2021

A GUIDE TO SUSTAINABLE FRUIT PRODUCTION

Afrostain Farmtech

3/25/2021
Afrostain Farmtech | A guide to sustainable fruit tree production | www.afrostain.co.zw | +2638644297729 | admin@afrostain.co.zw
Table of Contents

UNIT I. Introduction to Fruit Production ....................................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Distribution of Fruits ............................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1Tropical fruits .................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Subtropical fruits ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2.3 Temperate fruits .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3. Orchard Establishment ......................................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Site Selection .................................................................................................................. 5
a) Climate ................................................................................................................................ 6
b) Water availability ................................................................................................................ 6
c) Soil ....................................................................................................................................... 6
d) Topography ......................................................................................................................... 7
e) Transport to the market ....................................................................................................... 7
f) Labour availability ............................................................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Orchard layout / patterns .................................................................................................... 8
a) Square planting pattern..................................................................................................... 8
b) Rectangular pattern .......................................................................................................... 8
c) Hexagonal pattern ............................................................................................................ 8
d) Quincunx pattern .............................................................................................................. 8
e) Hedgerows pattern............................................................................................................ 8
1.4. Orchard Preparation ............................................................................................................. 9
1.4.1 Orchard pegging ................................................................................................................. 9
1.5. Planting................................................................................................................................. 9
1.6. Fruit Tree Propagation ......................................................................................................... 9
1.6.1. Seed propagation ........................................................................................................... 9
1.6.2. Vegetative propagation ................................................................................................ 10
General precautions when propagating cuttings .................................................................... 11
1.7. The general orchard care ................................................................................................ 24

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 1.7. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 26
1.8. Activities ............................................................................................................................ 26
1.9. References .......................................................................................................................... 27
UNIT 2: Mango Production .......................................................................................................... 27
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 28
2.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 28
2.2 Origin and Distribution ....................................................................................................... 28
2.3 Uses of Mangoes ................................................................................................................. 28
2.4 Botany ................................................................................................................................. 29
2.5. Environmental and Soil Requirements ............................................................................... 31
2.6 Propagation.......................................................................................................................... 32
2.7 Planting................................................................................................................................ 34
2.8 Orchard Care .................................................................................................................. 34
2.8.3 Watering ........................................................................................................................... 35
2.8.3. Fertiliser Management..................................................................................................... 35
2.9 Crop Protection ................................................................................................................... 36
2.9.1 Weed control................................................................................................................. 36
2.9.2 Pests and their management ......................................................................................... 37
2.9.3 Diseases ........................................................................................................................ 38
2.10 Harvesting ......................................................................................................................... 41
2.13. Activities .......................................................................................................................... 42
2.14. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 42
2.15. References ........................................................................................................................ 42
UNIT 3: Banana Production ......................................................................................................... 43
3.0. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.1. Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 43
3.2. Uses .................................................................................................................................... 43
3.3. Botany ................................................................................................................................ 44
3.4. Banana Cultivars ................................................................................................................ 46
3.5. Climatic Requirements ....................................................................................................... 47
3.6. Soil Requirements .............................................................................................................. 48

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 3.7. Fertiliser Management........................................................................................................ 48
3.8. Land Preparation ................................................................................................................ 49
3.11. Post Planting Operations .................................................................................................. 52
3.12. Special Cultural Practices................................................................................................. 53
3.12. Crop Protection ................................................................................................................ 56
3.12.2 Banana Diseases ............................................................................................................. 57
iii) Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) ................................................................................ 58
3.13. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 59
3.14. Artificial Ripening............................................................................................................ 59
3.15. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 60
3.16. Activities .......................................................................................................................... 60
3.17. References ........................................................................................................................ 60
UNIT 4: Granadilla Production .................................................................................................... 61
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 61
4.2. Botany ................................................................................................................................ 61
4.4. Climatic requirements ........................................................................................................ 62
4.5. Soil requirements................................................................................................................ 63
4.6. Fertiliser Management........................................................................................................ 63
4.7. Variety Selection ................................................................................................................ 65
4.8 Propagation.......................................................................................................................... 66
4.9 Establishment ...................................................................................................................... 67
4.9. Management Practices........................................................................................................ 67
a) Irrigation ................................................................................................................................ 67
4.9. Crop Protection .................................................................................................................. 69
4.9.1 Diseases ...................................................................................................................... 69
4.10. Harvesting and yields ....................................................................................................... 71
4.11. Marketing ......................................................................................................................... 72
4.14. Activities. ......................................................................................................................... 72
4.15. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 72
UNIT 5: Citrus Production........................................................................................................... 73
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 73

