young person and their family should
be involved in discussions on how and when the package of continuing care will be put in
place. The child or young person and their family should be informed of their rights and the
complaints procedure if a decision does not meet their needs or expectations.
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???
Reason s children mig h t n e e d a

packa ge of co nt inuing c ar e
Children can need a package of continuing care for a variety of reasons, including:
Sudden unexpected need can be an accident or serious illness or injury causing a child or
young person to suddenly develop continuing care needs. The child could need a care package
to return home from a hospital as their needs could be complex due to the illness or injury.
They could need adaptions to their homes, aids and equipment in order to achieve personal
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outcomes.
Long-term deteriorating conditions
For children and young people with

complex, deteriorating conditions, including
life-limiting conditions and end of life care,
a package of continuing care will need to
be in place and their needs may develop
Social Services and
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further over time.
Well-being (Wales) Act 2014
Part 3 Code of Practice (assessing the needs of individuals)
Congenital
In instances where a child is born with

either a diagnosed or an undiagnosed
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congenital condition, they may need a
package of continuing care on a long-term
basis to meet their needs and allow them
to live at home with their family. In some
cases, needs may be too great to live in the
family home and they will need residential
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care or respite care as part of their care

package.

M easur ing a nd Reco r d i n g C h i l d r e n ’ s
Personal Out co mes
The SSWA 2014 ensures that all children achieve their

well-being outcomes, by asking ‘what matters to you?’
It ensures that care makes good use of the child’s
own support networks and access to community and

voluntary resources. The aim is to prevent long term
care and support, if possible, with health and social
care practitioners working together as a multi-agency
team within a child’s local area to support and maintain
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independent living and support children with complex
care needs in the most appropriate setting.
It is important that there is a measurement of whether children accessing support and care are
making progress towards the outcomes they want to achieve and are responding to changing
need promptly. This can avoid unnecessary and unplanned admissions to hospital or care
homes and improve the service for children with complex care needs.
A local authority must record people’s personal outcomes in the person’s own words, so they
keep ownership of their outcomes and they are meaningful to them.
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Progress towards achieving ‘personal’ outcomes is measured and recorded for those who need
care and support, and for carers who need support. Progress is measured against outcomes
associated with eligible needs in a care and support plan or a support plan. These actions
must be recorded. A scale of 0 to 10 must be used to measure personal outcomes, where 0
describes the worst it could be, and 10 describes the best it could be. Reflecting on progress
towards achieving personal outcomes helps to decide if a support plan is effective or whether
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change is required. It provides children and families with the time to reflect on what matters to
them and the steps they are taking to achieve their goal. Information on progress and scores
should be part of a person’s case file.

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1. Describe the reasons a child might need a continuing care package.
2. Explain what a personal outcome is and why it is important to measure a child’s

progress towards achieving these outcomes.
3. Outline three types of assessment that may be carried out to identify the support
needs of children and young people.
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Unit 4
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Section 6
A
Contemporary issues
in providing care and
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support for children
and young people
D
155
Content
2.4.2. Contemporary issues in providing care and support for
• an appreciation of social policy • the changing nature of
issues that affect childcare childcare provision and the
implications for the workforce
• the changing nature of society
and the impact on childcare
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This includes:
• the national design principles • implications of the changes
to drive change as identified in in childcare on the roles of
‘A Healthier Wales: our Plan for professionals involved
Health and Social Care’
Content
(a) An appreciation of social policy issues that affect childcare
A
Amplification
Learners should appreciate • provision of Welsh language
that the Well-being of Future
Generations (Wales) Act 2015 is • early years provision
the overarching legislation which • affordability and sustainability
aims to improve social, cultural,
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environmental and economic • equalities and social justice
well-being. • the national design
Learners should have an principles to drive change
appreciation of social policy issues as identified in ‘A Healthier
that affect childcare in Wales, Wales: our Plan for Health
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including: and Social Care’: prevention

and early intervention;
• the need for personalised care safety; independence; voice;
and support: tailored to needs; personalised; seamless; higher
in the language of choice value; evidence driven; scalable;
• safeguarding transformative.
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Chapter 22: Social Policy that affects childcare in
Wales
W hat is S ocia l P o licy ?
Social Policy is the way a society meets the needs of its population for security, education,
work, health and well-being. In Wales our Social Policy is how we as a country respond
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to national and global challenges of social, demographic and economic change. Through
Social Policy the Government will create legislation to ensure the well-being of people in
Wales both now and in the future. Social Policy analyses the role of our Government and
society in providing services and support across the lifespan from childhood to old age.
Services governed by Social Policy in Wales include education, housing, communities, income
maintenance and poverty reduction, unemployment
support and training, pensions, health and social
care. An important aim of Social Policy is to reduce Keywords
inequality of access to services between different
Social Policy
social groups defined by socio-economic status,
Socio-economic
and age.
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race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability
status
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D
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Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015
What the Welsh Government says about the Act:
The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 gives Wales the ambition,
permission and legal obligation to improve our social, cultural, environmental and
economic well-being. The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 requires
public bodies in Wales to think about the long-term impact of their decisions, to work
better with people, communities and each other, and to prevent persistent problems, such
as poverty, health inequalities and climate change. The Act is unique to Wales, attracting
interest from countries across the world as it offers a huge opportunity to make a long-
lasting, positive change to current and future generations.
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What is the purpose of the Act?
• The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 is an important piece of
legislation for Wales. The main purpose of this act is to ensure Wales as a nation is
prepared for the challenges of the future that could impact on our everyday lives.
• This Act is designed to improve the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-
being of Wales.
• The Act will ensure public bodies, such as Natural Resources Wales, Local Health
Boards, Local Authorities and Public Health Wales, work together and with the
community to prevent problems that could occur in the future to benefit the people of
Wales now and in the future.
•
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This Act ensures that public bodies do not focus on short-term solutions to present
needs but are mindful of the needs of future generations.
What are the well-being goals?
There are seven well-being goals, and these give public bodies a shared goal and purpose
to work towards to safeguard the future of the nation. The seven well-being goals are:
• A prosperous Wales
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• A resilient Wales
• A healthier Wales
• A more equal Wales
• A Wales of cohesive communities
• A Wales of vibrant culture and thriving Welsh language
• A globally responsible Wales
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What is the Sustainable Development Principle?

The Sustainable Development Principle demonstrates how goals and actions in the Act will
be delivered by public bodies. The five aspects that make up the Sustainable Development
Principle are:
• Long-term thinking
• Prevention
• Integration
• Collaboration
• Involvement
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Social Policy that affects childcare in Wales
The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 is the overarching legislation which
aims to improve social, cultural, environmental and economic well-being.
Through this act the Welsh Government has implemented a wide range of social policies
designed to achieve well-being in all areas of society. This is not only for present generations
but to secure well-being for future generations and to ensure that decisions and policies that
the Government make now do not have a negative impact on our future. These policies are
across all areas of our lives and include initiatives to make our population healthier, combat
social inequalities and reduce poverty, ensure all children are supported to have the best start
in life to help them achieve well-being and make a positive contribution to society in the future
and measures to protect our environment, combat climate change and promote sustainability.
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A
R
D
(source: well-being-of-future-generations-wales-act-2015-the-essentials.pdf (gov.wales)

Socia l P olicy - T he ne e d f o r
p ersonalised ca re a n d s u p p o r t
tailored t o needs
What is personalised care?
Personalised care ensures everyone has choice and control over how care is planned and
delivered based on the legislation in the Social Services and Well-being Act (Wales) 2014.
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A child’s care will be based on ‘what matters’ to them and their individual strengths and
needs. Personalised care is an integral part of the relationship between children and their
families, professionals, and health, care and education services in Wales. Personalised care
ensures decisions about a child’s care are based on their needs and the outcomes they want
to achieve, and children have a voice in all decisions made about them. Personalised care
integrates services around the child, including health, social care and education. It includes
mental and physical health, the role and voice of parents/carers and the contribution of
communities and the voluntary and community sector to support children and build their
resilience. Personalised care improves people’s health and well-being, joins up care in local
communities, reduces pressure on stretched NHS services and helps the health and care
A
system to be more efficient.
Care tailored to needs
The needs of every child are different, and their unique needs and wishes can be diverse
due to factors such as age, gender, culture, religion and personal circumstances. Individual
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needs change over time. It is a vital part of care to respect children as individuals and meet
their unique needs. Respecting people as individuals is an integral part of all care. When an
individual’s care is tailored to their needs it ensures that:
• inequalities that may prevent children from leading a healthy life are reduced
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• children’s individual circumstances are considered
• children get care and support in Welsh if they need it.
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Socia l Po licy - T he nee d f o r

per sonal ised ca re a nd s u p p o r t i n th e
l angu a ge o f choice
The Welsh Government wants to deliver high-quality health, social services and social care
services that are centred on people’s needs and outcomes. All services in Wales must comply
with the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 which ensures Welsh speakers receive services
in Welsh. Local Health Boards and Local Authority Social Services Departments have a legal
responsibility to ensure people have their well-being outcomes and their needs met, which
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includes their language needs. For many individuals, they can only communicate effectively
and as equal partners through the medium of Welsh. This applies particularly to children,
some of whom may speak little English. The Care Council for Wales brought out a report in
2012 stating there was a lack of Welsh language services available for patients and families
through the medium of Welsh. This led to a Welsh Government policy on the use of Welsh
in health, social services and social care. The Welsh Government published, “More than just
words….” in November 2012 which was a strategic framework to strengthen Welsh language
services in these areas. Being able to access Welsh language services is essential for some
families to secure positive well-being outcomes. Explaining and discussing needs in Welsh
can be easier and more effective for many Welsh speakers and if services are not provided in
A
Welsh, their needs are not fully met.
Language need is an important concept in ensuring person-centred care and a right-based

approach. Some groups of individuals will have a greater need to have services in their
preferred or only language, including:
• children and young people • people with learning disabilities/

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mental health issues
• older people
• people with Dementia or stroke
Professional Standards in health, care and childcare in Wales agree that the need for good
communication and treating individuals with dignity and respect is an essential part of care.
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This means an individual’s language needs must be met, and organisations have a responsibility
to recognise language need as an essential part of care and provide an Active Offer.
The Active Offer is one of the key principles of “More than just words….”. It means providing a
service in Welsh without someone having to ask for it. This makes it the responsibility of those
providing a service to offer this in the Welsh language and not presume that all Welsh speakers
speak English. The Active Offer means it is the responsibility of NHS Wales and Social Services
to deliver appropriate services, which include meeting people’s linguistic needs.

Socia l P olicy - Sa feg u ar d i n g
The Wales Safeguarding Procedures for children and

adults at risk of abuse and neglect
The Wales Safeguarding Procedures explain the essential roles and responsibilities for
practitioners to ensure that they safeguard children and adults who are at risk of abuse and
neglect. The standardised procedures help practitioners apply the legislation of the Social
Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014, and the statutory safeguarding guidance ‘Working
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Together to Safeguard People’. These procedures are a guide to safeguarding practice for all
those working with children in health, care and education.
It is important that there are standardised procedures for safeguarding amongst different
agencies in Wales and this can be seen in the Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014
and safeguarding
guidance ‘Working
Together to
Safeguard People’.
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For practitioners
protecting children
from abuse, neglect
and harm, the
procedures are based on principles which reflect the principles of the Social Services and
Well-being (Wales) Act 2014. The procedures are updated regularly in line with changes to
legislation.
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Socia l P olicy - P rov isi o n o f W e l s h
l angu a g e
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Why is the Welsh language important in Early Years

and childcare?
The Welsh Government’s plan is to increase the number of Welsh speakers in Wales to one
million by 2050. In ‘Building a Brighter Future: Early Years and Childcare Plan’ the Government
aims to ensure that there are enough Welsh speaking practitioners and services available in
the Early Years and childcare sectors so parents can be supported to raise children bilingually.
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The Government wants the Early Years and childcare practitioners in Wales to be highly skilled
professionals and an important part of these skills is the Welsh language. As a childcare
practitioner, communication with children and their families, other staff members and
organisations such as Care Inspectorate Wales (CIW) is a vital part of the role. Communication
in the child’s and the family’s preferred language is important to ensure that the child’s needs
are met.
Children and young people have a right to

communicate and give their views and opinions on
matters that affect their lives, such as education,
health and care, using their preferred language. The
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communication skills that a child learns early in life
will impact on their future and communication and
language is vital for a child’s development. The Welsh
Government want to ensure the Welsh Language is
recognised and valued as an important skill in Early
Years professionals. In the Early Years sector, many
families who access services will have Welsh as their
first language and would prefer to communicate
in Welsh with those responsible for the care and
education of their child.
A
When children start attending a setting or school it is
important to:
• record the first or preferred language of the child and their family
• ensure there are the correct number of Welsh-speaking staff for the number of
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Welsh-speaking children
• ensure that all members of staff can show polite responses in Welsh towards
children and families and respect and value the culture of Welsh speakers through
simple greetings, e.g. helo, bore da, croeso, sut ydych chi
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• ensure all staff are be able to say some simple words and phrases and be confident
to use the skills
• train staff to improve their Welsh language skills.
All settings should have a language skills strategy for staff based on the language skills’
framework which should include a Welsh Language Skills Plan to manage and make the most
of practitioners’ existing language skills, including:

• deciding which language skills are needed for specific roles and jobs in the setting
• assessing and recording staff’s language skills
• recruiting practitioners with Welsh language skills.

Soc ia l P o licy - Ea rly Ye ar s P r o v i s i o n
There have been a number of important policy developments in the Childcare, Play and Early
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Years sector in recent years, including the development of a new suite of qualifications for
childcare and play and the Government’s commitment to an enhanced Government-funded
childcare provision for working parents of 3-4-year-olds. The Welsh Government’s national
strategy, ‘Prosperity for All,’ sets out their future plans for the Early Years sector. The aim
is that children from all backgrounds have the best start in life and everyone will have the
opportunity to reach their full potential and lead a healthy, prosperous and fulfilling life, to
participate fully in their communities and contribute to the future economic success of Wales.
Welsh Government Policy on Early Years Provision in Wales

•
•
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A commitment to ensuring consistent regulation and delivery of pre-school provision.
A truly integrated early education and care system in Wales, including the workforce.
• The Welsh Government’s ambition is to develop a skilled childcare and play workforce,
which is highly regarded as a profession and a career of choice and is recognised for
the vital role the sector plays in supporting our children’s development.
• Clear actions that the Government will take across three key themes:
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∘ Attracting High Quality Recruits
∘ Raising Standards and Skills
∘ Investing in Building Capacity and Capability.
The Government’s plan for the Early Years sector is a long-term policy which is already being
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implemented across Wales. The new suite of approved qualifications for those working in both
Health and Social Care and the Early Years sector is now being delivered across Wales.
164
Implementation plan for the intial three years of the Workforce Plan for
Childcare, Play and Early Years
Welsh Goverment - Direct Qualification Wales

support for the sector to Early Years Oversee accreditation
support quality, jobs and Implementation and of new suite of
growth: qualifications Levels
Buisness Wales support
Monitoring Group 1-5 (including Welsh
for the sector including Language)
buisness start-ups and
expansions
Create better quality jobs Local Authority Regulation Social Care Wales
provision: Framework to Sector Skills
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Small Buisness Rate
Relief Scheme Transferability of support sector: Council:
Public procurment knowledge and Consider Joint Oversee
oppurtunities skills within the Inspection development of
Appernticeships sector Framework approved
Employability Flying Start development - qualifications
Programme support Foundation ESTYN/CSSIW and content for
Progress for Success Phase settings Review the levels 1-5
PACE Private and National Develop new
FE Flexible training voluntary Minimum National
provision/Work Based settings Standards Training
Learning route Childminders Programme for
University - enhanced CWLWM the sector
PETC Wales
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degree route
(Source: Welsh Government)
The diagram above details how the Welsh Government plans to implement its aims of providing
a skilled workforce for the Early Years sector as part of their Social Policy for Wales.
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One of the aims of the Welsh Government’s strategy for the future of Wales in ‘Prosperity For
All’ is that children from all backgrounds have the best start in life. The aim of the strategy is that
everyone will have the opportunity to reach their full potential and lead a healthy, prosperous
and fulfilling life, enabling them to participate fully in their communities and contribute to the
future economic success of Wales.
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The Welsh Government believe that if children are given the right support, especially those
from deprived areas or who live in poverty, it is the best way of preventing the poverty cycle,
and raising aspiration and attainment. The main goal of creating ‘Prosperity For All’ is reducing
inequality and promoting well-being, and by investing in children and the Early Years sector
the Government hopes to give Wales a strong economy and wealth in the future.
The first few years of a child’s life are an important influence on their well-being throughout
life and have an impact on how well they will do at school, their social interactions and
relationships and the adult they become. Children who have to cope with adverse childhood

experiences (ACEs) can often experience a negative impact on areas of their development, this
is why the Welsh Government believes investing in services for children and their parents in
the early years will give all children the best possible start in life.
Parents, caregivers and a child’s home life are the biggest influence on their development
and the Welsh Government aims to support parents to provide supportive and enriching
environments for their children and be confident and resilient parents.
Statistics show that there are many inequalities in Wales in the educational achievements of
different groups of children. Children from deprived and disadvantaged backgrounds often
underachieve in school than other children and it is these children the Welsh Government
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hopes to target through a programme of support to ensure they have the best start in life, to
give them an advantage that will continue to improve their outcomes throughout their lives.
The Welsh Government is committed to supporting children in Wales and their

parents with the following support:
• Build on current Early Years programmes and create a more joined-up, responsive
system that puts the unique needs of each child at its heart.
• Ensure that the Early Years provision in the new curriculum builds strong key skills, and
embeds health awareness, well-being and resilience in children from the earliest stage.
• Ensure consistent regulation and delivery of pre-school provision.
•
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Deliver extended, coherent support for parenting, drawing together family support
programmes focused on positive parenting and early intervention.
• Provide working parents of 3 and 4-year-olds with 30 hours of free education and
childcare for up to 48 weeks a year, delivered in a way that works for parents and
children.
• Legislate to ban the physical punishment of children.
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• Create ‘ACE aware’ public services which take a more preventative approach to avoid
ACEs and improve the resilience of children and young people.
• Pilot Children First areas, to support the better integration of services to reduce the
numbers of ACEs and improve the resilience of children and young people.
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Socia l Po licy - Affo rda b i l i ty an d

Su sta inabilit y
Affordable housing is an important aspect of Social Policy and ensuring the well-being of
future generations in Wales. The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 ensures
that the Welsh Government monitor its progress towards the targets set in the programme
‘Taking Wales Forward 2016 -2021’ which includes a commitment by the Welsh Government
for 20,000 more affordable homes in Wales by 2021. This includes building more than 6,000
homes through the Help to Buy scheme, where loans are available to buyers of newly built
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property worth up to £300,000. In 2018 the Welsh Government introduced Rent-to-Own, Wales
and Shared Ownership, Wales, offering the opportunity of home ownership to households
who can afford monthly mortgage payments but do not have the deposit needed to buy a
home. Buyers can pay rent for new-build homes from participating housing associations and
have the option to purchase these from the end of the second year of renting.
The WeLsh Government will continue to monitor the progress towards their target to deliver
20,000 affordable homes as well as commitments outlined in the ‘National Housing Strategy’.
Local authorities and National Parks use this information for:
•
A
Monitoring housing trends
• Policy development
• Advice to Ministers
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• Informing debate in the
National Assembly for Wales
and beyond
• Geographic profiling,
comparisons and
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benchmarking
The Welsh Government has also

committed to sustainable housing
and are working to ensure that new
social housing is built as lower carbon homes, and current social rented homes are achieving
the Welsh Housing Quality Standard (WHQS) which means Local Authorities must make
significant improvements in energy efficiency in social housing.