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 5.2 Objectives of the unit .......................................................................................................... 73
5.3 Classification of citrus......................................................................................................... 74
3.4 Growth and environment ..................................................................................................... 74
3.5 Flower induction and differentiation ................................................................................... 75
5.6 Propagation.......................................................................................................................... 76
5.7 Planting and planting distance ............................................................................................ 76
5.8 Irrigation .............................................................................................................................. 76
5.9 Fertilizer Management ........................................................................................................ 76
5. 10.1. Pests of Citrus Fruits .................................................................................................... 76
5.10.2. Diseases of citrus ........................................................................................................... 79
5.12 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 81
5.13 Activities ........................................................................................................................... 81
5.14 References ......................................................................................................................... 81
UNIT 6. Grapes Production .......................................................................................................... 82
6.0. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 82
6.1. Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 83
6.2. Origin and Distribution ...................................................................................................... 83
6.3. Uses .................................................................................................................................... 83
6.4. Botany ................................................................................................................................ 83
6.5. Cultivars ............................................................................................................................. 84
6.6. Environmental Requirements ............................................................................................. 84
6.8. Propagation......................................................................................................................... 85
6.10. Water Requirements ......................................................................................................... 86
6.11. Fertiliser Management...................................................................................................... 86
6.13. Crop Protection ................................................................................................................ 91
6.13.2. Pests............................................................................................................................... 93
6.14. Harvesting ........................................................................................................................ 94
6.15. Activities .......................................................................................................................... 95
6.16. Summary .......................................................................................................................... 95
6.17. References ........................................................................................................................ 95
UNIT 7: Apple Production (Malus domestica) ............................................................................. 96

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7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 96
7.2. Cultivars ............................................................................................................................. 96
7.5. Propagation......................................................................................................................... 99
7.6. Planting............................................................................................................................... 99
7.7. Fertilizer requirements (After planting) ........................................................................... 100
7.8. Irrigation ........................................................................................................................... 101
7.9. Pruning ............................................................................................................................. 101
7.10. Apple Pests ..................................................................................................................... 102
7.11. Apple Diseases ............................................................................................................... 102
7.12. Harvesting ...................................................................................................................... 103
7.13. Summary ........................................................................................................................ 104
7.15. References ...................................................................................................................... 104

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UNIT I. Introduction to Fruit Production

1.0 Introduction

“Fruit” normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet and edible
in the raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, and bananas. A branch of
horticulture which focuses on the cultivation, production, harvesting and storage of fruits
especially fruit trees is called pomology. Fruits are important in any community due to their
carbohydrate and vitamin contribution to the diet. Most fruits contain large quantities of sugars
and are high in vitamin A and C which are not abundant in most field crops. Fruits are also
economically important as they can produce large yields in small areas and again sell for high
prices compared to crops such as maize, wheat or groundnuts. This combination of high
productivity and high prices justify their potential to combat malnutrition and to contribute to
income generation both at farm and national level.

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

Afrostain Farmtech | A guide to sustainable fruit tree production | www.afrostain.co.zw | +2638644297729 | admin@afrostain.co.zw
  explain the distribution of fruits trees throughout the world with respect to temperature
variations
 explain the factors to be considered when sitting an orchard for fruit production
 describe the various propagation techniques for fruit trees

1.2 Distribution of Fruits

A more obvious factor influencing distribution and production of fruits is climate. Virtually all
crops have specific climatic requirements and production is highest where the climate is most
suitable. Climate is the most significant environmental factor affecting fruit crop production more
than any other factor and it contributes to the way fruits are distributed, in both the world and on
small scale. It is convenient to divide fruit plants into categories based largely on temperature
requirements, i.e. tropical, subtropical and temperate fruits.

1.2.1Tropical fruits

These are fruits that have their origin and commercial growing areas in the tropics (within latitudes
23.50 N-23.50 S), are evergreen and perennial, and have a limited degree of frost tolerance. These
plants thrive best in areas with a mean monthly temperature of 180C or higher. All the tropical fruit
species need substantial amounts of heat to ripen their fruits. Additionally most tropical fruits
require humid environmental conditions. They include mangoes, bananas, pineapple, guavas and
plantains.

1.2.2 Subtropical fruits

These are fruit crops that have their origin and commercial growing areas are the subtropics which
are known to have a mean temperature in the coldest month between 13-180C and having a distinct
wet and dry season. These plants are perennial with a limited degree of frost tolerance and can
shed their leaves under severe cold temperatures. Their growth is practically non-existent below
10°C. Examples includes citrus fruits (grapes, orange, lemon) and granadillas

1.2.3 Temperate fruits

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Temperate fruits are deciduous (drop their leaves in the cold period) and undergo dormancy
requiring a certain amount of low temperatures (chilling period) before growth is resumed and for
flower and fruit initiation in the spring. This acquisition of a plant's ability to flower or germinate
in the spring by exposure to the prolonged cold of winter is called vernalisation. Many plants
grown in temperate climates require vernalization and must experience a period of low winter
temperatures (5- 100C) to initiate or accelerate the flowering process. However many temperate
fruit crops have a warmth summer requirement to achieve good productivity and quality fruits.
Examples include apples, peaches, plums, strawberries, cherries, walnuts grapes, blackberry,
raspberry, and various hybrids of gooseberries.

Growing of temperate trees faces a lot of challenges in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. This
is because of the climatic requirements that are so peculiar to these deciduous fruit trees. The main
limiting factor is lack of coldness or very low temperatures. The temperature differences in the
tropics are not that significant as those in the temperate regions. In summer in the temperate regions
temperatures maybe as high as 250C and become as low as 00C or even below when its winter, but
in the tropics and subtropics temperatures can drop only as far as 120C in winter and results in a
condition called insufficient chilling.

Insufficient chilling results in:

1. Delayed foliation

This means trees take longer periods to produce leaves in spring or they fail to produce leaves
properly. Leaf formation can be sporadic under conditions of severe insufficient chilling. Leaves
usually and under normal circumstances, form two weeks after flowering. Absence of leaves may
cause abortion of flowers and young fruits. There will be no photosynthetic organs and products
to sustain the sinks.

2. Prolonged flowering period

Normally it takes two weeks for the trees to complete flowering. However, it takes more than two
weeks for the trees to complete flowering under conditions of inadequate chilling. In some cases
there may be a delay in the commencement of flowering by the fruit trees.

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3. Delayed bud break

Insufficient chilling results in buds taking long to start growing hence the delay in flower and leaf
formation. Delayed bud break may also mean that flowers may abort due to absence of leaves
which photosynthesise to sustain the flowers and young fruits.

4. Delayed fruit set and fruit ripening

Due to delays in flower set and prolonged period of flowering, fruit set and ripening will be
delayed as well. This results in exposing fruits to early summer rains, pests and diseases. Fruits
rots may then reduce yield drastically.

Solutions to problems of insufficient chilling

i) Use of low chill cultivars

Selecting and using cultivars with lower chilling requirements can help if growing deciduous trees
in tropics and sub-tropics.

(ii) Good site selection

Choose sites of high elevation/altitudes with sufficient cold temperatures over a considerable
period of time. Aspect should also be considered as slopes facing the direction of the sun are
warmer and should be avoided.

(iii)Use of some rootstocks

In some crops rootstocks reduce the chilling requirements of the scion, e.g. Rome Beauty (apple
scion), was found to require less chilling units on the rootstock M26 than when on MM104 or
MM106.

(iv)Chemical treatments

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Chemicals are sometimes used to stimulate bud burst in order to compensate for insufficient
chilling. However, none of the chemicals can compensate for total absence of chilling. Chemicals
used include DNOC (4, 6 dintro-o-ocrysylate), Thiourea, Calcium cyamide

(v) Use of growth regulators

Use of cytokinins and gibberellins helps to break bud dormancy.

(vi) Pruning of apical buds

This enhances growth of lateral buds which require more chilling than apical buds. Apical buds
inhibit growth of lateral buds and results in branchless trees which reduce number of fruits on the
tree (Para dormancy). Heading cut should be done to promote lateral growth

(viii) Over tree sprinkling

Artificial soaking of buds in winter and repeated natural rain showers has been found to increase
development of inadequately chilled buds of some trees like apples. This has prompted the idea of
over tree sprinkling with water in insufficiently chilled trees.

N.B. There is considerable overlap in plant response to tropical and subtropical and temperate
climates e.g. citrus-thrive as both tropical and subtropical, and passion fruits thrive in all the three
zones.

1.3. Orchard Establishment

As an orchard continue to fruit for many years, the planning associated with selection, layout, land
preparation and planting is important if the orchard is to produce at maximum capacity. Mistakes
made during this phase will cause problems for several years to come.

1.3.1 Site Selection

Each fruit crop has specialized environmental requirements which must be met for good growth
and production.

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Site Selection Factors

a) Climate

Careful assessment of climatic components such as minimum and maximum temperature, rainfall
amount and distribution as well as wind should be made. In tropical Africa, temperature is most
affected by altitude. The higher the altitude, the colder the climate. Hot climates in low altitude
favors production of tropical crops such as mangoes, bananas and guavas whilst on high altitudes
selected cultivars of apples or peaches will grow.

Rainfall quantity and timing is another important climatic factor to be considered in determining
the need for irrigation and the economics of a given crop. Mangoes for example do not fruit well
when flowering coincides with rain; therefore will not be profitable in areas where flowering
coincides with rains.

b) Water availability

An orchard should be located in an area near a reliable source of water for irrigation, spraying, and
washing of fruits prior to marketing. The quality of water should also be considered to prevent
possible fruit contamination as well as transfer of pests (e.g. nematodes) and some water bone
diseases to the orchard. Irrigation systems can be installed in orchards. Furrows and basin irrigation
systems work well in orchards and are relatively inexpensive. Drip irrigation is an ideal system
where the relatively inexpensive equipment required can be installed and maintained.

c) Soil

Fruit crops are deep rooted and therefore require deep soils. Before planting an orchard a soil
profile of 1- 2 m depth should be dug randomly through-out the orchard site to determine the
productive soil depth and other impervious layers which might be present.

Another important factor in selecting a soil is its ability to drain water through-out the root system
area. This is known as the internal drainage factor. There is need to select well drained soils or
create a well drained soil for fruit trees. To determine the internal drainage factor of a soil the
following steps should be observed;

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  Dig a 20cm square hole which is 80cm deep.
 Fill the hole with 20 litres of water.
 Let the soil absorb the water for an hour then fill again.
 If the hole is empty in 24 hours, the soil has good internal drainage. If it requires 48 hours
to drain, the internal drainage is poor but adequate. If any water remains after 48 hours do
not plant the tree or create a special raised bed
 If an impervious layer is present and the drainage is poor, another location should be
selected
 If the soil is suitable, soil from the top 30- 45cm should be sampled and analyzed for pH,
macronutrients and nematodes.

d) Topography

Gently sloping areas are preferred for an orchard site. If the terrain is steep, soil conservation
techniques should be practiced such as box ridging, contouring or terracing. If orchards are planted
on high altitudes where frost occurs, a gentle slope is preferred as this will decrease the possibility
of any cold air drainage.

e) Transport to the market

Fruits are highly perishable and should be sent to the market as soon as possible after harvesting.
They often spoil a day or two after picking if they are not refrigerated. Fruits can be marketed
locally or exported. Under local market, transport is unlikely to be a problem than being sent to a
city or exported by air or sea. The mode of transport used is also critical to avoid bruising of fruits
along the way to the market.

f) Labour availability

Orchard operations tend to be labour intensive especially during harvest therefore a supply of
reliable labour is necessary. Shortage of labour at critical stages such as harvesting or pest and
disease control can result in serious losses.