The One Planet Development planning policy is unique to Wales as part of the Welsh
Government’s ‘One Wales: One Planet’ legislation. It aims to encourage affordable and
sustainable housing development, playing a part in reducing Wales’ ecological footprint to 1.88
global hectares per person, which is a sustainable share of the world’s resources. It also aims
for Wales to become a zero-waste nation by 2025, reducing car use, encouraging local and
sustainable food systems, and reducing carbon-based energy use by 80-90%. The legislation
aims for low impact housing with zero carbon in both construction and use and that makes a
positive contribution to the local environment. Housing which meets One Planet Development
regulations can get planning permission in an area where it would not usually be given as they
try to make use of their land for income, food, energy and waste, encouraging low individual
ecological footprints which will reduce the ecological footprint of Wales as a whole. An example
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of this is the Lammas community in Pembrokeshire where nine eco-friendly small holdings
have been constructed.
Socia l P olicy - Equa li t i e s an d S o c i al

J ustice
The Welsh Government’s Strategic Equality Plan for 2020-2024 has three main elements:
•
A
Aims
• Objectives
• Actions.
Long-term aims and equality objectives are about strengthening and advancing equality and
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ensuring social justice and human rights in Wales.
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Long-term Aims: Equality Objectives:

• Aim 1: Elimination of • Equality Objective 1: The Welsh Government will
inequality caused by reduce the risk of people falling into poverty,
poverty. improving outcomes for those most at risk and who
• Aim 2: Strong and live in low-income households.
progressive equality and • Equality Objective 2: The Welsh Government will take
human rights protections action to identify ways to protect, strengthen and
for everyone in Wales. advance equality and human rights in Wales.
• Aim 3: The needs and • Equality Objective 3: Improving outcomes and
rights of people who share removing barriers which prevent people fulfilling their
protected characteristics potential. Embedding the Social Model of Disability to
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are at the forefront of the create better policy and services.
design and delivery of all • Equality Objective 4: To deliver objectives of the
devolved public services in Advancing Gender Equality in Wales Plan and take
Wales. action to address and reduce the gender pay gap
• Aim 4: Wales is a world encouraging other organisations in Wales to do
leader for gender equality. likewise.
A gender-equal Wales • Equality Objective 5: The Welsh Government will
means an equal sharing prevent discrimination, victimisation, harassment,
of power, resources and abuse, hate crime and/or bullying against people with
influence for all women, one or more protected characteristics. They will ensure
people.
A
men and non-binary victims have access to advice and support to help
them live without fear and protect their well-being.
• Aim 5: Elimination • Equality Objective 6: The Welsh Government will build
of discrimination, on existing policies and interventions and develop a
victimisation, abuse, monitoring framework to measure progress towards
harassment, hate-crime community cohesion and the fostering of good
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and bullying based on relations.
protected characteristics. • Equality Objective 7: By 2024, the Welsh Government
• Aim 6: A Wales of cohesive will have increased the diversity of decision-makers in
communities that are public life and public appointments, identifying areas
resilient, fair and equal. where further action is needed to ensure greater
• Aim 7: Everyone in Wales balance of diversity among decision-makers.
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is able to participate • Equality Objective 8: By 2024 the Welsh Government

in political, public and will be an exemplar employer, increasing diversity
everyday life. by addressing in particular the under-representation
• Aim 8: The Welsh public of disabled people and people from minority ethnic
sector leads the way as communities and the underrepresentation of women
inclusive and diverse in senior roles; removing barriers; and supporting staff
organisations and from all backgrounds to reach their potential, creating
employers. equality of opportunity for all.

Underpinning each of these objectives are a number of measurable actions which demonstrate
how the Welsh Government will achieve its objectives. The aims and objectives will make Wales
a more equal place, so fewer people live in poverty and there is a more balanced representation
of people employed in public life, including women, disabled people and people from minority
ethnic communities.
1. Define what social policy is.
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2. Discuss the importance of the Welsh Government’s policy on Welsh language
provision in early years settings.
A
R
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Chapter 23: The Changing Nature of Society and the
Impact on Childcare
Content
(b) The changing nature of society and the impact on childcare
Amplification
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Learners should understand how the nature of society is changing and the
impact of this on childcare in Wales, including:
∙ living standards: affordable ∙ pollution

housing, social housing, food
poverty/ foodbanks ∙ employment/unemployment -
working patterns
∙ maternal age
∙ multiculturalism
∙ family structure
A
Changes in society can have an impact on childcare and the educational needs of children
across Wales. The Welsh Government has set national indicators towards achieving the seven
well-being goals of the Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015, including a healthy
life expectancy, healthy lifestyles, reducing gap in educational achievement between children
from poorer and more affluent families and reducing the number of children who live in
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poverty.
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171
Affor d able housing a n d s o c i al
housing
Many children live in temporary or insecure housing and there is a lack of affordable housing
and social housing across Wales. Thousands of children across Wales experience homelessness
every year. There is a lack of social sector housing being built and the only available housing is
the private rental market where prices are high, and families can be evicted for not being able
to pay their rent, leading to homelessness. Many private rent properties refuse to accept
tenants who rely on housing benefit and this stops those on the lowest income being able to
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rent these properties. Families can also struggle to pay housing costs alongside expensive
energy bills and debts.
Being homeless or feeling insecure

about the affordability of their
housing affects many children in
Wales. Children can lack confidence
and self-esteem due to feeling poorer
or less successful than their peers.
There are many costs associated
A
with school, such as school uniform,
P.E. kit, educational visits and
school trips. These additional costs
often prevent children from getting
the full educational experience in
comparison to their peers. Social
stigma and bullying can occur as a
R
result of poverty and children have
expressed feeling both embarrassed
and humiliated when they cannot
afford the same equipment as other
children. Children in Wales who are
eligible for free school meals are
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three times less likely to achieve

average scores in reading and
numeracy than their wealthier peers.
Many schools are having to provide
equipment to children unable to afford to buy it themselves.
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The Changing Nature of Society and the Impact on Childcare
Food Povert y a nd F o o d b an k s
Teachers in Wales have stated that

many children are coming to school
hungry. Food poverty is a significant
issue in Wales, demonstrated by the
increasing number of foodbanks
and the development of more
initiatives to combat ‘holiday
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hunger’. Over 31% of households in
Wales spend more than a quarter
of the income they have left after
paying for their housing on food.
Families who just miss out on
qualifying for free school meals can
often struggle to afford food and
are unable to adequately feed their
children after paying for housing,
bills and debts.
A
Some children are not eligible for school meals as their parents are asylum-seekers. Those who
are eligible for free school meals often find they cannot afford both a meal and a drink with the
amount they are allocated. Free breakfasts have been introduced for primary school children
in Wales and this has helped children who often arrive at school hungry. Where these clubs
are available, they are often over-subscribed, and some children are unable to access them
as they are full to capacity. Breakfast clubs have not only helped children who are hungry, but
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also supported children who suffer social isolation. They’ve also helped teachers to identify
children who are struggling to buy new school uniform and offer support through uniform
recycling schemes. Teachers and practitioners state children have improved behaviour and
attention span when they are supplied with a nutritious breakfast.
There has a been a 13% increase in the number of families forced to rely on foodbanks in
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the last year. Families found it particularly difficult during the school holidays, but foodbanks
are not always easily accessible to the families most in need and many families cannot afford
transport costs to get to the foodbank.
The Welsh Government has funded a ‘Food and Fun’ scheme for the holidays across most
local authorities in Wales where activities include learning about preparing healthy food and a
lunchtime meal. Some schools and communities have also launched their own similar projects.

The Changing nature of society in Wales and its impact on Childcare
Maternal Age The average age of mothers in Wales has continued to rise since the
1970s and is now 30.7 years. Research shows that older mothers have
children with fewer behavioural, social and emotional difficulties, have
more stable relationships, are better educated and more affluent.
Older mothers are more likely to have established careers and qualify
for higher levels of maternity pay and more flexibility in maternity
leave. It is less likely that motherhood will be a fulltime role for older
mothers as their increased financial security means they are not
reliant on benefits, which they will lose if they work, resulting in it
being less financially viable to work. Older mothers are more likely to
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use formal childcare settings, as they will be aware that children in
formal childcare have better levels of school achievement. They are
also likely to have older parents who may be less able to offer informal
childcare as grandparents.
Family structure Family structures in Wales are changing. Although the most common
family structure is still the married couple with children, this is
declining and there is a rise in cohabiting couples with children,
same-sex civil partnerships and multi-generational families living in
the same household (to share expenses and childcare which usually
A involves grandparents, parents and children living together). There is
also a rise in lone-parent families, particularly single fathers. There are
many children who are affected by family break-ups due to divorce
or separation and an increase in blended families, where children
live with one parent and their new partner and step siblings. It is
important for settings and practitioners to have a good knowledge
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of different types of family structure and not assume that all children
live with a mother and father. Parents and caregivers are partners
in care and practitioners should be careful not to make assumptions
regarding a child’s family and to show that each child and their family
are equally welcomed and valued within the setting. Practitioners
need to use tact and sensitivity when discussing children’s families and
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caregivers as they will only know what the caregiver chooses to tell
them regarding the child’s family circumstances.
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The Changing Nature of Society and the Impact on Childcare

Pollution An important determinant of health in children is the quality of the
air they breathe. Air pollution can cause a significant health risk for
children whilst at school or nursery. Air pollution is caused by cars,
lorries, planes and factories. Air quality in Wales has improved over
the past decades but there are still significant problems. Research
has shown that some schools and settings are within 150 metres
of an area where air pollution has reached harmful levels. Welsh
Government policy states that Local Authorities should work with
schools and settings to develop ways of reducing air pollution in their
local area, which could include encouraging children and their parents
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to walk or cycle to school and reduce unnecessary journeys by car.
Children should also be educated in the dangers of air pollution and
encouraged to help improve the air quality in their area and in Wales
as a whole.
Employment/ Childcare providers are directly impacted by the employment or

Unemployment unemployment levels in Wales. The more working parents there are,
the greater the need for childcare providers. The Welsh Government
recognises the value of providing sufficient good quality affordable
childcare provision to give more parents the opportunity to access
A employment and training which promotes economic growth and
reduces poverty and inequalities in Wales. The Welsh Government has
increased the amount of free childcare for working parents from 10
hours to 30 hours per week for all 3–4-year-olds in ‘The Childcare Offer
for Wales’ which will have a significant impact for childcare providers
in Wales. More parents will be able to work which will create a need
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for more childcare places at registered settings and the need for more
trained childcare practitioners.
Working Patterns There are a range of factors that have changed working patterns in
Wales that will have an impact on the childcare sector. Technological
advances, political uncertainty, climate change and more flexible
working are just some of the changes that will affect future working
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patterns. There has been an increase in zero hours contracts,

underemployment and less secure working practices. There has
been an increase in people working from home, using computers
for meetings and conferences and the recent COVID pandemic
has resulted in many people facing redundancy in badly affected
industries, such as travel and hospitality. Lack of economic security
and more flexible working and working from home has resulted
in parents sharing childcare responsibilities around more flexible
working patterns leading to less need for formal childcare.

Multiculturalism There are an increasing number of children in Wales who have
English or Welsh as an additional language. Settings need to develop
children’s learning abilities in all aspects of Welsh and English to
enable them to participate fully in education and society. Children’s
home languages must be recognised, valued and supported. Families

may speak more than one language at home; they may be Travellers,
refugees or asylum-seekers. Settings and schools should have
teachers and practitioners trained in diversity, equality and anti-
discriminatory practice, whatever the ethnic or cultural backgrounds
of children. Children will come from varying backgrounds which may
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affect the child, for example, conflicts and difficult political situations,
separation from families, financial difficulties, religious or cultural
identity and being new to a white or multicultural environment.
Settings should make home visits or have pre-admission discussions
(with a translator if possible), to have information such as the
child’s country of birth, date of birth, languages spoken and literacy
levels, needs and interests, dietary needs, medical needs. Increased
multiculturalism can be challenging for settings as they will need
access to interpreting and translation services and need to ensure all
families feel included in the children’s care and learning experiences in
A the setting.

R
1. Discuss the impact of food poverty on children in Wales.
2. Explain how changes in family structure impact on childcare provision.

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Chapter 24: The Changing Nature of Childcare
Provision
Content
(c) The changing nature of childcare provision and the implications for the
workforce
Amplification
Learners should understan:
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∙ the current changes in childcare ∙ the implications of the changes
provision in Wales, for example: on the roles of professionals
increasing Flying Start provision; involved including: wider career
30 hours free childcare; Welsh opportunities; development of
language strategy – bilingualism; skills; team/collaborative working;
staffing changes – more males. enhanced job roles; increased
responsibilities.
In creasing F ly ing St a rt p r o v i s i o n
A
Flying Start is the Welsh Government's Early Years programme for families with children under
4 years of age who live in some of the most disadvantaged areas of Wales. Flying Start was
introduced to improve the life chances of children by reducing the impact that poverty would
have on their outcomes, particularly health and educational outcomes.
R
The programme consists of four entitlements for families in these areas which are:
• Free quality, part-time childcare for • Access to parenting support.

2–3-year-olds.
• Support for speech, language and
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• An intensive health visiting service. communication development.
Each child and their family are supported by a multidisciplinary team to identify all of the
needs of the child and their family, and provides the correct interventions if needed to meet
their individual needs. Flying Start aims to ensure that:
• Children are healthy and thriving. • Flying Start children are reaching
potential.
• Families are capable and coping.
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The focus of Flying Start is on early identification of any needs and making interventions at the
right time. Flying Start builds on the health visitor interventions provided for all children in Wales
based on the Healthy Child Wales Programme (HCWP). The Flying Start health programme
provides more regular and frequent interventions for children in addition to the HCWP, and
health visitors can request support from a multidisciplinary team of other professionals.
Flying Start is one of the Welsh Government’s top priorities. The Welsh Government was
committed to doubling the number of children and their families benefiting from the Flying
Start programme from 18,000 to 36,000 by 2016. This was achieved by extending the areas
where the programme is available. Flying Start targets the most disadvantaged areas in Wales.
The programme has been targeted to areas where many children qualify for free school meals
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and there are high proportions of children aged under 4 years living in households in receipt of
income related benefits. The area covered by the programme expanded into additional areas
between 2012 and 2016. This will have an impact on childcare provision as more children
between 2 and 3 years will have access to free childcare. That will mean that more places are
needed for younger children and therefore more childcare practitioners as the adult to child
ratio for children under 3 is 1 to 4, in comparison to one adult to every 8 children for those over
3 years. The result is a significant increase in the provision needed in Flying Start areas and a
growth in the childcare sector in Wales as a whole.
30 H ou rs F ree childc ar e
A
The Welsh Government has increased the number of hours of free childcare that are available
to working parents in Wales. 3- to 4-year-old children are now entitled to 30 hours of free
childcare, provided both parents are working or they live in a household with only one parent
and that parent works. This will again change the structure of childcare provision in Wales as
R
more parents will work because childcare will be more affordable. There will be an increased
need for childminders, nurseries, playgroups and ‘Cylch Meithrin’, who are registered with, and
regulated by, Care Inspectorate Wales (CIW) to provide increased levels of provision leading to
the need for more qualified childcare practitioners. This provision is also often offered within
pre-school classes of Local Authority primary schools with many schools in Wales reducing the
age at which children can start school from four to three years old. Many schools offer 3-year-
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olds a half day at school until the term following their fourth birthday with the remainder of
their free childcare being offered by non-maintained providers, such as Playgroups and ‘Cylch
Meithrin’, or private provision from nurseries and childminders.
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The Changing Nature of Childcare Provision
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This has resulted in more integrated Childcare services in local areas with all providers
working together to provide what is termed as ‘wraparound’ care for children of working
parents. This involves children attending primary school in the morning and a childminder,
nursery or ‘Cylch’ in the afternoon with meals provided through packed lunches or school/
nursery meals. This has led to more multi-agency working and the need for teachers,
practitioners and childminders to collaborate to meet the needs of children through multi-
agency working. Daily diaries, photographs and reports are used to keep all professionals
involved in the care of the child and parents informed of the child’s needs, progress,
A
achievements and any issues or developmental problems on a daily basis. In this way, the
child receives continuous and integrated care and education.
W elsh La ng ua g e S t ra t e g y -
Bilin gual ism
R
In ‘Building a Brighter Future: Early Years and Childcare Plan’ the Government aims to ensure
that there are enough Welsh-speaking practitioners and services available in the Early Years
and childcare sectors so parents can be supported to raise children bilingually. The strategy
for childcare provision is that Early Years and childcare practitioners in Wales be highly skilled
professionals and an important part of these skills is Welsh language. As a childcare practitioner,
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communication with children and their families, other staff members and organisations such
as Care Inspectorate Wales (CIW) is a vital part of the role. Communication in the child’s and
the family’s preferred language is important to ensure that the child’s needs are met. It is
important for all practitioners to ensure they are improving their Welsh language skills and
using these skills as much as possible within the setting.
For childcare providers it is important to have a Welsh language policy and encourage
bilingualism in children and staff. Practitioners already working in the setting should be
improving their Welsh language as part of their continuous professional development and

settings need to ensure there are enough Welsh-speaking practitioners to care for children in
their first or preferred language. When employing new staff, the Welsh language skills needed
should be part of the recruitment process and the language profile of children in the setting
considered to ensure enough Welsh speakers are available to act as keyworkers for Welsh
speaking children and their parents.
Sta ffing C ha ng es - re c r u i t i n g m o r e
males int o Ea rly Y ea r s c ar e e r s
FT
It is part of the Welsh Government’s ten-year plan for the future of the Early Years workforce
to build a more diverse workforce. The majority of those working in Early Years in Wales are
white females who identify as Welsh or British. The Welsh Government wants to introduce
more diversity, including encouraging more men to work in Early Years who will be positive
role models for boys and encourage them to consider careers in Early Years themselves. It is
the Welsh Government’s aim that the Early Years workforce is more reflective of our wider
society which will enhance the experiences of children in the setting.
A
R
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180
Chapter 25: The implications of the changing nature of
Childcare provision on the roles of professionals involved
W id er c a reer o ppo rt u n i t i e s an d
develop m ent of sk ills
The changes in the nature of childcare provision in Wales will have an impact on all aspects
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of the Early Years and childcare sector including on the roles of professionals. In the
Childcare, Play and Early Years workforce plan the Welsh Government has outlined its aims
to provide wider career opportunities for those working in the childcare sector. To support
professional development, the Welsh Government has introduced a defined career pathway
for progression beyond the Level 3 qualification including mapping childcare qualifications
to other professions, such as teaching and playwork. Through its delivery of the ten-year
vision, the Welsh Government will introduce new qualifications at levels 4 and 5 to support
a vocational route which allows practitioners to progress in their careers. There has also
been the development of a new national framework of qualifications and training which was
developed in collaboration with Social Care Wales, which outlines the sector standards to
A
practice. The career pathway for Early Years practitioners has been defined to make it easier
for practitioners to develop their skills and knowledge and progress in their careers. This has
been accompanied by a mapping of progression routes into other professions within the
wider children’s workforce, including optional training modules for practitioners to develop
skills and specialisms as Health Support Workers, supporting children with additional learning
needs, speech and language development and the Foundation Phase.
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The Welsh Government also plans to embed occupational competencies into Early Years and
childhood studies degrees and will work to support graduates to open their own childcare
settings. The Welsh Government is also working with Playwork Education and Training Council
Wales to support the development of the Playwork workforce to allow practitioners to progress
through qualifications and gain skills within the play sector.
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Team /c ol la bora t iv e wo r k i n g
The Welsh Government aims to provide regulation and support for the Early Years and
childcare sectors. The Government will work in partnership with a range of organisations to
develop the sector.
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Partnership-working to support the childcare sector
Local Local Authorities have a key role in ensuring the provision of local
Authorities childcare, and work in partnership with settings including those in the
non-maintained, private and voluntary sector. These include:
• Flying Start
• Foundation Phase settings