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1.3.2 Orchard layout / patterns
Several layouts can be made depending on the slope of the land. On steep slopes contour planting
is designed to minimize soil erosion.

On flat and gently sloping lands ideal planting patterns are square, rectangular, triangular,
quincunx and hedgerows

a) Square planting pattern

Trees are planted equidistant from each other at the spacing recommended for mature plants
making a square.

b) Rectangular pattern

Trees are planted in a rectangular pattern.

c) Hexagonal pattern

The trees are planted in a hexagonal pattern. It is used frequently as 12- 15 % more trees are planted
per hectare than the square pattern. At the later stage, when competition sets in, the trees can be
thinned out to a rectangular or triangular pattern.

d) Quincunx pattern

It is the same as the square pattern except that an additional tree is planted at the centre of each
square. This planting pattern has an advantage of producing higher yields during the early years
of production. The additional central tree should be cut down when the tree begins to form a mature
canopy.

e) Hedgerows pattern

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Is when trees are planted closely together to form thick solid rows. It is best for dwarf deciduous
trees such as grapes and may require special pruning and training technique. It has benefits of high
yield and low labour requirements per hectare.

1.4. Orchard Preparation

This consists of clearing, terracing if necessary, installation of irrigation pipes or ditches if needed,
fencing, planting of windbreak and digging of planting holes.

1.4.1 Orchard pegging

Mark planting stations with rows running north and south for better light penetration in the orchard.
On level land, establish a straight baseline usually next to a fence or roadway. Then establish lines
at right angles to the baseline at both ends of the plot and one or two places in the middle.

1.5. Planting
Planting holes measuring 0.6 m x 0.6m x 0.6 m (width x depth x length) should be dug. Top soil
and subsoil should be separated.

The hole should then be refilled with a mixture of 50% top soil and 50% well-rotted manure,
compost or any other decomposed material.

In soils where phosphorus is lacking, superphosphate fertilizers such as single super phosphate
(SSP) or double super phosphate (DSP) should be added as the hole is refilled.

Allow the hole to settle for several weeks and then plant the specific tree crop.

1.6. Fruit Tree Propagation

Fruit trees are propagated sexually (by use of seed) or asexually (vegetative progation).

1.6.1. Seed propagation

Since the fruiting characteristics of plants produced from seeds are nearly always inferior to the
parent plant, vegetative propagation is used in all instances. However seedlings are sometimes
used for rootstocks. Seeds of fruit trees such as plums, peaches and cherries can be planted directly
into the nursery where the plants are to be budded or grafted the following summer. Alternatively,
seed can be placed outside in saw dust until germination begins then planted in the nursery as soon
as possible. This will avoid sowing seeds which will fail to germinate and result in gaps in the

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nursery bed. In the nursery seedling are spaced 15-20cm apart in rows and 60-80cm inter row. In
practice the spacing is usually determined by the method or machinery to be used to cultivate
between rows.

The seed of trees such as passion fruits and pears after collection need to be stratified to break their
dormancy. This is done by placing the seed in mixture of equal parts of moist peat and sand then
seal in plastic bag and store in refrigerator for 2 months.

The seeds are then planted in seed trays in a glasshouse/greenhouse maintained at +/- 150C. When
seedlings are above 15cm high the trays are moved to a shade house were plants are hardened off
before transportation into the nursery in the early spring.

1.6.2. Vegetative propagation

Vegetative (asexual) propagation involves the propagation by use of cuttings, layering, grafting,
budding, and division techniques.

1.6.2.1. Propagation by Cuttings

Cuttings are stem sections planted in orchards/nursery. Cuttings can either be hardwood cuttings
(dormant stem sections formed from the previous season usually taken from autumn to winter) or
soft cuttings (cuttings from the succulent new shoots usually taken from the spring to summer) and
semi hardwood (cutting from mature wood usually taken in summer).

Types of Cuttings

a) Hardwood cuttings

These cuttings are widely used in deciduous fruit plant propagation such as grapes and plums.
They are propagated during the dormant period (autumn to early winter) preferably using stem
sections formed from the previous season. They are immediately planted either in nursery where
they remain for a year or directly into the orchard. Cuttings are commonly 25-40cm long. They
are planted to a depth equal to half their length but in situations were drying out is possible two
thirds of the length should be in the soil. If suckers are undesirable the cuttings should be disbudded
to leave 2 buds at the top. Cuttings can be dipped in Seradix rooting hormone to improve rooting.