• Private and voluntary settings
• Childminders
• Playwork Education Training Council Wales (PETC)
Cwlwm- Cwlwm is a combination of five childcare organisations working in
(Childcare partnership in Wales to ensure the best possible outcomes for children
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Wales and their families. In 2014 the Cwlwm partnership was awarded funding
Learning by the Welsh Government from the Children and Families Delivery grant
and Working which aims to reduce inequalities in health, education and economic
Mutually) outcomes for children living in poverty. The aims are to provide practical
support for families with the focus on accessible and affordable quality
childcare, increasing play opportunities, informing families about
financial support, engaging with families who do not get their voices
heard to help them access support and providing opportunities for
children to participate in decisions affecting them.
The five organisations that make up Cwlwm are:
A • Clybiau Plant Cymru Kids’ Club
• Mudiad Meithrin (lead organisation)
• National Day Nurseries Association (NDNA Cymru)
• Professional Association for Childcare and Early Years (PACEY)
• Wales Pre-School Providers Association (Wales PPA)
Settings and With the changes to childcare provision in Wales there is an increasing
R
Schools need for collaboration between different providers as the Welsh
Government’s 30 hours of free childcare for working parents has
increased the number of children accessing their hours from two or
more providers. Schools now work with childminders, nurseries and
sessional providers, such as playgroups and Cylch Meithrin, as well as
informal childcare providers, such as grandparents or family friends,
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to provide wraparound care and education for many children. This

means communicating information regarding a child’s needs, progress,
achievements and development to a range of different practitioners,
settings and caregivers and all working together in the best interests of
the child. Schools and settings also need to work with the Local Authority,
training providers, regulatory bodies ESTYN and Care Inspectorate Wales
(CIW) to provide holistic care for children in Wales.
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The implications of the changing nature of Childcare provision on the roles of professionals involved
E n han ced job ro les a n d i n c r e as e d

resp onsibilit y
The Welsh Government has made a commitment to provide enhanced job roles and better-
quality jobs in the Early Years and childcare sector in Wales. High-quality early education
and childcare has a significant impact on children’s outcomes, and to provide this it is vital
the workforce has the best skills and knowledge to deliver high-quality childcare. The Welsh
Government has, in its plan for the sector, developed two strategic aims of attracting high-
quality new recruits to the sector and raising the standards and skills of existing childcare
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providers and practitioners. To attract new recruits to the sector the Welsh Government wishes
to change the perception that childcare is a sector for school leavers who are less interested
in a more academic profession, and attract and retain high-quality practitioners who can meet
the challenges of the next decade in this sector.
1. Outline two changes to childcare provision that will impact on the roles
of professionals involved in the sector.
A
2. Explain ways in which the Welsh Government aims to attract high-quality recruits
to the Early Years workforce.
R
D

184
D
R
A
FT
Unit 4
FT
Section 7
A
The role of current
legislation and
R
government initiatives
to safeguard and
D
improve the care and

support for children
and young people in
Wales
185
Content
In this section learners will gain knowledge and understanding of
the role of current legislation and government initiatives to safe-
guard and improve the care and support for children and young
people in Wales.
This includes:
• The importance of young people.
FT
safeguarding children and
young people. • The aims of legislation and
government initiatives to
• The responsibilities and improve care and support for
accountabilities of individuals children and young people.
providing care for children and
(a) The role of current legislation and government initiatives to safe-
guard and improve the care and support for children and young
people in Wales
A
Amplification
• The importance of them to recognise the signs
safeguarding children and and dangers. This includes:
young people and why it may Prevention (raising awareness
R
be necessary in relation to and knowledge, understanding
protecting them from harm, abuse and neglect);
abuse (physical, emotional or Identification (knowing what
psychological, sexual, financial to do if you see it); Reporting
and neglect). and Investigation; Protection;
Recording; Legislation (under
D
• Safeguarding is about the Social Services and Well-

protecting children and young being (Wales) Act 2014; Best
people from abuse or neglect outcomes for individual.
and educating those around
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Chapter 26: The importance of safeguarding children
and young people
The Pa ra mount Princip l e
‘The Welfare of the Child is Paramount’ became a legal

principle in the UK under the 1989 Children Act. This
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means that any other considerations which could Keywords
apply in different circumstances MUST NEVER override
the right of the child to be protected from harm. In Paramount
any childcare setting the child’s best interests and Disclosure
welfare are the first and paramount consideration. Indicators
This principle is underpinned by the United Nations
Convention on the rights of the child and is the most
important factor when the courts make any decision
about a child, that the child’s welfare is the paramount consideration.
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W hy w e need t o sa feg u ar d c h i l d r e n
Safeguarding is all the actions we take to keep children safe from harm. Children are
vulnerable and rely on adults for their safety and security. It is the responsibility of all those
who work with children to keep them safe. As an Early Years or childcare practitioner, it is
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your role and responsibility to protect children in the setting from abuse and neglect. All
settings in Wales are required by law to implement policies and procedures to safeguard
children. All Early Years and childcare practitioners must ensure they are aware of and
comply with safeguarding measures to ensure the well-being and welfare of all children in
the setting.
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Child protection policies and procedures in the setting are based on Welsh Government
legislation to safeguard children in Wales. Child protection is a process which protects any child
who is suffering from, or possibly suffering from, significant harm due to abuse or neglect.
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•
•
•
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Safeguarding can be described as actions that:
protect children from harm
prevent harm to children’s health and development
ensure children are provided with safe and effective care
•
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ensure all children have the best outcomes.
Everyone who works with children has safeguarding responsibilities towards children and
these include acting in a way that does not put anyone at risk, reporting concerns that a child
may be at risk and ensuring that action is taken about a safeguarding concern. All practitioners,
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teachers and Early Years workers should be familiar with the Safeguarding and Child Protection
Policy for their setting and know who the safeguarding officer or person with responsibility for
safeguarding is within the setting. The views of children should always be listened to and taken
into account in all matters about their welfare and any decisions made should be explained
to them clearly. A child’s needs and welfare should be at the centre of all decisions made
about them. Children should be listened to and have their views taken into account at every
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stage. They should be made to feel that their needs and well-being is at the centre of decisions
made about them. This does not necessarily mean they will always agree with the actions
and decisions that are taken about them but that the reasons for these decisions are clearly
explained to them. If a practitioner has concerns that a child or young person is at risk of
abuse, neglect or harm they must report these concerns to Children’s Social Services.
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The importance of safeguarding children and young people
S i gns an d S y mpt o ms o f ab u s e o r
neglec t
Some signs of abuse or neglect are easier to recognise than others, but in many children
signs of harm, abuse or neglect are not always obvious. The Wales Safeguarding Procedures
includes information that is designed to help practitioners recognise signs of harm, abuse or
neglect.
Types of abuse or neglect that are difficult to identify
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• Exploitation or abuse by someone outside the family.
• Abuse related to cultural practices and beliefs.
• Abuse or neglect due to protected characteristics can put children at greater risk of
some forms of harm and abuse. Gender, sexuality, disability and ethnicity may cause
children to be at greater risk of some forms of harm or abuse and this abuse may be
underreported.
• Children with disabilities or additional learning needs may lack the understanding or
communication skills to make a disclosure of abuse or neglect.
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Childcare and early years practitioners should also ensure they have completed safeguarding
training as part of their continuous professional development. The Wales Safeguarding
Procedures are supported by a number of All Wales Practice Guides produced by the Welsh
Government to help practitioners in Wales by providing information about different types of
abuse and neglect, and how to spot the signs that a child may be at risk. Abuse and neglect
can involve one specific incident or ongoing abuse and neglect that has a negative impact on a
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child’s well-being and can have a negative impact on their outcomes into adult life. Abuse can
result from a number of factors, such as parental substance misuse, poor family circumstances
and parental stresses. Problems such as poverty, unemployment, social isolation, depression,
mental health problems, domestic violence and the parent suffering harm or abuse as a child,
can be identified as risk factors for child abuse. Practitioners need to develop an awareness of
how risk factors can impact on parenting ability and a child’s health and well-being.
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The signs and symptoms of different types of abuse
Physical abuse It includes:
- deliberately • physical restraint, such as being tied to a bed, locked in a room
hurting a child or • inflicting burns, cutting, slapping, punching, kicking, biting,
young person. choking

• stabbing or shooting
• withholding food or medical attention, drugging, denying sleep
• shaking or hitting babies
• fabricating or inducing illness when a carer actively promotes
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the sick role of a child by exaggeration, non-treatment of real
problems, lying about an illness or making a child ill.
Possible signs:
Bruises: a child or young person has bruising in the shape of a hand,
ligature, stick, teeth mark or implement. There is bruising not caused
by a medical condition and if the explanation for the bruising is
unsuitable.
Bites, cuts and scars: there is a report or appearance of a human
bite mark that is thought unlikely to have been caused by a young
child. Another sign is if a child has cuts, abrasions or scars and
A the explanation is unsuitable, such as on areas usually covered by
clothing (for example, back, chest, abdomen, genital area).
Burn or scald injuries: the explanation for the injury is unsuitable or
the child is not independently mobile or on any soft tissue area that
would not be expected to come into contact with a hot object in an
accident (for example, the backs of hands, soles of feet, buttocks,
back), if a child presents with hypothermia and the explanation is
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unsuitable.
Fractures: a child has one or more fractures in the absence of a
medical condition that causes fragile bones or if the explanation
unsuitable, including: fractures of different ages, X-ray evidence of
hidden fractures. For example, rib fractures in infants.
Head or brain injuries: A child has a head or brain injury in the
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absence of major confirmed accidental trauma or known medical

cause, in one or more of the following circumstances:
• the explanation is absent or unsuitable
• the child is aged under 3 years
• there are also retinal haemorrhages or rib or long bone fractures.
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Sexual Abuse: Contact abuse involves touching activities where an abuser makes
There are 2 physical contact with a child. It includes:
different types of • sexual touching of any part of the body whether the child’s
child sexual abuse. wearing clothes or not
These are called • rape or penetration
contact abuse and • forcing or encouraging a child to take part in sexual activity,
non-contact abuse. making a child take their clothes off and engage in inappropriate
touching.
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Non-contact abuse involves grooming, exploitation, persuading
children to perform sexual acts over the internet and flashing. It
includes:
• encouraging a child to watch or hear sexual acts
• not taking proper measures to prevent a child being exposed to
sexual activities by others
• online abuse including making, viewing or distributing child
abuse images, allowing someone else to make, view or distribute
child abuse images, showing pornography to a child
• sexually exploiting a child for money, power or status (child
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Possible signs and indicators

Sexualised behaviour, a young child displays repeated sexualised
behaviours or preoccupation. A child or young person’s sexual
behaviour is indiscriminate, precocious or coercive.
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Symptoms and signs of suspected sexual abuse:
• A child has soreness, injury, bleeding or swelling in the genital
area with no medical explanation.
• A child has a sexually transmitted infection, such as, gonorrhoea,
chlamydia, syphilis, genital herpes, hepatitis C.
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• A young woman, aged 15 years or younger, is pregnant.

Neglect - Child There are a range of parenting behaviours that can be described as
neglect is a failure neglect:
on the part of the Medical neglect: not providing appropriate medical care.
parent or caregiver Nutritional neglect: not giving sufficient attention to the diet for the
to meet the care child who may become obese or fail to thrive.
and developmental Supervisory neglect: not providing the guidance and supervision that
needs of the child. ensures the child is safe and protected from harm.
This can be due to Educational neglect: not ensuring the child has an appropriate
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parenting issues education or providing an environment allowing the child to achieve
such as drug and their cognitive potential.
alcohol misuse. Physical neglect: not giving the appropriate physical care necessary
Neglect is not the for their age and development or living in an unhealthy or unsafe
same as poverty environment.
and happens even Identity neglect: not meeting a child or young person’s needs in terms
though parents or of, for example, culture, religion, gender and sexuality.
caregivers have
the money and Possible signs and indicators
resources to care There is possible neglect in the home if:
for and parent the • a child has severe and persistent infestations, such as scabies or
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child properly. head lice
• a child’s clothing or footwear is often inappropriate (for example,
for the weather or the child’s size)
• a child is persistently smelly and dirty
• you repeatedly observe or hear that a child’s home environment
has poor hygiene that affects a child’s health, has a lack of food
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or if the home is unsafe for the child’s developmental stage
• a child displays poor growth because of an inadequate or
appropriate diet
• the explanation for an injury suggests a lack of appropriate
supervision, a child or young person is not being cared for by a
person who is able to provide adequate care
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• parents or carers fail to give prescribed treatment for their child

or fail to attend follow-up appointments necessary for their
child’s health and well-being
• parents or carers do not engage with relevant child health
promotion programmes which include: immunisation, health and
development reviews, screening.
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Safegu a rding a nd t he S o c i al S e r v i c e s
a nd W ell - being ( Wa les ) A c t 2014
The Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014 places a duty to report if a child is at risk
on all schools, settings and organisations that work with children. If a practitioner believes
that a child is at immediate risk of harm, they must phone the Police on 999. If practitioners
have concerns about a child being at risk from harm it is their responsibility to report this and
not presume somebody else will. They will then be contacted by Children’s Social Services or
the Police to confirm they will make checks about the concern that has been reported. Social
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Services and the Police have statutory powers to investigate suspected abuse or neglect. A
report must be made whenever a practitioner has concerns about a child who is experiencing
or is at risk of abuse, neglect or other kinds of harm.
Id en tifica t io n a nd rep o r t i n g o f ab u s e
or n eglect
It is vital that all practitioners are aware of the signs of harm, abuse or neglect so they can
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identify that a child may be at risk. There may be only one indication or risk factor that a child
is suffering from abuse or neglect. It is important for practitioners to share concerns as other
practitioners or professionals may also have concerns and a single incident may be part of a
pattern which, if reported, would ensure Children’s Social Services have as much information
as possible about an individual child in order to see the full picture and understand whether
there is a need to consider a child as at risk. Practitioners should discuss incidents, concerns
and information regarding the child with the Designated Safeguarding Person for their setting
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who will give advice and support to make a decision about whether the information should be
reported to Children’s Social Services, the Police or both.
Disclosur e a nd Reco rd i n g
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When a child tells an adult they trust about harm, abuse or neglect this is known as making a
‘disclosure’. Practitioners should have awareness of, and training in, child protection to ensure
they respond in an appropriate way when a child makes a disclosure of abuse or neglect about
themselves or another child. Practitioners need to be ready to listen to a child and hear what
they are trying to express and respond in an appropriate and safe way. It is very difficult for a
child to speak out about abuse and neglect. Abusers will tell the child they will get into trouble
if they disclose abuse, or they and their family will be harmed. Children often believe it is their
fault they have been abused and they can also try and protect the abuser from getting into

trouble, particularly if it is a parent as they may be scared of being taken away from their home
and family. Some children never disclose their abuse or wait until they are an adult, leading to
continued abuse and negative future outcomes.
What should you do if a child makes a disclosure they are being abused?
Practitioners should remain calm and show support to the child throughout the disclosure.
• Receive: Practitioners should listen to what the child is saying and not show shock or
disbelief. If a child thinks they are not believed, they will not disclose. Practitioners
should always accepts what is being said without judgement and take what the child
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says seriously.
• Reassure: Practitioners should reassure the child, but not make promises they can’t
keep, such as “everything will be all right now.” Tell the child they have done nothing
wrong and will be taken seriously. It is important not to promise confidentiality as
practitioners have a duty to report concerns. It should be explained to the child that
you will need to tell those who protect children. Acknowledge how difficult it must have
been to talk. It is very difficult for a child to come forward about abuse.
• React: Listen quietly, carefully and patiently. Do not assume or jump to conclusions. Do
not investigate or decide if the child is telling the truth. Allegations of child abuse can
lead to a criminal investigation; it is important not to compromise a police investigation.
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Ask the child to explain to you in their own words what happened, but don’t ask
leading questions. Communicate with the child in a way that is appropriate to their age,
understanding and preference which is vital for children with disabilities and whose
preferred language is not English. Refer directly to the Designated Safeguarding Person
in the setting. Do not discuss the case with anyone outside the child protection team.
• Record: Make brief notes and write them up in detail as soon as possible. Do not
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destroy your original notes in case they are required by Court. Record the date, time,
place, words used by the child and how the child appeared; be specific. Record the
actual words used, including any swear words or slang. Record facts, statements and
observable things, not interpretations.
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Children often disclose abuse through play or by practitioners identifying concerns through
their behaviour or changes in behaviour. In the past, there have been cases where children
have tried to let people know they were being abused but this was not identified by
professionals and the abuse continued. There can be barriers to a child making a disclosure,
such as communication difficulties due to the child’s first language not being English or
Welsh, which is why the use of translators and other communication aids is so important to
allow the child to communicate fully.
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Pr even tio n of a buse a n d n e g l e c t
It is important to try to prevent abuse from happening and all settings should have a child-
centred approach underpinned by a zero-tolerance policy towards abuse and neglect. The
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Welsh Government believes in early intervention to reduce the risk of children being abused
and offers support to organisations who work to prevent child abuse.
Some of the most common child abuse prevention interventions include training and education
for staff and volunteers, raising awareness, providing information and advice, advocacy,
policies and procedures, community links, legislation and regulation.
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Stop It Now! Wales have been working across Wales with local authorities, local safeguarding
boards, police forces, the Welsh Government, the voluntary sector, and with families and
communities. They work to make Wales’ children and young people safer by:
• providing information about preventative measures that adults can take to protect
children from sexual abuse
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• teaching sessions on keeping children safe from sexual abuse to parents and carers
• working on a group and individual level with parents and families to prevent child
sexual abuse
• delivering child protection and safeguarding training to multi-agency professionals
• keeping children safe project – public education sessions.