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b) Softwood cuttings are prepared from succulent new growth usually in the spring. They are used
usually in propagation of grapes, blackberries and raspberries.

c) Semi-hardwood cuttings are mainly used for propagation of granadilla, grapes and avocado.
These cuttings are made from partially mature wood usually in summer. As the shoots are tender
and succulent high humidity should be maintained over the nursery and is done by either planting
the cutting in polythene tents called Poly-tunnels or in mist units in which they are left for two
weeks for rooting before transfer to a shade house. As cuttings are prepared they are dipped in
fungicides (0.1% Benomyl- the most commonly used) and the nursery sprayed with 0.1% Captan
solution.

General precautions when propagating cuttings

 Cuttings should be pruned from vigorously growing and healthy mature plant using sharp
knife and secateurs or hand pruners
 They must be kept cool and moist while being transported to shade for propagation.
 The cuttings are then prepared by removing the leaves from the bottom 4-6cm to avoid leaf
rot in the rooting media and contaminating it.
 They are then dipped in a rooting hormone, Seradix.
 The cuttings are then planted upright in the rooting medium/nursery or orchard.

1.6.2.2. Layering
Layering means rooting a cutting while it is still attached to the parent plant and this can be done
in two ways, by putting the medium around the branch were roots are desired or by bending the
branch to the ground and covering the area were roots are required with soil. Many plants such as
blackberries are naturally self-ground layered.

From a nursery production point, layering has limited usefulness. It is used:

 for species which cannot be reproduced easily by any other means or techniques
 for some species for which layering is the most economical and fastest method. This is
usually only the case with vining plants such as berries.
 for production and reproduction of large plants in a shorter time than through cuttings

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  when only a few plants are needed and they are no propagation facilities such as mist bed,
cold frame or hot beds for example in the communal areas when a few new plants are
wanted from neighborhood plant.

Layering techniques

There are several layering techniques which include air layering, simple layering, trench layering,
compound layering and stool layering.

a) Air layering

It is used in fruit species to produce specimens for indoor plants. Most other species such as apples
can be air layered. The basic steps to air layering are to pick the correct edge branch which is a
mature woody. Then girdle the branch at the point where one expects the roots to form. Girdling
is removing the bark all around by peeling it off in a strip and the purpose is to trap energy in the
shoot so that it will be there to form roots. In girdling you remove the part of the stem that transports
energy down the roots of the plant. This will not prevent water movement up to the shoot because
this takes place in the inner woody part of the shoot. The girdle prevents the movement of sugars
plus auxins from top point of the plant to the base and they accumulate just above the girdled stem
section. The presence of sugars will promote the formation of roots at this point. Rooting hormones
can also be applied to the girdled part or section.

Fig. 1.1. Steps in air layering.

b) Stool / mound layering

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Starts by cutting the mother plant back to stubs in early spring before new growth starts. New
shoots will grow and when these are about 10cm tall, loose soil or saw dust mixture is molded
halfway up. When they are about 25cm tall, they are molded again half way up and again when
they are 50cm tall. By the end of the season there should be adequate roots at the shoot base and
the layers can be cut from the parent and replanted.

Fig. 1.2. Diagram illustrating stool layering

b) Trench layering

This is similar to mound layering except that the mother plant is planted at an angle in the field in
a trench. Before growth begins in the spring the plant is laid flat and as shoots grow upward the
trench is filled with soil. The shoots and roots at the end of the season have the soil removed and
the layers cut off. This process can be repeated yearly on the same stock plant.

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Fig. 1.3. Trench layering.

c) Simple layering

Consist of bending an intact shoot to the ground to cause adventitious roots formation. Shoots are
bend to the ground in the early spring and covered in soil and held in place by a wire or woody
stakes. The stem is sometimes injured at the underground section which stimulates rooting
including notching, bending wiring and girdling.

Next surround the cut with a handful dampened moss and wrap in plastic. The moss supplies ideal
rooting conditions as it contains both air spaces and moisture and the plastic seals in the moisture.
String or wire can be used at either end of plastic to seal off to the stem. Rooting hormone on the
girdle may speed root formation. Then you just wait a month or two until the roots form, checking
periodically to make sure the moss stays moist to encourage rooting. If it dries out the girdle will
heal instead of root.

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Fig. 1.4. Simple layering

When roots are 4-5 cm cut the layer from the branch, remove plastic and plant in a pot or onto the
ground, preferably while it is dormant. Protect it from sun drying and wind for a few weeks until
the roots are sufficiently developed to take up all the water the new plants needs. Pruning the top
to reduce its size can accomplish the same purpose by balancing the top with the roots. Spring is
the best time for simple layering and one year old shoots are used because they are still flexible
and can be bent down to the ground.

There is need to fumigate the area were shoots will be rooted to avoid moving soil diseases and
nematodes with the layered plants. Girdle or break the shoots were roots are wanted and bury it
about 4cm deep. Pegging with a wire may be necessary to keep the branch down keep the soil
moist and when roots form threat it as a rooted air

d) Serpentine or compound layering

Is basically similar to simple layering but long shoots are selected which will provide several new
plants. Grapes and other vines are propagated this way.

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Fig. 1.5. Compound layering

1.6.2.3. Grafting

This is a plant propagation technique by which two plant parts are joined together and eventually
become one plant. A stem from one plant can be joined with a stem from another plant or a root
from a plant can be joined with a stem from another plant. The upper part of the graft union is
called a scion and the lower part is called a root stock.

For the graft union to be successful, the following conditions need to be satisfied:

 the scion and the root stock must be compatible, i.e. there should be closely related and
capable to link their cambium and vascular bundles (phloem and xylem vessels)
 the grafting technique must be the one that is successful with the species being grafted.
 the grafting operation must be performed well and at right time of the year, i.e. late winter
to early spring
 the environment must be favorable to promote graft to heal.

Grafting is usually possible with plants of the same species e.g. mango only or plants from the
same genus e.g. orange Citrus cinensis and lemon Citrus lemon. It is commonly used in
propagation of mangoes, grapes, avocado and granadillas.

Grafting techniques

The most common used are whip and tongue, cleft and side grafting.

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a) Whip and tongue

Also known as whip or bench grafting. It is useful especially on young plants which are only 7-
15mm in diameter. The stock and the scion should be of the same diameter although the graft can
still be successful even if they are not, provided the combining layers are matched on one side.
The scion can be dormant but the stock can either be dormant or actively growing.

Preparation of the root stock involves making first sloping cut which is 3-6cm long, through the
stem using a sharp knife. A second cut is made in a downward direction about a third of the distance
from the top of the initial cut. Matching cuts are made at the base of the scion. The scion and stock
are then slipped together so the tongues interlock to the cambium layers and come in contact. The
graft is then wrapped with sisal polythene tape or other waterproof material.

a)

OR

b)
Fig. 1.6. The whip graft; a) if stock and scion are of the same diameter, and b) if the stock is
thicker than the scion.

b) Cleft grafting

17
This technique is more suitable when the root stock is larger than the scion and on mature plants
which are to be changed to a different cultivar. It is done in winter when trees are dormant but just
before new growth begins. The stock is prepared by cutting the stock horizontally into a stub.The
stub is spitted by a vertical cut to a depth of 5- 8cm.

The scions (one year old wood) are prepared by cutting the base into a long , gradually tapering
wedge with the outside edge slightly thicker than the inside edge.

The split in the stock is held open with a wedge and the scions inserted, one scion at each side of
the s central split until cambium layers match. The wedge is withdrawn and the entire union
including the tips of the scions is covered with a grafting wax. After the graft heals, one of the two
scions is removed to remain with one scion to grow.

a) b)

Fig. 1.7. A cleft graft, a) for a one scion and b) for two scions.

18
Fig. 1. 8. In this example of a cleft graft, three stages in the growth of a branch from a scion are
shown.

1.6.2.4. Budding
This is a propagation method when a bud is used as the scion. It is achieved through various
techniques which include T-budding, shield budding and chip budding.

a) T-budding and Inverted T-budding

In T-budding, a vertical cut about 2-3cm in length is made through the bark to the cambium of
the stock. This is followed by a small (2cm) cross-wise horizontal cut at the top of the initial cut
(for the T-budding) or at the base of the vertical cut (for inverted T-budding). The removal of the
bud from its mother plant for T-budding is achieved by making a slicing cut beginning 2cm below
the bud upwards to 1cm above the bud. The bud is inserted into the stock by pushing it downwards
under the bark flaps on the stock so that the two horizontal cuts are matched. The bud union is then
tied with a budding tape.

For inverted T-budding the bud is removed by making a slicing cut beginning 2cm above the
bud downwards to 1cm below the bud. Make a horizontal cut at the base of the bud. The bud is
inserted by pushing it upwards under the bark flaps on the stock until the horizontal cuts match.

After the bud heals, the top of the stock is cut off just above the bud to promote growth of the bud.

19
Inverted T-budding is done especially in rainy locations where water moving down the stem may
enter the T-cut and prevent healing. It is often traditionally used for citrus and for species which
bleed profusely (chestnut). It is the same as T-bud except that it is reversed.

Fig. 1.9. Steps in T-budding

b) Shield Budding

This is the most common method for fruits, roses, and some ornamental plants. It is done on stocks
which are 6-25mm in diameter, actively growing bark which should be slipping.

A vertical cut about 2,5cm long the stock made about 5-25cm above the soil and a horizontal cut
about one third of the way around the plant. The buds are collected by a slicing cut started below
bud about 13mm as thin as possible. A horizontal cut 13-20mm above bud is made, and the bud
removed. It is inserted into the stock and the bud wrapped using tape, budding rubbers, but the bud
itself should not be covered.

20
A) B)

C) D) E)

Fig. 1.10. Steps in shield budding

c) Chip budding

21
Used when bark is not slipping, in winter when active growth has stopped. It is used on small
material, 13-25mm diameter and often used for grapes, deciduous fruits and roses.

Root stock -make an angled cut 45 degrees through quarter of stock. A downward cut of about
2.5cm above the first cut is made to meet the first cut and a chip of wood removed (done between
nodes).

Scion-Identical cuts are made in the bud stick (mother scion) and a chip of wood containing the
bud removed. The chip is inserted into cut, wrapped to seal cut edges. When buds begin to grow
the tape is cut, do not cut the bark till the union is made.

Fig. 1.11. Shows how to remove a chip bud and to insert into the stock.

1.6.2.6 Possible causes of failure of a graft or bud union

 Stock and scion are not compatible.

 The cambiums are not meeting properly.
 Scions could be upside-down.
 The operation could have done during the wrong time.
 The rootstock or scion is not health.
 Scions are dried out or injured by cold.
 Scions are not dormant.
 The graft was not properly covered with a grafting wax.
 The scion was disturbed by storm, birds or any other means.
 The graft was shaded too much by other growths.
 The graft was attacked by insects or diseases.