The Welsh Government has given Stop It Now! Wales funding to provide public education
sessions to ensure parents, carers, professionals and volunteers working with children and
families are given the training and skills to help them prevent the abuse of children. This
includes offering training opportunities for professionals and multi-agency training days all
over Wales for professionals to discuss prevention of child sexual abuse. They have received
three years of funding from the Welsh Government to provide early intervention for vulnerable
or at-risk families in Wales. This includes a programme of Parents’ Protect Plus sessions for
parents identified as ‘at risk’ or as needing early intervention regarding child sexual abuse or
exploitation and early interventions for vulnerable or ‘at risk’ families where sexual abuse has
taken place, allegations have been made or another increased risk has been identified.
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1. Explain what safeguarding is.
2. Outline the responsibilities of childcare workers in relation to safeguarding

children.
3. Discuss what actions a childcare practitioner should take if a child makes a

disclosure of abuse.
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Chapter 27: The responsibilities and accountabilities of
individuals providing care for children and young people
Content
(a) The role of current legislation and government initiatives to safeguard and
improve the care and support for children and young people in Wales
Amplification
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The responsibilities and accountabilities of individuals providing care for
children and young people:
∙ an obligation to promote the safety providing care for children

and welfare of children and young and young people: following
people government guidelines and
legislation; using appropriate
∙ recognising signs that a child has vetting procedures when recruiting
suffered or is at risk of harm new employees; provide training
to recognise the signs of abuse;
∙ referring concerns to Social Services reporting concerns; confidentiality
or the Police and reporting/breaching
∙
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the responsibilities of organisations
confidentiality requirements;
advocacy e.g., SNAP Cymru.
The Pra ct it io ner’s obli g ati o n to

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promote t he sa fet y a n d w e l f ar e o f
c hild ren a nd y o ung pe o p l e
All childcare practitioners have a duty of care to the children they work with to promote their
safety and welfare. There are many key principles that underpin safeguarding children and
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ensure their welfare, safety and well-being.
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Key principles that underpin safeguarding children in the setting:
• The welfare of the child is always paramount.
• A child’s needs should be put first.
• Safeguarding is everybody’s responsibility and all practitioners at a setting should act
in a timely and coordinated manner to respond to any concerns about the welfare of a
child.
• Children learn and develop best in an enabling environment.
• Children are unique, learn constantly and can become resilient, capable and confident.
• Children learn and develop in different ways and at different rates.
• Children learn strength and independence from positive relationships.
• All practitioners need to understand how to recognise the signs and symptoms that
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could indicate abuse and how to respond and make child protection referrals.
• The Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014 came into force in April 2016.
It provides a national framework for all agencies working with children to join in
partnership to safeguard children effectively in Wales.
• At a local level, regional safeguarding children boards co-ordinate and ensure the
effectiveness of work to protect and promote the welfare of children. They are
responsible for local child protection policy, procedure and guidance.
• All childcare providers need to implement robust safeguarding policies and procedures
for their setting, which outline how to respond to and record concerns about children.
• All providers should ensure their policies align with the safeguarding policies of their
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regional children’s safeguarding board. This will be inspected for compliance by Care
Inspectorate Wales (CIW).
• Settings need to ensure all staff and volunteers understand their policies and
procedures and can implement them.
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Rec ogn ising sig ns a n d s y m p to m s
of a b u se a nd referrin g c o n c e r n s to
Soc ia l S erv ices o r Po l i c e
All practitioners have a statutory duty of care to the children in their school or setting. This
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duty extends to ensuring safeguarding arrangements are in place to promote the health of
and protect the most vulnerable members of society. The Social Services and Well-being
(Wales) Act 2014 makes it clear that all professionals working with children have a duty to
safeguard the welfare of children and young people and to report to the local authority when
they have a reasonable cause to suspect that a child is at risk. Practitioners have a legal duty
to report concerns and take action to safeguard the welfare and safety of a child or young
person at risk. Any practitioner who detects possible signs of neglect or abuse in a child should
take immediate action. All practitioners have a duty to be alert to the potential indicators of
abuse and neglect, be familiar with local procedures for promoting and safeguarding the
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The responsibilities and accountabilities of individuals providing care for children and young people
welfare of children and young people at risk, and understand the principles of confidentiality
and information sharing.
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A child is abused or neglected when somebody inflicts harm or fails to act to prevent harm.
Abuse can be within the family or outside by familiar people or, less often, by a stranger. Signs
and symptoms are numerous but can be recognised through injury, the child’s behaviour or the
behaviour of parents or caregivers. Factors in parents or caregivers that indicate safeguarding
concerns are domestic abuse, substance and alcohol misuse, and mental health problems. Any
observations or comments that cause a suspicion of abuse or neglect should be acted upon by
following policies and procedures of the setting and the All-Wales Child Protection Procedures
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(2008) or by seeking advice and guidance. Where professionals ‘consider’ child abuse or neglect
they should record concerns and report to the designated safeguarding person at the setting
and seek advice. However, when they ‘suspect’ abuse or neglect they should refer the child
to Social Services and follow the process in the ‘All-Wales Child Protection Procedures’ (2008).
If a practitioner suspects abuse or neglect they should:

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Listen and Observe
Note factual signs and symptoms of potential or suspected abuse or neglect without alarming
the child or alerting a possible abuser, listen sympathetically to what a child at risk tells you,
but do not agree to not to tell anyone.

Imminent Danger
Where you are concerned that the child or young person at risk is in immediate danger, you
must contact the appropriate Local Authority Social Services Team straight away. If there are
severe injuries requiring further medical treatment a 999 call for Police and ambulance should
be made and then the social services contacted.
Share Concerns and, if appropriate, report

Alert and discuss your concerns with your manager, senior professional or designated staff
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member, depending on your practice procedure. If necessary, seek advice from the Local
Authority Safeguarding Team. Consider and agree whether it is appropriate to seek agreement
to the referral from the child or young person and/or parent/carer, or for them to be informed
of the referral. You need to consider whether doing so would place the child/young person at
increased risk of suffering significant harm. If after consideration and discussion you feel that
a safeguarding referral is appropriate, you should contact the Local Authority Social Services
Child team by phone to report your concerns. This should be followed up within 48 hours with
a written report.
CASE STUDY
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Jake is four years old and has recently started coming to pre-school with
unexplained bruises. When asked how he hurt himself by Osian, his key worker,
Jake would not answer and ran to hide in the playhouse, refusing to come out.
When Jake’s mum arrived to pick him up Osian explained he had noticed the
bruises and that Jake had been upset when asked about them. Jake’s mum said
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he is clumsy, and she did not know where the bruises had come from. Osian
asked if Jake had seen a Doctor and his mother said she didn’t think it was
necessary as all children get bumps and bruises when playing.
1. What concerns should Osian have about Jake’s welfare?

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2. What should Osian do now?
3. What signs of possible abuse does Jake have?
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Chapter 28: The responsibilities of organisations
providing care for children and young people
Follow ing Gov ernment g u i d e l i n e s

a nd legisla t ion in pra c ti c e
Protecting children from harm, neglect and abuse is the responsibility of every practitioner and
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every childcare setting. Every setting has safeguarding policies which explains how they seek
to ensure all children in their care are safe, happy and flourishing. Settings should promote
an atmosphere and ethos which enables children, staff and volunteers to express openly
any concerns they may have. All Child Protection policies and procedures conform to Wales’
Safeguarding Procedures 2020, Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014, The Children
Act 1989 and child safeguarding guidance - Working Together under the Children’s Act 2004.
Policies and Training - ALL practitioners must receive training on safeguarding children. The
training must be updated every three years. All practitioners must know who the setting’s
Designated Safeguarding Officer is as they are the contact point for dealing with concerns
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about the safety of a child. Organisations must ensure that staff are aware of the setting’s
Child Safeguarding Policy and the Prevention Duty included in the policy, which is the duty
to prevent violent extremism. Settings must ensure that parents are aware of the Child
Safeguarding Policy. It is good practice for parents to sign that they have read the policy.
Procedures - There is a duty to share information about concerns for a child’s safety with
Social Services, and possibly the Police or other relevant agencies. Advice can always be
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sought before making a report from the Social Services Child Safeguarding Team. A report
must be sent to Care Inspectorate Wales (CIW) about any complaint relating to the protection
of children. Settings should ensure that the contact numbers of the local Social Services
are visible and follow the code of practice in accordance with the Child Safeguarding Policy.
Where an allegation is made against a practitioner, they must be excluded from work while an
investigation is carried out by the Social Services in cooperation with the setting. All allegations
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of abuse within a setting must be reported to CIW immediately.

CASE STUDY
Sara is ten years old and lives with her mother in a small one-bedroom flat.
Sara’s mother has multiple sclerosis and has times when she struggles with
her mobility. Sara’s mother has recently explained to Delyth, Sara’s classroom
support assistant, that she has been struggling with her mental health due to
her illness and often feels too depressed to get out of bed. Sara has recently
become quiet and withdrawn and when Delyth praised her on her progress
with her reading Sara said her reading was rubbish because she was stupid and
useless at everything. Delyth has also noticed that Sara’s school uniform is far
too small and often looks dirty; some of the other children have been laughing
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and commenting about this.
1. Why should Delyth be concerned about Sara?
2. What actions should Delyth take?
3. How could Delyth support Sara?
Na tional M inimum S tan d ar d s ( N M S )

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Settings are regularly inspected by Care Inspectorate Walers (CIW) to ensure they abide by
the Government’s legislation on all aspects of their provision and care of children, including
safeguarding. If settings do not meet the NMS, they can be given a compliance order and if
they do not comply within the given time, CIW can close the setting down until they meet the
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required standards. The NMS on Child Protection is shown below.
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The responsibilities of organisations providing care for children and young people
The National Minimum Standards

Standard 20: Child protection
Outcome:
Children are protected from harm and abuse, and parents are confident that all possible
steps to protect children from abuse are taken. The registered person is responsible for
ensuring that:
• 20.1 the protection of the child is the first priority, and it is everybody’s responsibility.
• 20.2 there is a written child protection policy in place. The policy should demonstrate
its awareness of the Local Safeguarding Children Board (LSCB) and All-Wales Child
Protection Procedures. In producing this policy, the registered person must also be
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familiar with the Welsh Government’s statutory guidance on safeguarding children
under the Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014.
• 20.3 the child protection policy is shared with parents before a child is admitted and
clearly states staff responsibilities for reporting suspected child abuse or neglect. It
includes contact names and telephone numbers and the procedures to be followed in
the event of an allegation being made against a member of staff or volunteer and the
implications for disclosure of information.
• 20.4 a designated member of staff has attended a child protection training course and
is responsible for liaison with child protection agencies in any child protection situation.
• 20.5 any persons working and looking after children are able to put the policy into
practice and are aware of safeguarding and child protection issues, including physical
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abuse, neglect, emotional abuse and sexual abuse and are able to implement the
procedures.
• 20.6 staff are aware of their responsibility to report concerns according to LSCB
procedures without delay.
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(Source: National Minimum Standards for Regulated Childcare for children up to the age of 12 years)
Usin g ap pro pria t e v et ti n g

proced ur es when recr u i ti n g s taf f
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It is important for childcare settings to have a policy on the recruitment of new staff to ensure
the right person is employed and make the recruitment process fair. For a role working with
children and young people, both the role description and the person specification should
highlight the safeguarding responsibilities. When advertising the role, it should state the
job includes work with children, and should include a statement about your commitment to
keeping children safe. If the role requires a criminal records check, this should be included in
the advert. Applicants should complete a self-disclosure form before the interview regarding
any previous criminal records or disciplinary procedures which will only be opened as part of
the vetting process. Applicants need to provide the details of at least two referees and prove

their identity at any interview. During the interview candidates should show that they are able
to:
• establish and maintain professional boundaries and professional integrity
• establish and maintain relationships with children

• take action to protect a child.
References can help you make an informed decision about an applicant’s suitability to work
or volunteer with children. Referees should be asked about the candidate’s suitability and
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ability to work with children and young people, and their knowledge and understanding of
child protection and safeguarding. Information provided in the reference is consistent with the
information provided by the candidate in their application form and interview.
Criminal records checks enable settings to ensure that people aged 16 or over have nothing
on their record that makes them unsuitable to work or volunteer in roles that have contact
with children. The Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) helps settings in Wales make safer
recruitment decisions. There are different types of criminal record checks depending on the
role. In Wales, if someone is doing “regulated activity”, such as working unsupervised with
children, they need an “enhanced with barred list check”. This provides information about
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adult convictions and cautions that are not ‘protected’, information about whether the person
has been barred from working with children, and any other relevant information that the
police feel should be disclosed.
Confid e nt ia lit y a nd r e p o r ti n g /
breac hi ng confident i al i t y
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req uir ement s
Confidential information is ‘personal information of a private or sensitive nature’ that is not
already lawfully in the public domain and has been shared in a relationship where the person
giving the information would not expect it to be shared with others. Practitioners and settings
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have a ‘confidential relationship’ with children and families. Information shared in an Early
Years setting is confidential to the setting and should only be shared with those working
directly with the child on a need-to-know basis. A breach of confidentiality is when confidential
information is shared without the permission of the person or family it relates to, putting them
in danger or causing them embarrassment or pain. It is not a breach of confidentiality if the
information was provided on the understanding it would be shared. Confidential information
may only be shared without authorisation from the person who provided it:
• where there is evidence that a child is suffering, or is at risk of suffering, significant harm
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The responsibilities of organisations providing care for children and young people
• where there is reasonable cause to believe that a child may be suffering, or at risk of
suffering, significant harm
• to prevent significant harm arising to children and young people or serious harm to
adults, including the prevention, detection and prosecution of serious crime.
A dvoc a cy
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The Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014 defines advocacy services as “services
which provide assistance (by way of representation or otherwise) to persons for purposes
relating to their care and support”. The act refers to services being provided by independent
professional advocates in relation to adults’ and children’s care and support.
Independent advocates provide support to children and young people who are vulnerable
and need additional support to safeguard themselves, and have a stronger voice to make
their views, wishes and feelings known. The advocate ensures children have a voice in all
decisions made about them and are properly informed and know their rights. Organisations
such as SNAP Cymru provide support for children to ensure they achieve the seven core aims
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for children and young people in Wales.
Seven Core Aims for Children and Young People in Wales
The Welsh Government has adopted the UNCRC as the basis of all their work for children and
young people. This is expressed in seven core aims that all children and young people in Wales:
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1. have a flying start in life 5. are listened to, treated with respect,
and have their race and cultural
2. have a comprehensive range of identity recognised
education and learning opportunities
6. have a safe home and a community
3. enjoy the best possible health and which supports physical and
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are free from abuse, victimisation emotional well-being

and exploitation
7. are not disadvantaged by poverty.
4. have access to play, leisure, sporting
and cultural activities

1. Describe circumstances in which it may be necessary to breach

confidentiality.
2. Explain why vetting procedures are important aspects of recruiting staff in a

childcare setting.
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A
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Chapter 29: the aims of legislation and government initiatives
to improve care and support to achieve personal outcomes
Content
(a) The role of current legislation and government initiatives to safeguard
and improve the care and support for children and young people in Wales
(continued)
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Amplification
The aims of legislation and government initiatives to improve care and support
for children and young people to achieve personal outcomes through outcome
focused care, including:
∙ Social Services and Well-being ∙ Building a Brighter Future: Early

(Wales) Act, 2014 Years and Childcare Plan
∙ All-Wales Safeguarding Procedures ∙ Flying Start

(2019)
∙ Early Years 10-year strategy
∙
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Welsh Government Safeguarding
Guidance ∙ Measuring well-being
∙ The Children Act, 2004 ∙ Five to Thrive
∙ Healthy Child Wales Programme ∙ Play Policy

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∙ Working together to safeguard ∙ Children’s Commissioner for Wales
people (Vol 1 and Vol 5) Handling
Individual Cases to Protect Children ∙ Disclosure and Barring Service
at Risk (DBS)
∙ Joint Assessment Framework for

Families (JAFF)
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The Soc ia l S erv ices a n d W e l l - b e i n g
(Wa les) Act , 2 0 1 4
The biggest recent changes in safeguarding legislation are due to the Social Services and Well-
being (Wales) Act 2014 which came into effect in April 2016. This major legislative change has had
a significant impact on the safeguarding of children and young people. The Social Services and
Well-being (Wales) Act 2014 (the Act) has 11 parts. Part 7 of the Act relates to safeguarding. The
Act provides Wales with its own framework for social services by giving individuals a stronger
voice and more control over the care and support they receive, encouraging a renewed focus
on prevention and early intervention and strengthening powers for safeguarding children and
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vulnerable adults.
The Act aims to improve care and support for children and young people to achieve personal
outcomes through outcome-focused care using six safeguarding principles that must be
adhered to by all practitioners and professionals working with children and young people.
Safeguarding is also embedded in the five main principles of the Act:
• Voice and control of the individual
• Prevention and early intervention to prevent escalation of issues
•
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Well-being of the individual, to be promoted by all persons delivering functions
under the Act
• Co-production between individual and agencies, across agencies and sectors, co-
producing services and solutions
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• Multi-agency in this case, safeguarding is everybody’s business
• Principles of the Act apply across all parts, including part 7 – safeguarding
The act has improved outcome-focused care by ensuring that Local Authorities, under the
code of practice, have a duty to establish an information, advice and assistance service (IAA) to:
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• proactively promote early intervention and prevention
• emphasise advocacy and co-production
• provide the public with information and advice.
Advice means working co-productively with a person to explore options, ensure they
understand what is available to them, and actively involve them in making decisions about
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the aims of legislation and government initiatives to improve care and support to achieve personal outcomes
what matters to them and the personal outcomes they wish to achieve. Assistance involves
taking action with the person to access care and support.
The Act has introduced two key values in safeguarding practice:
1. Safeguarding is everybody’s responsibility.
2. A child-centred approach.
Each practitioner and organisation must:
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• contribute to safeguarding and promoting the well-being of the child
• share information following data protection guidelines
• work with practitioners within your team and other agencies to better understand
the child, their circumstances and their needs
• develop co-productive working relationships with the child at risk, their family and
their carers to establish what matters to them and to ensure they feel respected and
informed.
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There are six principles of safeguarding in the Act that support children to
achieve personal outcomes through outcome-focused care:
• Principle 1 - Put the wishes, needs and well-being of the child first, so they receive the
care and support they need before a problem escalates.
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• Principle 2 - All practitioners who come into contact with children are alert to their
needs, including any potential or suspected abuse or risk of abuse or harm, and
understand what action they should take.
• Principle 3 - All practitioners share appropriate information and have direct access to
advice to discuss any concerns about a child.
• Principle 4 - All practitioners are able to use their professional judgment to put the
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child’s needs and personal outcomes at the centre of the system so that the right
solution can be found for them.
• Principle 5 - All practitioners working with a child operate in a multi-agency and
co-operative way to safeguard and promote a child’s well-being, record decisions
appropriately and regularly review progress against the outcomes set out in care and
support plans.
• Principle 6 - All practitioners who come into contact with children are able to access
professional strategic leadership which supports the practitioner to achieve desired
outcomes for the child.

The Act states to ensure children’s personal outcomes and promote outcome-focused care.
Practitioners must:
• understand their safeguarding role and responsibilities
• follow their setting's safeguarding procedures and protocols

• understand their duty to report/act
• be alert to indicators of abuse and neglect to the child
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• have received training appropriate to their role and responsibilities
• understand the safeguarding process
• contribute as necessary at all stages of the safeguarding process.
The Act emphasises that the practitioner has two tasks:
1. to prevent situations where a child may experience abuse, neglect and harm
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2. to identify emerging concerns about abuse, neglect and harm to the child.
It is important when providing outcome-focused care for children that when developing
interventions, practitioners take a whole-family approach to improving outcomes and adapt to
individual family circumstances, including empowering families to take control of their lives,
maintaining focus on the needs of the child, and putting support in place as soon as they
identify any needs in the family.
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The Child ren Act , 2 0 0 4
In Wales, the Children Act 1989 outlines when to start care proceedings and states the duty
of Local Authorities to safeguard and promote children’s welfare. The Children Act 1989
applies to England and Wales. In April 2016, Part 3 of the Act relating to support for children
and families by Local Authorities was replaced by Part 6 of the Social Services and Well-being
(Wales) Act 2014.
The Children Act 2004 encourages partnerships between agencies and more accountability.
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Some sections of this were replaced by the Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014
and the Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015, including establishing local
safeguarding children boards in Wales.
A l l-W a les sa feg ua rding p r o c e d u r e s ,

s afegu a rding g uida nce an d w o r k i n g
together t o sa feg ua rd i n g p e o p l e
(Welsh Go v ernment , 2 019)
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Wales Safeguarding Procedures and Practice Guides (Wales Safeguarding Procedures Project
Board, 2019) provides a common set of child and adult protection procedures and practice
guides for every safeguarding board in Wales. The procedures relating to children and young
people at risk of harm are divided into six sections, covering:
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• Safeguarding principles and effective practice (Section 1)
• The duty to report a child at risk of abuse, neglect and/or harm (Section 2)
• Responding to a report of a child at risk of harm, abuse and/or neglect (Section 3, Part 1)
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• Decision-making and initial child protection conferences (Section 3, Part 2)
• Planning and intervention for children on the child protection register (Section 4)
• Safeguarding allegations/concerns about practitioners and those in positions of trust

(Section 5).
The procedures contain ‘pointers for practice’ on how to complete safeguarding tasks. They
help practitioners and their managers apply the legal requirements of the Social Services and

Well-being (Wales) Act 2014. Working Together to Safeguard People (2019) is the statutory
guidance in relation to Part 7 of the Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act 2014. The
guidance covers the protection of adults and children. The volumes that cover safeguarding
children are:
Volume 1: Introduction and Overview

Volume 2: Child Practice Reviews

Volume 5: Handling individual cases to protect children at risk
Wales Safeguarding Procedures and Practice Guides (Wales Safeguarding Procedures Project
Board, 2019)
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This provides a common set of child and adult protection procedures and practice guides for
every safeguarding board in Wales. The All-Wales Practice Guides on safeguarding children,
which forms Section 6 of the procedures, provides guidance on issues that can arise when
practitioners work with children and young people:
• child criminal exploitation (CCE) • harmful sexual behaviour
• abuse related to cultural or religious • home education

beliefs
• children who go missing from home
•
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child trafficking or care
• domestic abuse • child sexual exploitation (CSE)
• neglect (Wales Safeguarding Procedures Project

Board, 2020).
• online abuse
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Other recent legislative and strategy changes impacting on safeguarding are:
• Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015
• Violence Against Women, Domestic Abuse and Sexual Violence (Wales) Act 2015
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• Safeguarding Children and Young People from Sexual Exploitation: Supplementary

Guidance to Safeguarding Children: Working Together Under The Children Act 2004
• Prevent Duty Guidance, 2015
• Mandatory Reporting of FGM Health and Care Standards (Wales) April 2015
• Talk to Me 2: Suicide and self-harm prevention strategy for Wales 2015-2020
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In safeguarding children and young people suicide and self-harm, child sexual exploitation,
female genital mutilation (FGM), domestic abuse and internet and technology-based abuse
have become important issues. The local Safeguarding Children Boards have become
six Regional Safeguarding Children Boards (RSCBs) across Wales. The importance given
to safeguarding and identification of cases of child abuse has increased in the media and
within public organisations, such as Health, Education and the Police. There is now a National
Safeguarding Board, set up in April 2016, that looks at safeguarding across Wales.
Healthy Child Wa les Pr o g r am m e
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The Healthy Child Wales Programme is a public health programme of early intervention and
prevention that identifies families in need of additional support and children who are at risk of
poor outcomes. It offers every family a programme of screening tests, immunisations, reviews
of child developmental and information which supports both parenting and healthy choices.
It supports children and families to ensure children achieve personal outcomes through
outcome-focused care and services which supports strong parent–child attachment and
positive parenting, leading to better social and emotional well-being among children; care that
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helps to keep children healthy and safe; healthy eating and increased activity, leading to a
reduction in obesity; prevention of communicable diseases; readiness for school and
improved learning; early recognition of growth disorders, developmental delay, abnormalities
and ill health, and concerns about safety and better short- and long-term outcomes for children
who are at risk of social exclusion. Pregnancy and the first years of life are important for future
health and well-being and outcomes for both children and adults are strongly influenced by
factors during pregnancy and the first years of life, particularly for children who are born into
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disadvantaged circumstances.
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Bu ild in g a B rig ht er F u tu r e
Building a Brighter Future is the Welsh Government’s Early Years and Childcare Plan. The Plan
brings together the different programmes and policies that influence the Early Years sector
and explains the Government’s plans and actions for the sector over the next ten years.
The key themes of the plan are:
• children’s health and well-being
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• supporting families and parents
• high-quality early education and childcare
• effective primary education
• raising standards.
The Plan is jointly sponsored by the Minister for Education and Skills and the Welsh Government
who recognise that delivering the ambitions in the Plan will require the whole sector to work
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together more closely to improve the life chances and outcomes of all children in Wales.
F am ilies F irst a nd J oi n t A s s e s s m e n t
F r a mework fo r F a mili e s ( JA F F )
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Families First is a programme that promotes prevention and early intervention for families,
particularly those living in poverty by Local Authorities in Wales. Families First is a key response
to the Welsh Government’s Child Poverty Strategy. The strategy has three objectives in relation
to tackling child poverty, and Families First is a way to help achieve these objectives: reducing
the numbers of families living in workless households; improving the skills of parents/carers
and young people living in low income households, so they can secure well-paid employment;
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reducing inequalities that exist in health, education and economic outcomes for children and
families by improving the outcomes of the poorest to achieve better outcomes for children.
The Government aims to reduce the numbers of families developing more complex needs
and requiring more intensive and costly interventions. The Joint Assessment Framework for
Families is a way for Local Authorities to assess which families qualify for Families First support.
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There are five outcomes the Welsh Government have identified for Local
Authorities to achieve through the Families First programme:
• Low income and disadvantaged families have the support they need to progress
towards, and to secure, employment and progression within employment.
• Children from low income/workless households reach health, social and cognitive
development milestones.
• Children, young people and families are healthy and have good levels of well-being.
• The impact of poverty on aspiration and educational attainment is reduced and
children from low income/workless households reach their full potential.
• Disadvantaged young people from low-income households have the support they need
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to stay on in education or training or to secure employment.
C hild r en ’s C ommissio n e r f o r W al e s
The Care Standards Act 2000 established the Children’s Commissioner for Wales which is an
independent children’s human rights institution. The aim of the Commissioner is to safeguard
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and promote the rights and welfare of children. The work of the Commissioner is underpinned
by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) – an international charter
which sets out the minimum standards for children and young people wherever they live.
The UNCRC underpins all of the Commissioner’s work. The Commissioner is responsible for
upholding children’s rights and protecting their welfare, and supports children and young
people to find out about their rights under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UNCRC). The commissioner’s role is to listen to children and young people to find out
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what’s important to them, advise them if they think they’ve been treated unfairly, influences
government and other organisations who say they’re going to make a difference to children’s
lives, making sure they keep their promises to children and young people and speaks up for
children and young people in Wales on important issues.
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The initiatives and organisations that improve care and support for children and
young people to achieve personal outcomes through outcome-focused care
Flying start Flying Start is the Welsh Government’s Early Years programme for
families with children under 4 years of age who live in some of the most
disadvantaged areas of Wales. Flying Start was introduced to improve the

life chances of children by reducing the impact that poverty would have on
their outcomes, particularly health and educational outcomes.
The programme consists of four entitlements for families in these areas
which are: free quality, part-time childcare for 2–3-year-olds; an intensive
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health visiting service; access to parenting support; and support for
speech, language and communication development.
Early Years Early years 10-year strategy is a document that sets out how the Welsh
10-year government intend to develop a sector which is highly regarded, well-led,
strategy able to recruit high-quality applicants and to retain a skilled workforce
which is actively pursuing continuous professional learning. They want
childcare and play to be a career of choice, and for new recruits to feel
informed about the range of opportunities in the sector and in the wider
children’s workforce. They want to ensure training and qualifications
A are accessible and offer qualifications to train future practitioners to
understand how children learn and develop, enabling them to structure
activities, time and environments to support all children to develop to their
full potential. The Government wants to support the existing workforce
to gain the skills they need to progress in their careers and access more
employment opportunities.
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Measuring The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 aims to improve
well-being the social, economic and cultural well-being of Wales. The Act created a
legal duty on Welsh ministers to set national indicators for measuring
progress towards the achievement of the well-being goals. Two health
and well-being measures for children for the National Indicators are
the percentage of children who have fewer than two healthy lifestyle
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behaviours (not smoking, eat fruit or vegetables daily, never/rarely drink

and meet the physical activity guidelines) and the mean mental well-being
score for children taken from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.
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Five to Thrive The Five to Thrive model is a way of understanding how connected
relationships are important for well-being and helps build resilient
communities. The Five to Thrive building blocks are a sequence of
relational activities that build healthy brains in young children and
maintain healthy brain function throughout life. Central to the Five to
Thrive approach is the set of five key activities: respond, engage, relax,
play, talk. They are drawn from research into attachment and attunement
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that forge bonds between young children and their carers. These allow
practitioners to observe and reinforce positive interaction between adults
and children. The Five to Thrive approach is helping local authorities,
health trusts, schools and Early Years settings, Police forces and family
support teams to deliver a consistent, effective message in working with
colleagues, parents, carers and children themselves.
Play Policy All children have the right to play as stated in the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Welsh Government upholds
children’s right to play in its Play Policy. The Play Policy provides
A definitions and states the need for the provision of play environments
that compensate for the loss of spaces and opportunities to play that
children and young people experience in today’s world. The Children’s
Commissioner’s Office in Wales has stated that time and space to play
is a matter of entitlement. The organisation Play Wales has engaged
with Welsh Government to develop its Play Policy, strategy, legislation,
regulations and guidance.
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Play is important in children’s lives. Play Wales is an advocate for play
and contributes to a wide range of policy debates and decisions in health
and well-being, education, workforce development, travel and transport,
and planning. Rights Here, Right Now: Are children’s rights a reality in
Wales? is a Wales UNCRC Monitoring Group interim perspective on the
extent to which law, policy and practice in Wales has progressed since
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the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child released its UK Concluding

Observations 2008 to the UK Government.

Disclosure Criminal records checks enable settings to ensure that people aged 16 or
Barring over have nothing on their record that makes them unsuitable to work
Service or volunteer in roles that have contact with children. The Disclosure and
(DBS) Barring Service (DBS) helps settings in Wales make safer recruitment
decisions. There are different types of criminal record checks depending
on the role. In Wales, if someone is doing “regulated activity”, such as
working unsupervised with children, they need an “enhanced with barred
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list check”. This provides information about adult convictions and cautions
that are not ‘protected’, such as information about whether the person
has been barred from working with children and any other relevant
information that the police feel should be disclosed.
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Suggested
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Responses
A
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Section ??: Chapter 1 and 2
Ch a p ter ? ?:
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Give a definition of a gene and a chromosome.
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A Gene is a part of the DNA in a cell that controls the physical development, behaviour, etc. of
an individual plant or animal and is passed on from its parents.
Chromosomes are any of the rod-like structures found in all living cells, containing the chemical
patterns that control what an animal or plant is like.
2. Discuss the importance of nutrition in the development of an infant before and after
birth.
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Nutrition is vitally important for all aspects of a child’s development. Before a child is born, the
mother’s health and diet directly influence the development of her child in the womb. From
conception to their early years, a child’s brain can be affected greatly by nutrition as the brain
matures and undergoes significant structural development. Nutrition is the foundation for
good health and development in the early years of a child’s life. Poor nutrition can cause delays
in both cognitive and physical development that can last into later childhood or adulthood
and, in extreme cases, can cause serious illness or death. It is important that all children
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consume the correct amount of macronutrients, including protein, fat and carbohydrates, and
micronutrients, such as vitamin A, iron and zinc. Reversing the effects in young children is
easier than in older children as after the age of two deficiencies become more difficult to
address.
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Activity type:
See page XX
1. State what measurements are taken of babies to monitor growth, and discuss their
purpose.
The child’s weight will be measured to ensure they are not gaining or losing too much weight,
which could indicate feeding difficulties that would impact on the child’s nutrition and growth.
The child’s length/height will be measured to diagnose any problems with their growth. The
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Suggested responses | Unit 1
child’s head circumference will be measured to ensure the brain is developing correctly as a
child’s brain does 80% of it’s growing in the first two years of life. These measurements allow
doctors to assess brain growth as the skull bones fuse. At this stage, it is normal for the head
to be larger in comparison to height and weight.
2. Explain what is meant by a growth percentile
Percentiles are the measurements used by healthcare professionals to measure the growth
of a child compared to other children of the same age; these are drawn on graphs as lines
drawn in a curved pattern. The healthcare professional will plot the child’s height and weight
on a chart to assess which percentile line the measurements are. The higher the percentile
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where the child’s measurements land, the bigger the child is compared with other children of
the same age and gender.
Case study:
See page XX
Lowri has one child, Lois, aged 4 years and has just found that she is 6 weeks pregnant. Lois
goes to a childminder while her mother works part-time as a cleaner. Lois is due to start
reception class at school in September. Lowri finds it hard to afford healthy nutritious foods
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on her income and often has to buy cheaper less healthy options and often does not have
enough money to buy fresh fruit and vegetables, finds it difficult to buy suitable foods on
her wage, and sometimes uses food banks. Lowri smokes and says this is because she is
stressed and anxious because she struggles to pay her bills, but does not smoke in the house.
She drinks alcohol regularly but has reduced her intake since becoming pregnant. Lois was 5
weeks premature and is small for her age.
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1. Explain two ways that Lowri’s lifestyle could affect the development of her unborn child.
Because Lowri cannot afford nutritious and suitable foods, this could impact on her child’s
development in the womb. Poor nutrition can cause delays in both cognitive and physical
development that can last into later life. Poor nutrition can have a negative impact on brain
development. Lowri also smokes which can lead to a low birth weight. Shortage of oxygen can
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affect a baby’s growth and development. Smoking doubles the risk of premature delivery, still
birth, and low weight birth.
2. Discuss how Lowri would discover that Lois is small for her age.
Lowri would discover Lois is small for her age as the Health Visitor or doctor would measure
and monitor Lois’ height and weight at regular intervals and plot the measurements on a
percentile chart, which will compare her height and weight with other children of the same
age.

3. Identify 3 reasons why Lois might be small for her age
• Because she is not getting enough nutritious and suitable foods as her mother
cannot afford them.
• Her mother smokes which could have affected her growth in the womb due to
Definitions and concepts of health and well-being
her getting less oxygen.
• She was born prematurely which can result in children being small for their age
and could have been due to her mother’s smoking.
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Activity:
See page XX
Complete the table by deciding whose role it is to monitor the child during certain times in
their development and how this benefits the child.
Stage of Professional
development or monitoring How this benefits the child
xample:
E
A
The child and
Midwife
G.P.
Measurements from ultrasound scan to
check development.
mother during Hospital Blood tests and other screening tests to
all stages of Radiographer check for abnormalities in the baby.
pregnancy and Mother’s blood pressure and weight to make
immediately after sure she is healthy.
birth
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The child from G.P Monitoring of all aspects of development
birth to three years Health Visitor will lead to early identification of any
old. developmental delay and early intervention
to provide services to support the child’s
development where needed.
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A 3-year-old G.P Early identification and intervention will help

child with a Health Visitor the child’s language development by referral
developmental Speech Therapist to a speech therapist who will work with the
delay in language. Early Years Practitioner child’s teachers/practitioners to support and
promote language.
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Stage of Professional
development or monitoring How this benefits the child
A child who has Flying Start is a Multi-agency working will ensure the child
been identified as Welsh Government does not suffer health inequalities and
being born into funded programme support both parent and child.
poverty. in targeted areas
supporting all families,
to give 0-3 year olds
a Flying Start in life.
The scheme provides
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support services for
children aged 0-3
years old and their
families, promoting
language, cognitive,
social and emotional
skills, physical
development and the
early identification of
high needs.
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A child starting Teachers Baseline assessment is completed through
school/nursery at 3 Early years observation of each child on entry into
years old practitioners the Foundation Phase to identify any
Keyworkers developmental delay or problems.
Health Visitor/GP Continued monitoring of health, growth
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and development through a Health Visitor
and GP to identify health or developmental
problems.
An 8-year-old child Teachers The child will have their developmental

at primary school GP progress monitored by both teachers
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Multi -disciplinary and health professionals to identify

teams developmental delays and ensure they are
progressing in all developmental areas and
provide any support needed. Children who
need additional support will be referred
for help from other professionals e.g.,
speech therapist, social worker, counsellor,
educational psychologist.