22
  The graft was girdled because the tape was not cut or released in time.

1.6.2.5. Division
This technique is used on plants with a clumping habit like bananas. It is done by separating the
clump into sections, each of which contains a growing point and a portion of the root system. The
sections are then replanted either in the nursery or directly into the field where they will soon re-
establish themselves. To divide mature clumps of perennials, select only vigorous side shoots from
the outer part of the clump. Discard the center of the clump. Divide the plant into clumps of three
to five shoots each. Be careful not to over-divide. Divide perennials when the plants are dormant
just before a new season of growth, i.e. in spring or in summer for them to establish before winter
frosts.

1.6.2.6. Tissue Culturing / Micro-propagation

It refers to the ability to establish and maintain plant organs (embryos, shoots,roots,flowers) and
plant tissues (cells, callus, protoplasts) in aseptic and to regenerate new plants from them. ”
Micro” refers to the small size of the material used. The piece of plant used to initiate micro-
propagation is called an explant. The technique developed from experiments which showed that
plant tissues removed from plants could be stimulated to grow in solution by the addition of
nutrients and certain plant hormones, particularly auxins and cytokinins.

Tissue culture is now widely used for rapid propagation of desired varieties. The most common
methods is to use meristematic tissue from apical or axillary buds or callus from non-meristematic
tissue.

Advantages of micro-propagation

 Allows for mass propagation of clones. This is in sync with the objectives of commercial
propagation, which is to reproduce copies of an original parent plant. It therefore permits
the rapid propagation of individuals of individuals from a parent plant.
 Production of pathogen free plants
 Allows for year round nursery production

Disadvantages of micro-propagation

23
  Expensive
 Needs technical knowhow

1.7. The general orchard care

1.7.1. Weeding

All weeds within the basin must be removed. Weeds in the inter-row should be mown or kept short
by slashing. Non-selective herbicides might be used for chemical weed control. Intercropping is
encouraged during the early days of an orchard to reduce weed pressure on young trees.

1.7.2. Scouting

This should be done regularly to look for pests and diseases. This is also to look for dead trees or
trees that may need to be replaced. Control all pests and diseases and all infected and affected
twigs, fruits or leaves should be or be buried.

1.7.3 Pruning

It is a systematic removal of plant parts. It is done for several reasons which include:

 Shaping of the tree

 To control size of the tree, to reduce height extension
 Removal of dead wood
 Removal of diseased wood
 Stimulation of growth
 Tree rejuvenation
 Reduce number of fruits on a branch
 To enhance fruit quality
 To prevent graft union from breaking off

Pruning techniques

24
a) Heading back

The apical portion of a plant is cut back. Lateral buds are left to grow while apical buds are
removed. This is also known as pinching. It is done to encourage growth of lateral buds by
breaking apical dominance.

c) Fruit pruning / thinning

This is where excess fruits are removed from branches. Diseased, pest damaged, misshapen fruits
are also removed during this operation. It is done to reduce fruit load that may cause fruit tree
snapping, improve quality of fruits as only a few fruits are left and supported by the available
assimilates.

d) Thinning out

This is a complete removal of a whole branch from the main stem.

1.7.4. Training

It is the orientation of the plant in space. It is a continuous process. The main aim is
to produce a pre-determined shape of a tree that will achieve greater productivi ty,
maturity and easy of culture or beauty.

Training systems

a) Central leader system

The trunk forms the leading axis while branches are distributed laterally up, down
and around the stem. The leader is the dominant feature of the tree’s framework. The
main direction is the upward direction. It encourages the development of a tall tree,
resulting mainly in a conical shaped tree which utilizes ligt more efficiently. The
advantage of this system is that strong branches develop and the disadvantage is that
interior branches are shade. Moreover, the tree can grow too big giving challenges in
harvesting fruits.

25
b) Modified central Leader system

This system is modeled along the central leader system where the tree is allowed to keep its central
leader for some period. The leader is then cut (at 7 – 10 years) away leaving side branches as the
dominant features. The objective is to develop a tree with four to nine scaffold limbs attached to a
strong central leader system. This allows for more light and spray penetration. It also controls the
height of the tree for ease of spraying and harvesting.

c) Open-centre system / Open Vase system

In this system the main stem is terminated. Growth is forced through a number of
branches close to the upper end of the trunk. The tree usually consists of three main
scaffold limbs and these must possess wide crotch angles. There is improved light
penetration for interior fruiting branches and a low head tree develops which makes
management works easy. However this system may bre ak due to weak branches which
may develop and are usually crowded. Mainly used for peaches and nectarines.

1.7. Summary

Fruit trees are propagated using several methods. Each particular fruit tree has its favoured
propagation techniques. On normal fruit production, vegetative propagation is the most commonly
used. Fruit trees are needs to be managed properly for one to realize maximum outputs from the
enterprise.

1.8. Activities
 Discuss the factors considered when siting an orchard.
 Discuss how fruit trees are propagated vegetatively.
 Discuss how fruit trees are propagated by seed.
 Explain the possible causes of failure of a graft union.