Activity Type:
See page XX
1. Explain the key aspects of the Foundation Phase.
The Foundation Phase is the statutory curriculum for all 3 to 7 year olds in Wales. It encourages
children to use their imaginations and to be creative, making learning fun and more effective.
The Foundation Phase has seven Areas of Learning which are delivered through practical
activities and active learning experiences both indoors and outdoors. The areas of learning are
Personal and Social Development, Well-being and Cultural Diversity; Language, Literacy and
Communication skills; Mathematical Development; Welsh Language Development; Knowledge
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and Understanding of the Worldl; Physical Development; Creative Development.
2. Describe how children’s development is assessed when they enter the Foundation
Phase.
As a key part of the Welsh Government’s Early Years Development and Assessment Framework
(EYDAF), the Foundation Phase Profile supports assessment of children’s learning and
development. It provides a nationally consistent baseline assessment which aligns with end
of phase outcomes. Through the use of observations and formative assessments, the profile
supports practitioners to provide a developmentally appropriate holistic curriculum for all
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children. The profile has been designed to line up with assessments carried out by health
professionals and also supports early identification of possible developmental delay, special
educational needs (SEN), or additional learning needs (ALN); this will ensure support is given
to children who need it.
3. Discuss how the Healthy Child Wales Programme (HCWP) supports and monitors
children’s development to ensure all children achieve positive outcomes.
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The Healthy Child Wales Programme ensures that all children are monitored during their early
years in all aspects of their development including their health, education and emotional and
social well-being. This Programme links with the Social Services and Well-being (Wales) Act
2014 by adhering to the key principles of Prevention and Early Intervention and Multi-Agency
Working. It is also linked to the Concept of Prudent Healthcare in seeking to prevent children’s
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developmental problems, and the Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 by
ensuring the provision of services which provide positive outcomes and put in place strategies
for the future to enable all children in Wales to achieve positive outcomes.
4. Explain what fine and gross motor skills are, and how they can be developed
Physical development is the development of all the important skills we use to control our
bodies from the development of the large muscles needed to crawl, walk, run, skip and hop
to the small muscles we use for tasks such as eating and writing and hand-eye coordination.
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These are often termed as gross and fine motor skills. Fine motor skills need more precision
and control in the small muscles of our hands, for example, holding a paintbrush. Gross motor
skills use the large muscles of the body to control larger movements, such as running or
jumping. Gross motor skills develop through practice and repetition, and therefore children
need to be exposed to diverse opportunities to move freely and experiment with different
resources to help their skills develop. Fine motor skills can be developed through mark making,
threading, cutting out with scissors, painting.
5. Discuss the importance of developing balance and coordination for children’s

development.
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Balance and coordination develop as the child grows and matures and is needed for taking
part in sports and all physical activities. It is important for children to be able to exercise;
participating in sport improves children’s social development. Balance and coordination also
protects children from injury as they will be less likely to fall and will have the correct postural
response if they do fall, such as reaching out their hands to protect themselves. Balance and
coordination are also needed for tasks involving fine motor skills, such as sitting at a desk
and writing, or painting at an easel. Gross and fine motor skills, balance and coordination
all develop as the child grows and matures and there are expected milestones in physical
development that the child is expected to reach by a certain age.
Case study:
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Sam is 18 months old and has just had his 18 month check with the Health Visitor. The
Health Visitor has told Sam’s mother he has not yet met all his expected milestones for his
age and suggested Sam’s mother could do some activities with Sam to promote his physical
development.
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1. Identify five milestones of physical development Sam might have been expected to
reach by 18 months.
• Can walk unaided

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• Can squat to pick up an object from floor, and use a delicate pincer grip for very
small objects
• Can roll and throw a ball
• Can hold a crayon or pencil in a tripod grasp to make marks and scribbles
• Shows a preference for his left or right hand

2. Discuss how the Health Visitor could have explained what milestones are to Sam’s
mother and reassured her about why Sam has not yet fully achieved these.
Milestones are a stage in the developmental process that are based on research done by
experts in child development on what a child can do by a certain age. These milestones are
based on the age at which most children can do a certain thing, such as walking by 18 months.
The Health Visitor would explain to Sam’s mother that children reach milestones at different
ages and many children will walk much earlier than this. What is important is if the child has
the ability to do this by the ‘milestone age.’ Whether a child learns to do things quickly or
more slowly is dependent on many different factors, but even though children will develop at
different rates they will follow the same sequence or pattern. Children’s development is split
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into different areas to allow for easier assessment and identification of any potential delays
or problems in a child’s development. The milestones are grouped into stages according to
the age when the child could be expected to achieve that milestone. There could be many
reasons why Sam has not fully achieved his milestones, but he will now be supported through
monitoring and activities to support this area of his development.
3. Suggest an activity that Sam’s mother could do with Sam to support the development of
gross motor skills.
Swinging on a swing set can help children develop balance and learn co-ordination moving
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their legs back and forward. Playing with balls and balloons develops gross motor skills as they
have to run, jump, zigzag, and change their balance and weight, as well as throwing and trying
to catch or kick.
4. Suggest an activity that Sam’s mother could do with Sam to support the development of
fine motor skills.
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Play-dough and putty can help improve a child’s fine motor skills by learning to squeeze, stretch,
pinch and roll “snakes with dough”. Children can also use scissors or cutters to improve hand-
eye coordination skills and use a pincer grasp when picking up tools.
Different types of painting can help strengthen hand-eye coordination and manual dexterity.
Painting with a brush helps children learn to hold a brush and gain greater control.
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Activity type:
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Practitioners are interested in children’s holistic development, which includes their physical,
cognitive and language development.
1. Describe, with reference to gross motor skills and fine motor skills, the key milestones
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of physical development for a child aged between 0 and 2
The key milestones of development of gross motor skills for 0-2 year-olds would include head
control, sitting up, crawling, standing, walking, running, hopping, jumping, riding a tricycle,
catching/kicking a ball.
The key milestones of development of fine motor skills for 0-2 year-olds would include palmar
grasp, fingers and thumb grasp, finger and thumb pincer grasp, transferring objects from one
hand to the other, passing an object from one hand to another, feeding self with a spoon,
building a tower, turning pages of cardboard books, pointing at objects with index finger.
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C ha p ter ??:
Case study:
Jan is five years old and has just started at the reception class of his local primary school. Jan’s
parents are Polish and he speaks only polish at home but his Dad has been teaching him a few
words of English and he can understand more than he can speak. The teacher has been trying
to involve Jan in the class activities but is worried he is feeling isolated as he rarely speaks
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and has not made any friends. The teacher decides to display a selection of dolls in national
costume to encourage the children to discuss different nationalities and cultures. Jan becomes
very excited when he sees a doll wearing the Polish national costume, pointing and speaking
to the teacher. The classroom assistant responds to Jan in Polish and he becomes even more
delighted laughing and chattering in both English and Polish. Jan has since become much more
confident at school and has made friends, he has learned more English and Welsh and often
talks in all three languages.
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1. Explain why Jan was quiet when he first started school.
Jan was quiet because he is not very familiar with the language of the setting as it is different
from his home language, and he feels isolated because he has only a limited understanding of
English and has not yet learned Welsh. In the setting he cannot fully communicate and does
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not feel part of the group as his own culture and language are different to the other children.
2. Explain why the Polish doll encouraged Jan to talk and join in activities.
The Polish doll allows Jan to see his own cultural background being celebrated and valued
within the setting which makes him feel more involved and part of the community in the school.
He can also see that the setting values diversity and celebrates different cultures, which helps
him to understand that despite his different language and culture he is valued and respected
in the class. The familiarity of the doll’s costume helps him feel at home within the class.

3. Discuss the effect on Jan of the classroom assistant speaking Polish.
This will allow Jan to feel more at home within the setting and that his language is important
and valued, he will feel less isolated and more willing to communicate and interact with others.
4. Suggest three other ways to help Jan feel more confident to use language in class.
• Teach the other children some simple words in Polish to help Jan feel a sense of
belonging and that others are trying to communicate with him in his own language.
• Encourage staff to learn key words in Polish and help Jan to feel part of the class by
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using these which will promote his language development.
• Celebrate Polish culture by introducing the other children to Polish songs, stories,
foods.
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1. Describe the expected emotional and social pattern of development for an Eight-year-
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old child.
8-year-old children enjoy school and value relationships with a few close friends and
classmates, especially with peers of the same gender. Children develop more self-confidence
and may express their opinions about people and things and share their thoughts on news
items and events. Eight-year-old children are still developing an understanding of right and
wrong and respecting others. Children begin to understand how someone else feels in a given
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situation and will be more capable of empathy and start to show social skills such as being
generous, supportive, and kind. An 8-year-old can show complex emotions and interactions,
they can hide their true thoughts or emotions to spare someone’s feelings, and are developing
a more sophisticated sense of themselves in the world. Their interests, talents, friends, and
relationships with family members help them develop a clear self-identity. They have periods
of both self-confidence and self-doubt. They become more able to cope with frustration,
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failure, and disappointment.
2. Discuss the importance of social interactions with peers and adults for a three-year old
child who attends nursery.
It is important for children to socialise with their peers and experience environments that
promote and support their development, such as parent and baby/toddler groups, nursery,
pre-schools and schools. Socialising with other children their own age helps children learn
the vital skills they will need in later life. Interacting with others at nursery gives children the
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chance to establish boundaries, note how others react to their actions and find ways to resolve
conflicts amicably; all valuable skills that they will take into adulthood.
Case study:
See page XX
Lily is two years old and has recently started attending a crèche for three days a week. This
is the first time that Lily has been separated from her mother for extended periods of time.
Lily is finding the change very stressful and this is affecting her behaviour. To help young
children settle into the crèche, and cope with change, staff implement a robust routine and
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key person system.
1. Describe the purpose of the key person approach and analyse the potential impact of
this approach on Lily.
The key person approach helps Lily by allowing her to form an attachment with a key person
in the setting, who will build a positive relationship with Lily and her caregivers, and reduce
her separation anxiety. The keyworker will work with and observe children during their play,
intervening only when necessary to find out how they play and learn. They will look, listen and
take note of their interests and use all this information to plan activities and experiences that
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will help the children develop and reach their maximum potential. They will also communicate
effectively with parents and carers through conversations and diaries each time the child
attends.
2. Explain how attachment theory supports the use of key workers in Early Years settings.
Children can form an attachment at the setting to one key person who understands their needs
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and preferences and builds a positive relationship with the child that lessens their anxiety at
being separated from their caregivers. This allows them to feel secure and valued within the
setting and feel confident there is someone who will care for and support them and meet their
needs. Children learn by observing and being with others. The key person is an important role
model for the child who they can relate to and rely on. Children can concentrate and learn
more effectively if they’re not feeling stress or anxious, so having a key person who is attentive
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and knows the child’s needs will support children in their development. The key person works
alongside parents and carers to ensure that there is continuity of care for the child thus
supporting the child’s emotional well-being. The key person observes the child to identify how
they learn through play, and plans activities to promote their development, knows what their
interests are, and identifies any concerns over their development or need for extra support.

Activity type:
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1. Explain the possible consequences for children of separation from their primary carer.
Separation from the caregiver to whom they are attached has a profound impact on the child;
this can sometimes be a positive impact as the child can be removed from the parent for their
own immediate safety and may have their needs better met by other caregivers where the
child is being neglected or abused. Often, removing the child can allow the parent to change
their life and eventually the child can be returned. In other cases, the child might need to be
fostered or adopted in order for them to live a safe and happy life. There can also be a negative
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impact on the child as removing a child from their home can affect or delay their development,
and the more traumatic the separation from the parent is, the more the likelihood of negative
impact on development. When a child is repeatedly separated from the caregiver, the child’s
attachments are disrupted and they may struggle to form healthy relationships in the future,
they may also have low self-esteem, poor social skills and suffer depression and anxiety
2. Describe the main features of Insecure attachment in a child
Insecure attachment can often have a negative effect on children’s development, where
children may find it difficult to form successful relationships and this can continue into
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adulthood. These children often display behaviour problems, such as being withdrawn, clingy
and having temper tantrums. They often have poor social skills and are less resilient than other
children. These children often find it difficult to regulate their emotions and can be aggressive
or show depression or anxiety from an early age. They also frequently suffer from low self-
esteem which can further impact on their socialisation and cause further difficulties in forming
friendships and relationships.
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3. Describe the main features of secure attachment in a child
Children who have formed a secure attachment in childhood have better early communication
skills due to better interactions and engagement with their caregiver which promotes self-
confidence throughout their childhood and in later life. These children are more likely to form
strong attachments and relationships with others in adulthood as they have the experience of
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having their needs met and trusting relationships from birth. These children are more confident
in school and better able to form relationships with teachers, practitioners and peers. Children
with secure attachment often perform better at school and are more able to co-operate and
work as a team, they also have less tendency to behaviour problems, and problems in their
relationships with others.
4. Discuss why it is important for children to develop empathy.
During the process of nurture, an infant develops a bond and strong feelings of love towards the
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parent/caregiver; this allows the child to develop the capacity to feel empathy as they get older.
Empathy is a vital part of a child’s emotional development and is grounded in the consistent
and caring relationships a child has in early life, and is influenced by a child’s attachments in
infancy. Whist young children show sensitivity to the feelings of others they do not yet feel
empathy, but by watching a parent or practitioner comfort a child who is distressed and seeing
this reaction continually modelled it eventually becomes a part of the child’s behaviour.
C ha p ter ??:
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Activity type:
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1. Explain Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.
Freudian theory is based on the concept that children go through psychosexual stages as
they develop. The libido is a pleasure seeking energy that focuses on different parts of the
body at different stages. The oral stage - birth to 1 years - the libido is centred around the
mouth of the baby and pleasure comes from breastfeeding, sucking and biting. The anal stage
- 1-3 years - the libido becomes focused on the anus and the libido derives pleasure from
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defecating. At this stage, the child is becoming more independent and understands they are
a person in their own right. This is the stage the ego develops and the child can feel conflict
with authority during potty training as adults seek to control toileting. The Phallic sstage - 3-6
years - the libido is centred around the penis/vulva and children become aware of the physical
differences between boys and girls. At this stage, Freud believes children develop an attraction
to the opposite sex parent; this is called the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex
in girls. The latent stage - 6 years to puberty - the libido is dormant as the child focuses their
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energy on school, hobbies and learning new things. The genital stage - puberty to adulthood
- the libido is focused on the genitals. This is a time of sexual experimentation which Freud
believed reaches a conclusion when we eventually settle down into a one-to-one relationship.
2. Discuss Bowlby’s theory of attachment and monotropy.

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Attachment is an evolutionary theory that children are programmed to form attachments from
birth to help them survive. A child forms an attachment to one primary attachment figure. This
concept is called monotropy, and this attachment is more important than all others. Disruption
of the attachment between an infant and their primary caregiver results in cognitive emotional
and social problems for the child. This is called the maternal deprivation hypothesis. Bowlby
believed the relationship with the primary caregiver informs the social relationships a child will
form in the future.
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3. Describe how Bowlby’s attachment theory influences practice in a childcare setting with
reference to Key workers and admissions/settling in policies and procedures.
Bowlby’s theory of attachment has influenced childcare settings by the use of settling in and
admission policies, where practitioners meet with parents/caregivers, either in their home
or the setting, to establish the child’s needs and preferences. There are also opportunities
given to parents/caregivers to stay with their child in the setting for a limited time for the child
to become familiar and form attachments with practitioners and their key person whilst the
parent is present to reduce separation anxiety. Children are also allowed to bring an item from
home, such as a toy they are attached to, which helps them to settle. The key worker system
allows the child to make an attachment to one key person in the setting who will prioritise their
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needs and support and promote their development.
1. Define the term conditioning
In behavioural psychology, conditioning is the theory that a reaction (“response”) to an object

or event (“stimulus”) by a person or animal can be modified by ‘learning’, or conditioning.
Classical conditioning is the most widely known form of conditioning and this theory was
further developed to produce the theory of Operant Conditioning expounded by Skinner.
Conditioning was first demonstrated by the experiments of Ivan Pavlov, who researched
conditioning after discovering dogs began to salivate not only when fed, but also when they
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saw the person feeding them . The dogs had been inadvertently trained through classical
conditioning to associate the person feeding them with the food itself, and reacted in a similar
way (salivation) to the feeders. This is known as a stimulus-response (SR), when salivation is a
learned response to the stimulus of the person feeding the dogs.
2. Explain positive reinforcement

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Positive reinforcement a when a response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards leading to
repetition of this behaviour.
3. Explain how Skinner’s theories influence ways of promoting positive behaviour in

a childcare setting.
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This is where targeted or desired behaviours are promoted by rewarding these behaviours by
giving praise and attention or other rewards, such as stickers, stars and certificates, privileges
or favoured activities. This is often used by practitioners in the setting by giving out stickers
or the chance to take responsibility or help out at snack time as a reward for good behaviour.
This encourages children to repeat the desired behaviour more often and helps to decrease
undesired behaviours as these are ignored. It is important that all children get a chance to be
rewarded and take on extra responsibilities, not just the children who generally behave well.
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1. Explain how Vygotsky’s theory can help our understanding of cognitive

development of children.
Vygotsky has informed much of the recent research into children’s cognitive development
and has become known as sociocultural theory. Vygotsky emphasised the role of children’s
social interactions in their cognitive development. Where Piaget believed children must
develop to a certain stage before learning can take place, Vygotsky believed social learning
came before development. According to Vygotsky, learning occurs through social interaction
with a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) who models behaviour or provides instructions. The
More Knowledgeable other is someone who is more able or has a better understanding of a
particular task. The MKO can be a teacher or parent but can also be another child or peer who
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is older or further along in their development in a certain area. The MKO is a central part of
Vygotsky’s theories on the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD. The ZPD is the difference
between what a child can achieve independently and what they can achieve with the help of
a MKO.
2. Describe how Vygotsky’s theories influence practice in a childcare setting.
In a childcare setting, Vygotsky’s theory demonstrates that with the correct support children
can build on skills they have already mastered to complete new activities and perform new
skills. Observation is vitally important to determine the stage of learning the child is at and
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support them to reach the next stage. Activities should be provided that are slightly above the
children’s abilities. When the children are supported to learn something new, they will then
be able to complete the task independently in the future. Modelling and demonstrating is an
important part of this process; modelling language and social interactions can help children
build social skills.
3. Discuss what a Schema is and how this relates to cognitive development

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Piaget believed that knowledge does not simply develop out of experiences, but that we have
internal building blocks called schemas that help us make sense of the world around us. These
schemas are a way of organising knowledge. When we experience the world around us, we
process and understand this knowledge using these building blocks. They help us to process
information and new knowledge and increase the number and complexity of our schemas.
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4. Explain Piaget’s process of adaptation.
Piaget believed cognitive development was a process where we adapt or adjust to the world
through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Through assimilation we fit new
information into existing schema. To make sense of this information we need to add it to the
knowledge we already have, for example, a child may see a picture of a zebra and believe it is a
stripey horse as they have not yet learned what a zebra is. Accommodation is when we change
an existing schema to incorporate new information, adjusting the information we already have
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to add new information. For example the child will add the information that a zebra is not a
stripey horse but a different animal entirely.
Ch a p ter ? ?:
Activity type:
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1. Describe the purpose of play and assess the potential impact of creative play on
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the development of a five year old child, with reference to two examples.
The purpose of play is to allow children to use their creativity while developing their imagination,
dexterity, physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Through play, children engage and
interact in the world around them. Two examples are arts and crafts activities – painting, mark
making, junk modelling, play dough, salt dough, stamping and role play activities – dressing up,
change of character, accent and tone, creating a scene, improvising props and resources. The
potential impact of creative play on development is:
• physical development – fine and gross motor skills, hand-eye coordination, dressing
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up skills, space and movement, balance, coordination
• intellectual development – colours, shapes, textures, numbers, size, volume,

mathematical development, exploring skills
• language development – new words and phrases, tone, voice, questioning skills,
answer and response technique
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• emotional development – express feelings, emotions, worries, concerns, provide
clarification and justification, receive praise and encouragement
• social development – turn taking, sharing, acknowledging others and needs,

socialising with friends, making new friends, playing with older/younger children.
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2. Explain the importance of play for the development of knowledge and

understanding of the world, in the Foundation Phase.
Play provides opportunities and activities for exploration, investigation and discovery and
can support and promote the development of knowledge and understanding of the world.
It promotes active learning and helps children to think and make sense of the world around
them. Play develops children’s linguistic and communication skills and enables children to be
creative, to investigate and explore different materials and encourages the management of
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risk and challenge. It maximises opportunities in the outdoor learning environment – taking
learning outdoors.
1. Describe the purpose of child-directed play in the Foundation Phase Framework.
Child-directed play is one type of play. It involves one-on-one play interaction between an adult
and a child in which the child directs and leads the play in any way they wish. The purpose of
child-directed play is to provide opportunity to focus on one activity at a time, enhance the
child’s sense of self-direction and self-confidence, increase opportunities for the child’s access
to focused adult attention, strengthen and enhance the adult-child relationship, empower
children, draw on past experiences to re-enact their feelings, develop specific skills of interest
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to them, and link learning to interests and hobbies.
2. Asses how imaginative play can promote the development of language for a child
aged 1-3 years.
Children’s language develops rapidly from age 1-3 years. Vocabulary and speech accelerate
quickly during this period as communication skills and confidence grow. At this time many
children enter educational settings whereby they socialise with others and play. Imaginative
play encourages language development by increasing vocabulary and selecting vocabulary that
is suitable for specific purposes/contexts, practising listening, looking and talking, copying the
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language of others. Children will also develop emotionally by understanding and expressing
their feelings through the re-enactment of certain experiences, using their imagination to
express their views and opinions.
3. Justify how structured play and unstructured play can support the development
of intellectual skills.
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Structured play is any type of activity that has a set of rules or instructions with a goal.
Unstructured play has no rules or boundaries and is completed at the pace and choice of the
child. Structured play activities aid the development of intellectual skills. These include:
• pre-set counting activity (mathematical/knowledge and understanding of the world)

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• one-to-one reading activity (letters, words, reading, sounds)
• cooking activity (investigation, experimental)
• pre-set mark making activity (letter formation, sounds, language).
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Unstructured play activities and how they may develop intellectual skills include:
• outdoor investigation activities to develop counting, shapes, colours, new words
• free play within classroom environment to choose own activity – shape sorter,
counting lines, reading, mark making
• play outdoors – to explore and investigate
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Suggested
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Responses
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Sample Answers section 2
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Sam p le Answers C hap t e r 15
Activity type:
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1. Outline three factors that lead to negative mental health in children
One factor that can lead to negative mental health in children is experiencing discrimination
because of their race, sexuality or religion. Another factor is dealing with change and traumatic
events which can negatively impact children’s mental health, such as moving home or school,
or the birth of a new sibling. These can make children anxious and insecure, as can having a
parent who has had mental health problems, or problems with alcohol or drugs. A third factor
is having been severely bullied or physically or sexually abused.
2. Explain the impact of factors that promote positive mental health on children’s
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behaviour
There are a variety of factors that promote positive mental health in children which are good
physical health, balanced diet and regular exercise, a variety of play opportunities indoors and
outdoors, happy family life, going to a school that promotes well-being and provides many
opportunities to learn and succeed, feeling loved and safe, and feeling a sense of belonging
at home, school and in their community. Children will then feel positive and feel they have
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control over their lives which will help them be resilient enough to face challenging times in
their lives. If children do not have positive mental health it can be difficult to manage their
emotions, behaviour at home and school, and maintain friendships and relationships. They
can also have poor academic performance and low self-esteem.
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Activity:
See page XX
Complete the table by deciding the type of factor affecting behaviour that is in the given
scenario and the effect this has on the child.
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Type of Factor
Scenario Affecting Effect on the child
Behaviour
Example: Environmental: Mental health issues such as anxiety
A 3-year-old child Housing and depression due to overcrowded/
living in a two poor quality housing. More likely to have
bedroom house with high levels of absence from school due
their parents and to illness, and delayed cognitive and
four siblings. The language development. More likely to have
house is damp and behavioural problems such as aggression
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poorly maintained. and hyperactivity which impact on their
education and social relationships with
peers.
A 6-year-old child who Cultural: Ethnicity/ They may lack a sense of belonging in the
has just moved to Culture and school and community. They may become
Wales from Pakistan Traditions isolated and withdrawn and struggle to
and speaks no English make friends.
or Welsh.
anxiety and
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A teenager with Mental Health Children’s mental health has a big impact on
their behaviour and can have many different
depression and is underlying causes. One in ten children is
often absent from reported to be suffering from a mental
school. health problem such as depression, anxiety,
and PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder).
Children’s mental health issues are often
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caused by what is happening in their lives.
It is important for children to have good
mental health to have the resilience to cope
with life. Mental well-being is as important
as physical health.
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A child with learning Learning disabilities Children with learning disabilities can also
disabilities who have behaviour problems or disorders,
has just moved to including acting out, avoidance, aggressive
secondary school. behaviour, social isolation and emotional
outbursts. Behaviour problems are often
due to reduced self-confidence and
increased anxiety and stress.

Type of Factor
Scenario Affecting Effect on the child
Behaviour
A teenager whose PovertyAffluence Poverty can have a significant impact on
parents cannot afford the behaviour and life chances of children.
to send him on an Children from poor families are more likely

educational school to have emotional behavioural problems
trip. by age 5. Studies have shown a significant
link between poverty and poor educational
outcomes for children. There are
significantly more children with behavioural
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issues from poorer families than those who
are more economically stable. Children from
low-income families are often more stressed
and worried about debt and paying bills
which can impact on children making them
also feel stressed and anxious.
A 10-year-old child Adverse Childhood Adverse Childhood Experiences are

whose mother died Experiences (ACEs) traumatic events which occur during
last year. childhood or adolescence. They can be
A single events or prolonged traumatic
experience that threaten the child’s well-
being trust or security.
The more ACEs a child experiences the
greater the impact which can make it difficult
to manage their emotions, behaviour at
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home and school, and maintain friendships
and relationships.
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1. Explain the importance of friends and the ways in which they can influence the
behaviour of a 12 year old child.
Socialisation is a vital part of a child’s development, helping them learn how to interact with
others. If a child is not given the opportunity to build these skills, it can delay their social and
emotional development. A lack of social relationships affects behaviour and development in
many ways. Socially isolated children often have lower educational attainment, and are less
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economically stable as adults. Socially isolated children are at increased risk of loneliness and
physical and mental health problems in adulthood. A lack of social relationships has a negative
impact on brain development. Peer-pressure influences all children but can impact on some
more than others. Peer-pressure is the influence that friends and other children have on the
child. Adults can underestimate the effects of peer pressure on children and young people. It
can affect normally confident children and give them low self-esteem and a lack of confidence,
negatively impacting on well-being. Children’s education can be affected as by trying to fit in
with their peer group, they place more emphasis on being social rather than education, and
the opinions of peers become more important than parents and teachers.
2. Describe the potential effect of adverse childhood experiences on children’s behaviour.
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The experiences of a child throughout their early life has a huge impact on their behaviour
and development, including mental and physical health. A positive relationship with their
caregiver will give the child a positive attitude towards other relationships and themselves,
whereas a negative experience when the caregiver fails to meet the child’s needs consistently
will make it difficult to maintain positive relationships in the future and have positive mental
well-being. Adverse Childhood Experiences are traumatic events which occur during childhood
or adolescence and can be single events or prolonged traumatic experiences that threaten the
child’s well-being, trust or security. Examples include abuse, parental drug or alcohol abuse,
domestic violence, a parent with mental illness, or the loss of a parent due to divorce or death.
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A study in 2014 discovered 47% of people had experienced at least one ACE. ACE’s can lead
to an increase in physical and mental health problems, including depression and anxiety. The
more ACEs a child experiences, the greater the impact which can make it difficult to manage
their emotions, behaviour at home and school and maintain friendships and relationships.
3. Discuss how children’s different family backgrounds can impact on their behaviour.
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The family is where children’s primary socialisation occurs and where they learn the values of
their family and the community they live in. Children learn acceptable norms of behaviour from
their family. The first three years of life are the most significant in children’s brain development,
when they are highly sensitive to external factors that impact on behaviour and development.
If a child has a stimulating environment rich in language and communication with secure
attachments and bonds with the caregivers this will enhance their development. In contrast,
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if this does not happen within the family, the child can have delays in their development and
not reach the expected milestones for their age. Children who experience a stressful family
environment in their early years will have more chance of developing a learning disability or
mental health issue such as depression. Different parenting styles have a significant impact on
children’s behaviour and development. Young children find it difficult to behave in a way that
is different to the beliefs, values and attitudes they have learned within their family. A family’s
attitudes towards education can impact greatly on the child’s motivation to learn and achieve
from the early years and throughout their education.

Case study:
See page XX
Nathan is an eight-year-old boy who has recently moved into a new area with his family: his
mother, father, his twin brother Aaron and his sister Gwen, who is 6 weeks old. Since Gwen
was born, the household has been extremely busy, caring for the new baby and having lots of
visitors. Nathan and Aaron have started at the local primary school and have been placed in
the same class. This is causing some issues because Nathan and Aaron are unfamiliar with the
setting. Nathan’s parents are concerned because he sometimes presents with behaviour that
challenges and this has become more frequent in the last few months.
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Nathan’s behaviour includes: becoming distressed if his daily routine is changed, preferring to
play independently rather than with others, taking toys away from other children, becoming
overwhelmed in a noisy environment.
Nathan’s parents try to reward his positive behaviour, but increasingly let him have his own
way, finding his reactions challenging and demanding of their time. Nathan is most comfortable
when he is able to follow a familiar pattern of activities and when his twin brother is close by,
because Aaron supports Nathan throughout the day. Nathan has some difficulties moving
around the classroom, he sometimes falls over and bumps into furniture and other children.
This can be upsetting for Nathan and the other children concerned. Nathan’s language is
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not well developed, and this can hinder him when he tries to communicate and express his
feelings. This can lead to Nathan becoming overwhelmed and withdrawing from class activities.
However, Nathan does enjoy art and creative work, where he is able to express himself in a
different way. Nathan finds physical education difficult, particularly when he is a member of
a team. However, Nathan likes to cheer for his twin brother when Aaron plays football at the
weekends. Because they are worried about Nathan, his parents have arranged to meet with
his teaching team to voice their concerns. Nathan’s mother has kept an on-going diary of
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challenging incidents during the last few months to discuss with the teaching team at school.
1. Outline three factors that may be influencing Nathan’s behaviour.
• Birth of a sibling – disruption within the house, less attention on Nathan, increased
number of visitors to visit the new baby, increased negative behaviour to seek
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attention.
• Moving to a new house – new surroundings and routine, needs reassurance from
adults, increased negative behaviour.
• Starting school – new teacher and educational surroundings, new school day
routine, maybe changed travel arrangements to and from school, unclear of timings
throughout the day, feeling unsettled.
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2. Explain how Nathan’s positive behaviour can be promoted at home and in school.
The school and home should ideally work together to help ensure that there is a consistent
approach to promoting Nathan’s positive behaviour. Good communication between Nathan’s
parents and his teachers is important to ensure consistent routines are applied. Approaches
for promoting positive behaviour include modelling – e.g. parents/teachers acting as role
models; setting boundaries – e.g., rules at home/in school and making these consistent
- reinforcement – e.g. praise, rewards – creating an environment for good behaviour – e.g.
structured, planned days. Nathan’s parents and his teachers should agree a behaviour policy
which justifies expectations, includes Nathan’s input, expresses rules positively, includes rules
about group behaviours, and promotes resilience strategies. Strategies could include providing
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an environment at home and in school that is positive and supportive, implementing strategies
for building skills and strengthening positive behaviours, and implementing strategies for
decreasing undesired behaviour.
3. Assess the potential impact of two sociological factors which may affect Nathan’s
behaviour.
Environmental: moving into a new area and starting at a new school could mean that Nathan’s
daily routine has become disrupted, he has become unsettled, and he may display increased
negative behaviour. A positive could be moving into a new area and starting at a new school
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could mean that Nathan adapts well to his new daily routine, makes new friends and displays
increased positive behaviour.
Socio-economic: financial constraints may be a factor, as a new sibling could put financial
pressure on family finances, therefore Nathan has fewer treats and rewards. He may feel left
out and display increased negative behaviour. A positive could be more economic opportunities
for the family. This could mean that Nathan has more treats and rewards than in the past,
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which may lead to him feeling more valued and displaying increased positive behaviour.
Activity type:
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1. Outline the important aspects of a behaviour management policy
It is important for settings and schools to create a ‘Positive Behaviour Policy’ which is available
to all staff and parents. The policy should include what is expected of the children, how staff
should react to negative behaviour and reinforce positive behaviour. The policy can then be
used to create rules for behaviour that are appropriate for the age and developmental stage
of the children. Rules should be created with the children as they feel their opinion is valued
and will be more motivated to abide by them.

2. Explain why children should have an input into a behaviour policy
It is important a behaviour policy Includes children’s input. Any behaviour policy must take
into account the views and opinions of children, whatever their age, as children will be more
motivated to follow the rules and understand the expectations of the school or setting and the
policy expresses rules positively. Rules should be worded in terms of the positive behaviour
expected rather than a list of ‘do nots.’ Such as, ‘Please walk in the classroom’ rather than ‘do
not run’.
Sam p le a nswers cha p te r 17
FT
Activity type:
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1. Explain two strategies for promoting children’s positive behaviour.
• Approaches for promoting positive behaviour include:
• modelling – e.g. parents/teachers acting as role models
•
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setting boundaries – e.g. rules at home/in school which include the children’s views
and opinions, making sure they are consistent in both the home and at school
• reinforcement – e.g. praise, rewards
• creating an environment for good behaviour – e.g. structured, planned days

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• providing an environment at home and in school that is positive and supportive
• implementing strategies for building skills and strengthening positive behaviours
• implementing strategies for decreasing undesired behaviour.

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2. Describe how the key person approach decreases undesired behaviours.
The key person forms a positive relationship with the child, allowing the child to form an
attachment to them which makes the child feel welcomed and valued in the setting and helps
to prevent separation anxiety. The key person will respond in a sensitive way to the child’s
feelings and behaviours and meets their emotional needs by giving reassurance, as a child
will be new to a setting or class, and this helps the child settle in and supports the child’s well-
being. The key person is a familiar figure who builds relationships with the child and parents or
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carers which decreases undesired behaviour as they can discuss any behavioural issues with
parents and work together to provide a consistent approach. Records of development and
care are created and shared by the key person, parents and the child. Through observation and
assessment the key person can identify any developmental delays that can cause undesired
behaviours and put into place the strategies and support the child needs. They will also act
as a positive role model for the child, which makes children feel settled and happy and more
confident to learn and play and are less likely to exhibit behaviour that challenges.
Sam p le answers cha pt e r 18
FT
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Explain how Geographical barriers can prevent children accessing care and support.
There are a range of factors that prevent children gaining access to health, social care and early
years services. It may be a lack of information in that they do not know about the services
available. Children may face more than on barrier to accessing services. Some children live
near health, social care and early years services and others may live some distance away
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in isolated rural areas or more deprived areas where there are less services available. For
children who do not live near the services they may find that the buses in the area do not run
at a convenient time to get to an appointment, or do not match with the opening times of
parent/toddler groups, nurseries and healthcare services. A child with complex health needs
or additional learning needs may need to have specialist treatment which is many miles away
and finds it difficult to get there. Finding it difficult to travel to the services because of distance
is a geographical barrier. Some children and families may find that due to a mobility problem
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they cannot walk the distance to the health, social care and early years services.
2. Outline how language can be a barrier for children and their families in accessing early
years services.
Language can be a barrier for some families in accessing early years services because provision
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is not available in their language of choice locally or is too far away to be practical. There can be a
lack of adequate Welsh-medium childcare provision in some areas. For many parents in Wales,
Welsh-medium early education is important for a variety of reasons, including integrating
within the local community and gaining work. The provision of wraparound care in Welsh-
medium primary schools, improving transport to Welsh-medium schools, more choice and
longer opening hours in Welsh-medium settings, are possible ways of overcoming this barrier.
Similarly families who speak a language other than Welsh or English often lack information
about early years services, or cannot understand the language, they have concerns their child
will feel isolated and be discriminated against, will not understand the language of the setting

and are unsure of the setting’s ability to meet their child’s cultural and religious needs.

Activity type:
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1. Outline three personal transitions that children experience
FT
Birth of a new sibling – This changes the family structure for children, and children need to
adapt when a new sibling arrives. This exciting family event can leave children unsure and
anxious about their place within the family. Children can become angry and seek attention and
affection from parents. Their behaviour may regress and they might act in a more babyish way
and start to lack confidence.
Bereavement – Losing a member of the family or someone close can have a significant impact
on children, and can cause them to lose their appetite, lack motivation and concentration,
have difficulty sleeping and withdraw emotionally and socially.
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Moving to a new house – This can be very unsettling for young children as they will have
a change of routine and environment. Until they adjust to new surroundings they can be
confused and unsettled.
2. Assess the positive and negative impact of transitions on children’s resilience and well-
being
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Whether the impact of transitions is positive or negative for children can depend on the
support they are given to help them negotiate the transition and deal with the challenges
they might face. Children need support, stability and comfort, to give them the opportunity
to develop strategies to manage emotions and control their behaviour. Parents, practitioners
and teachers can help children at this difficult time by encouraging children to express
feelings, teach children strategies to deal with stress whist role modelling positive behaviour.
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When children are not fully supported through transitions it can have a negative impact on
their resilience and development. Children can become quiet and withdrawn or angry and
aggressive, they may feel stress and develop anxiety and inability to cope with the present and
future transition. A negative transition can be traumatic for children and lead to difficulties in
regulating mood, sadness and depression.
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Sam p le answers cha pt e r 20
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Explain how Individual education plans (IEP) help practitioners to meet children’s
complex needs.
To meet children’s individual complex care and support needs practitioners will work with
other parents, professionals and agencies in order to build up a picture of the child’s complex
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care and support needs, and assess and identify the best ways to promote their development.
Every individual child at a setting will have an IEP to help teaching staff to plan, teach, and review
progress. The IEP has short-term targets and strategies for an individual child, additional to
those in place for the whole group. The document must be agreed, with parents and the child
if the child is old enough. The IEP documents targets and the type of support needed, and
should be frequently reviewed. IEPs focus three or four key short-term targets that relate to
the following areas: communication, literacy, mathematics, behaviour and social skills.
2. Discuss the importance of adapting the environment in a childcare setting to meet the
more complex needs of Individual children.
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It is important to ensure the environment, activities and routines within the setting are
adapted to ensure it is inclusive for all children. If a child has a physical disability then physical
aids, such as equipment to assist with mobility, transport and personal care, will need to be
introduced to the setting. The layout of playrooms or classrooms may need to be adapted to
ensure easy access for wheelchairs or mobility aids , and ensure the child has the same access
to activities and resources as other children. To meet complex need assistive technology might
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be needed, such as hearing aids to help people hear or hear more clearly. Cognitive aids,
including computer or electrical assistive devices, to help people with memory, attention,
Computer software and hardware, such as voice recognition programs, screen readers, and
screen enlargement applications, to help people with mobility and sensory impairments use
computers.
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Activity type:
See page XX
1. Describe the reasons a child might need a continuing care package.
Continuing care is defined as care provided over a long period of time to meet physical or
mental health needs children have as a result of illness or disability of the mind, and injury or
disability requiring medical or dental treatment or nursing. Sudden unexpected need can be
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an accident or serious illness or injury causing a child or young person to suddenly develop
continuing care needs. The child could need a care package to return home from a hospital as
their needs could be complex due to the illness or injury. They could need adaptions to their
homes, aids and equipment in order to achieve personal outcomes. For children and young
people with complex, deteriorating conditions, including life limiting conditions and end of
life care, a package of continuing care will need to be in place and their needs may develop
further over time. In instances where a child is born with either a diagnosed or an undiagnosed
congenital condition, they may need a package of continuing care on a long term basis to meet
their needs and allow them to live at home with their family. In some cases, needs maybe too
great to live in the family home and they will need residential care or respite care as part of
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their care package.
2. Explain what a personal outcome is and why it is important to measure a child’s

progress towards achieving these outcomes.
Personal outcomes describe what a person wants to achieve. These are realistic goals that
the person receiving care and support, and their care worker or carer can work towards. They
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are usually based around supporting the individual’s well-being. It is important that there is a
measurement of whether children accessing support and care are making progress towards
the outcomes they want to achieve and responding to changing need promptly. This can avoid
unnecessary and unplanned admissions to hospital or care home and improve the service for
children with complex care needs. A local authority must record people’s personal outcomes
in the person’s own words so they keep ownership of their outcomes and they are meaningful
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to them.
3. Outline three types of assessment that may be carried out to identify the support needs
of children and young people.
Conversation as assessment – Having a conversation with children and their parents/caregivers

when they need to access education, care or support helps you find out what is important to
them, what they want to achieve and how they want to be supported. This supports children
in ways that reflect their needs and wishes and those of their caregivers. It allows child-centred
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care and support to meet the child’s needs.
Childhood Screening programme – To ensure any diseases or conditions are identified and
treated as early as possible Wales has a childhood screening programme. It has been recognised
by the Government in Wales that the early years are vitally important in the future health and
wellbeing of all children, to ensure positive and equal developmental outcomes. This has led
to increased investment in prevention and early intervention services in pregnancy and early
years, including screening tests, immunisations, developmental reviews and information and
guidance to support parenting and healthy choices. It also aims to identify families in need of
additional support and children who may risk poor outcomes.
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Foundation Phase profile and observations – As a key part of the Welsh Government’s Early
Years Developmental Assessment Framework (EYDAF), the Foundation Phase Profile (the
Profile) is a means of supporting the assessment of children’s learning and development
throughout their time in the Foundation Phase. It provides a nationally consistent baseline
assessment. Through observations and formative assessments, the Profile helps practitioners
to plan a holistic curriculum which supports the development of all children.
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Suggested
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Responses
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Section ??: Chapter 22
Activity type:
See page XX
FT
1. Define what social policy is
Social policy is the way a society meets the needs of its population for security, education, work,
health and well-being. In Wales, our Social policy is how we as a country respond to national
and global challenges of social, demographic and economic change. Through Social Policy,
the Government will create legislation to ensure the well-being of people in Wales both now
and in the future. Social policy analyses the role of our Government and society in providing
services and support across the lifespan from childhood to old age. Services governed by
social policy in Wales include education, housing, communities, income maintenance and
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poverty reduction, unemployment support and training, pensions, health and social care. An
important aim of Social policy is to reduce inequality of access to services between different
social groups defined by socio-economic status, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
disability and age.
2. Discuss the importance of the Welsh Governments policy on Welsh language provision
in early years settings
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All services in Wales must comply with the Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 which
ensures Welsh speakers receive services in Welsh and Local Health Boards and Local Authority
Social Services Departments have a legal responsibility to ensure people have their well-being
outcomes and their needs are met, which includes their language needs. Many individuals can
only communicate effectively and as equal partners through the medium of Welsh. This applies
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particularly to children, some of whom may speak little English. The Care Council for Wales
brought out a report in 2012 stating there was a lack of Welsh language services available for
patients and families through the medium of Welsh. This led to a Welsh Government policy on
the use of Welsh in health, social services and social care. The Welsh Government published,
“More than just words….” in November 2012 which was a strategic framework to strengthen
Welsh language services in these areas. Being able to access Welsh language services is
essential for some families to secure positive well-being outcomes. Explaining and discussing
needs in Welsh can be easier and more effective for many Welsh speakers and if services are
not provided in Welsh, their needs are not fully met. In ‘Building a Brighter Future: Early Years
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and Childcare Plan ”the Government aims to ensure that there are enough Welsh speaking
practitioners and services available in the Early Years and childcare sectors so parents can be
supported to raise children bilingually. The Government wants the Early years and childcare
practitioners in Wales to be highly skilled professionals and an important part of these skills
is Welsh language. As a childcare practitioner communication with children and their families,
other staff members and organisations such as Care Inspectorate Wales (CIW) is a vital part of
the role. Communication in the child and family’s preferred language is important to ensure
that the child’s needs are met.
Sam p le A nswers C ha p t e r 23
FT
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Discuss the impact of food poverty on children in Wales.
Food poverty means the inability to afford, or have access to foods which make up a socially
and culturally acceptable healthy diet. People have a right to be adequately nourished to
maintain health and dignity. Families who just miss out on qualifying for free school meals can
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often struggle to afford food, and are unable to adequately feed their children after paying for
housing, bills and debts. Some children are not eligible for school meals as their parents are
asylum seekers. Those who are eligible for free school meals often find they cannot afford both
a meal and a drink with the amount they are allocated. Free breakfasts have been introduced
for primary school children in Wales and this has helped children who often arrive at school
hungry. Where these clubs are available, they are often oversubscribed and some children
are unable to access them as they are full to capacity. Breakfast clubs have not only helped
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children who are hungry, but also supported children who suffer social isolation and helped
teachers to identify children who are struggling to buy new school uniform and offer support
through uniform recycling schemes. Teachers and practitioners state children have improved
behaviour and attention span when they are supplied with a nutritious breakfast. There has
a been a 13% increase in the amount of families forced to rely on foodbanks in the last year.
Families found it particularly difficult during the school holidays, but foodbanks are not always
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easily accessible to the families most in need and many families cannot afford transport costs
to get to the foodbank.
2. Explain how changes in family structure impact on childcare provision
Family structures in Wales are changing, and although the most common family structure is
still the married couple with children, this is declining and there is a rise in cohabiting couples
with children, same sex civil partnerships and multi -generational families living in the same
household, to share expenses and childcare which usually involves grandparents, parents and

children living together. There is also a rise in lone parent families, particularly single fathers.
There are many children who are affected by family break ups due to divorce or separation
and an increase in blended families, where children live with one parent and their new partner
and step siblings. It is important for settings and practitioners to have a good knowledge of
different types of family structure and not assume that all children live with a mother and
father. Parents and caregivers are partners in care and practitioners should be careful not to
make assumptions regarding a child’s family and to show that each child and their family are
equally welcomed and valued within the setting. Practitioners need to use tact and sensitivity
when discussing children’s families and caregivers as they will only know what the caregiver
chooses to tell them regarding the child’s family circumstances.
FT
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Outline two changes to childcare provision that will impact on the roles of professionals
involved in the sector.
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Flying Start is one of the Welsh Government’s top priorities. Flying Start targets the most
disadvantaged areas in Wales. The programme has been targeted to areas where many
children qualify for free school meals and there are high proportions of children aged under
4 years living in households in receipt of income related benefits. The area covered by the
programme expanded into additional areas between 2012 and 2016. This will have an impact
on Childcare provision as more children between 2 and 3 years will have access to free childcare
which will mean more places are needed for younger children and therefore more childcare
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practitioners as the adult to child ratio for children under 3 is 1 to 4 in comparison to one adult
to every 8 children for those over 3 years. The result is a significant increase in the provision
needed in Flying Start areas and a growth in the childcare sector in Wales as a whole. Secondly,
the Welsh Government has increased the amount of hours of free childcare that are available
to working parents in Wales. 3 to 4 year old children are now entitled to 30 hours of free
childcare, provided both parents are working or they live in a household with only one parent
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and that parent works. This will again change the structure of childcare provision in Wales as
more parents will work as childcare will be more affordable and there will be an increased
need for Childminders, nurseries, playgroups and ‘Cylch Meithrin’.
2. Explain ways in which the Welsh Government aims to attract high quality recruits to the
early years workforce
The Welsh Government has outlined its aims to provide wider career opportunities for those
working in the childcare sector. To support professional development the Welsh Government
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has introduced a defined career pathway for progression beyond the Level 3 qualification,
including mapping childcare qualifications to other professions, such as teaching and
playwork. Through their delivery of the 10 year vision the Welsh Government will introduce
new qualifications at levels 4 and 5 to support a vocational route which allows practitioners to
progress in their careers. There has also been the development of a new national framework
of qualifications and training which was developed in collaboration with Social Care Wales
which outlines the sector standards to practice.
Sam p le A nswers C ha p t e r 26
FT
Activity type:
See page XX
1. Explain what safeguarding is.
Safeguarding is all the actions we take to keep children safe from harm. Children are vulnerable
and rely on adults for their safety and security. It is the responsibility of all those who work
with children to keep them safe. As an early years or childcare practitioner, it is your role and
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responsibility to protect children in the setting from abuse and neglect. All settings in Wales
are required by law to implement policies and procedures to safeguard children. All early
years and childcare practitioners must ensure they are aware of and comply with safeguarding
measures to ensure the well-being and welfare of all children in the setting.
2. Outline the responsibilities of childcare workers in relation to safeguarding children

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All practitioners, teachers and early years workers should be familiar with the Safeguarding
and Child Protection Policy for their setting and know who the safeguarding officer or person
with responsibility for safeguarding is within the setting. The views of children should always
be listened to and taken into account in all matters about their welfare and any decisions
made should be explained to them clearly. A child’s needs and welfare should be at the centre
of all decisions made about them. Children should be listened to and have their views taken
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into account at every stage. They should be made to feel that their needs and well-being is
at the centre of decisions made about them. This does not necessarily mean they will always
agree with the actions and decisions that are taken about them but that the reasons for these
decisions are clearly explained to them. If a practitioner has concerns that a child or young
person is at risk of abuse, neglect or harm they must report these concerns to Children’s Social
Services.
3. Discuss what actions a childcare practitioner should take if a child makes a disclosure of
abuse

When a child tells an adult they trust about harm, abuse or neglect this is known as making a
‘disclosure’. Practitioners should have awareness of, and training in, child protection to ensure
they respond in an appropriate way when a child makes a disclosure of abuse or neglect about
themselves or another child. Practitioners need to be ready to listen to a child and hear what
they are trying to express and respond in an appropriate and safe way. It is very difficult for a
child to speak out about abuse and neglect. Abusers will tell the child they will get into trouble
if they disclose abuse, or they and their family will be harmed. Children often believe it is their
fault they have been abused and they can also try and protect the abuser from getting into
trouble, particularly if it is a parent as they may be scared of being taken away from their home
and family. Some children never disclose their abuse or wait until they are an adult, leading to
continued abuse and negative future outcomes.
FT
Case study:
See page XX
Jake is four years old and has recently started coming to pre-school with unexplained bruises,
when asked how he hurt himself by Osian, his key worker, Jake would not answer and ran to
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hide in the playhouse refusing to come out. When Jake’s mum arrived to pick him up Osian
explained he had noticed the bruises and that Jake had been upset when asked about them.
Jake’s mum said he is clumsy and she did not know where the bruises had come from. Osian
asked if Jake had seen a doctor and his mother said she didn’t think it was necessary as all
children get bumps and bruises when playing.
1. What concerns should Osian have about Jake’s welfare?

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Osian should be concerned as Jake has unexplained bruises that it upsets him to talk about
and his mother has no suitable explanation for the bruises and has not sought medical advice.
2. What should Osian do now?

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Osian should report his concerns to his manager or the safeguarding officer within the setting.
3. What signs of possible abuse does Jake have?
There is bruising not caused by a medical condition and the explanation for the bruising is
unsuitable. Jake cannot explain the bruising and becomes upset when asked about it and
refuses to discuss it. Children often disclose abuse through play or by practitioners identifying
concerns through their behaviour or changes in behaviour. Jake’s mum has not sought medical
advice and seems unconcerned.
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Case study:
See page XX
Sara is ten years old and lives with her mother in a small one bedroom flat. Sara’s mother
has multiple sclerosis and has times when she struggles with her mobility. Sara’s mother has
recently explained to Delyth, Sara’s classroom support assistant, that she has been struggling
with her mental health due to her illness and often feels too depressed to get out of bed.
Sara has recently become quiet and withdrawn and when Delyth praised her on her progress
with her reading Sara said her reading was rubbish because she was “stupid and useless at
everything.” Delyth has also noticed that Sara’s school uniform is far too small and often looks
dirty, some of the other children have been laughing and commenting about this.
FT
1. Why should Delyth be concerned about Sara?
Sara shows signs of neglect due to her mother’s mental health problems and disability. She
is also not giving the appropriate physical care necessary for Sara as her clothing is too small
and she is persistently smelly and dirty. Children who are neglected often suffer mental health
problems.
2. What actions should Delyth take?

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Delyth should report her concerns to the safeguarding officer as Sara’s mother is struggling to
meet her needs and needs help and support.
3. How could Delyth support Sara?
Delyth could talk to Sara and give her opportunities to confide in her, reassure her she has
done nothing wrong and that help and support is available, and discuss what support the
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family need. She could share information about Sara with relevant agencies who can identify
which services are best placed to help the family, continue monitoring Sara’s situation, refer
her for counselling, providing direct practical and emotional support to Sara.
Activity type:
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See page XX
1. Describe circumstances in which it may be necessary to breach confidentiality.
A breach of confidentiality is when confidential information is shared without the permission

of the person or family it relates to, putting them in danger or causing them embarrassment or
pain. It is not a breach of confidentiality if the information was provided on the understanding
it would be shared. Confidential information may only be shared without authorisation from
the person who provided it:
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• Where there is evidence that a child is suffering, or is at risk of suffering, significant
harm.
• Where there is reasonable cause to believe that a child may be suffering or at risk of
suffering significant harm.
• To prevent significant harm arising to children and young people or serious harm to
adults, including the prevention, detection and prosecution of serious crime.
2. Explain why vetting procedures are an important aspect of recruiting staff in a childcare
setting.
FT
It is important for childcare settings to have a policy on the recruitment of new staff to ensure
the right person is employed and make the recruitment process fair. For a role working with
children and young people, both the role description and the person specification should
highlight the safeguarding responsibilities. When advertising the role, it should state the
job includes working with children. Any applications should include a statement about the
practitioner’s commitment to keeping children safe. If the role requires a criminal records
check, this should be included in the advert. Applicants should complete a self-disclosure form
before the interview regarding any previous criminal records or disciplinary procedures which
will only be opened as part of the vetting process. Applicants need to provide the details of
A
at least two referees and prove their identity at any interview. Referees should be asked
about the candidate’s suitability and ability to work with children and young people, and their
knowledge and understanding of child protection and safeguarding. Information provided in
the reference should be consistent with the information provided by the candidate in their
application form and interview. Criminal records checks enable settings to ensure that people
aged 16 or over have nothing on their record that makes them unsuitable to work or volunteer
in roles that have contact with children. The Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) helps settings
R
in Wales make safer recruitment decisions.
D
258

Gce Health and Social Care Childcare Pathways

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Gce Health and Social Care Childcare Pathways

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Unit 3

The b iolo g ica l a spect

child’s development are particularly important,

Developmental effects of Developmental effects of

factors with a child’s environment shapes how that

nutrition. Sometimes genetics can cause children to

The most common chromosome disorder is Down’s Abnormality

1. Define a gene and a chromosome.

2. Discuss the importance of nutrition in the development of an infant before and

hemispheres operating in a more independent manner, for example, when holding a

research on the impact of this is needed.

There are significant differences between

rapid that by four to five months most infants can

Growth and developmental stage of a Growth and developmental advances in

From the moment a pregnancy is confirmed, the child

Syndrome and Patau’s syndrome. At the 12-week dating

Once the baby is born, health care professionals will

Measurements taken to monitor development

For example, if a 3-year-old boy’s weight is in

the 95th percentile, it means that 95% of other

5% of boys weigh more. This demonstrates that

the child is above average size for his age and

gender. A child being above or below average

size does not indicate a problem. Often this

reflects the height of the parents as a child’s

height is often genetic. A baby in the 10th

percentile is smaller than 90% of other children

but can be just as healthy as a larger child. It is 18

the growth pattern that is important, and most

children will gain height and weight at the same

rate over a period of time, and proportionally

W 03 05 52 Date Age Weight Length Head Circ.

to one another. This is indicated by the child

staying on the same growth line or percentile.

Published May 30, 2000 (modified 4/20/01). bl

3. Identify 3 reasons why Lois might be small for her age.

1. State what measurements are taken of babies to monitor growth, and

2. Explain what is meant by a growth percentile.

N o rmativ e mea sures

Healthy Child Wales Programme

Related legislation, strategy, programmes and ways of working:

18 months. As already discussed, children reach

Stage of Professional How this benefits the

A 3-year-old child with a GP

A child starting school/ • Baseline assessment…

1. Explain the key aspects of the Foundation Phase.

How a baby’s senses develop from birth

sensory information. Sensory activities

For example, a child who has

Research shows that sensory Sensory play supports

Sensory play helps children Sensory play helps children

Key milest o nes of dev e l o p m e n t o f

Balance and coordination are necessary skills

Test your knowledge:

2. Discuss the importance of developing balance and coordination for children’s

• Can kick a ball with ease

1. Identify five milestones of physical development Sam might have been

3. Suggest an activity Sam’s mum could do with Sam to support the

4. Suggest an activity Sam’s mum could do with Sam to support the

Changes during puberty in girls Changes during puberty in boys

Test your knowledge:

Practitioners are interested in children’s holistic development, which includes

The thin k ing pro cess

Imaginative Play and Creativity