26
1.9. References
http://www.answers.com/topic/tropical-and-subtropical-fruit#ixzz2POgKboKL

Evans .E. and Frank. A. 1999. Plant Propagation by Layering, Instructions for the Horticulture
Gardener, Cooperative Extension Services, North Carolina.

Jackson. D. I and Looney. N. E., 1999. Temperate and sub-tropical fruit production. 2nd Edition,
CABI, London.

Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development., 2011, Farm Management

Handbook, Fruit crops, volume 2. Pg 225-237.

Rice. R. P. and Rice. L. w., 1987, Fruit and Vegetable production in Africa, MacMillan, London.

UNIT 2: Mango Production

27
1 Introduction

Mangos belong to the genus Mangifera of the family Anacardiaceae and to the species Mangifera
indica. Mango has become naturalized and adapted throughout the tropics and subtropics. There
are over 1000 named mango varieties throughout the world, which is a testament to their value to
humankind. It is a common garden tree throughout the tropics. Mango is biennial bearer / alternate
bearing (where a fruit tree produces a heavy crop in one season (on-season) and very little or
nothing in another season (off-season).

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Outline the classification, botany and adaptation of mangos.

 Describe the agronomic practices involved in mango production.
 Explain the different methods of harvesting mangoes.

2.2 Origin and Distribution

The genus Mangifera originated in tropical Asia, with the greatest number of species found in
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The most-cultivated Mangifera species, M.
indica (mango), has its origins in India and Myanmar. Mango is now cultivated throughout the
tropical and subtropical world.

2.3 Uses of Mangoes

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  Mangos are a highly nutritious fruit containing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and
vitamins, in particular vitamin A (beta carotene), B1, B2, and vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Mango fruit is mostly eaten ripe as a dessert fruit.
 Mature green mangos are also eaten fresh or as pickles. Green eating varieties are sweet,
non-starchy and have a non-astringent flavour at the green-mature stage of fruit
development.
 Mango adds flavour to many products, such as fruit juices, ice creams, wines, teas,
breakfast cereals, and biscuits.
 The fruit and its by-products are used for animal fodder.
 Timber for firewood

2.4 Botany

2.4.1. Size

Mangos are long-lived evergreen trees that can reach heights of 15–30 m. Most cultivated mango
trees are between 3 and 10 m tall when fully mature, depending on the variety and the amount of
pruning.

2.4.2 Canopy

Mango trees typically branch 0.6–2 m above the ground and develop an evergreen, dome-shaped
canopy.

2.4.3 Roots

The mango tree has a long taproot that often branches just below ground level, forming between
two and four major anchoring taproots that can reach 6 m down to the water table. The more
fibrous finer roots (feeder roots) are found from the surface down to approximately 1 m and usually
extend just beyond the canopy diameter. Distribution of the finer roots changes seasonally with
the moisture distribution in the soil.

29
2.4.4 Flowers

The inflorescence is a many-branched, terminal panicle 6.4 to 40.6 cm long, possessing from 550
to more than 4,000 small, pinkish-white flowers. The mango has two flower forms, hermaphrodite
and male, with both forms occurring on the same inflorescence. The ratio of hermaphrodite to male
flowers on an inflorescence varies with variety and season and is influenced by the temperature
during inflorescence development.

2.4.5 Leaves

The leaves are simple and alternate, with petioles 1–12 cm long. The leaves are variable in shape
and size but usually are oblong with tips varying from rounded to acuminate. Mature leaves are
dark green with a shiny upper surface and lighter green lower surface. New leaves emerge in
flushes of 10–20 leaves. Leaves emerge green, turning tan-brown to purple during leaf expansion
and then gradually changing to dark green as the leaves mature.

2.4.6 Fruit

Mango fruit is classed as a drupe (fleshy with a single seed enclosed in a leathery endocarp). Fruits
from different varieties can be highly variable in shape, colour, taste, and flesh texture. Fruit shapes
vary from nearly round, ovate to oblong. Fruits can weigh from less than 50 g to over 2 kg. The
fruit has a dark green background colour when developing on the tree. When ripe, its colour varies
from yellow to orange and its texture from smooth to fibrous. Some varieties develop a red
background colour at fruit set that remains until the fruits ripen. The mesocarp is the fleshy, pale-
yellow to deep-orange edible part of the fruit.

2.4.7 Seed

The fruits possess a single large, flattened, kidney-shaped seed that is enclosed in a woody husk.
Mango varieties produce either mono-embryonic or poly-embryonic seeds. In mono-embryonic
varieties, the seed contains only one embryo that is a true sexual (zygotic) embryo. Mono-
embryonic seeds are a result of cross pollination between the maternal and paternal parents. Fruit
from mono-embryonic seedlings will often vary from the parent trees, so propagation by grafting

30
is used to produce true-to-type mono-embryonic trees. Poly-embryonic seeds contain many
embryos, which are asexual in origin and genetically identical to the maternal parent. A tree
planted from a poly-embryonic seed will be identical to its parent tree, whereas a tree planted from
a mono-embryonic seed will be a hybrid.

2.5. Varieties

There are over a thousand mango varieties around the world. The most common varieties grown
in Zimbabwe include:

 Early maturity - Haden, Zill and Peach.

 Early mid-season - Tommy Atkins and Irwin.
 Late season - Kent and Sensation.

Selection of mango varieties

The characteristics by which mangos are typically selected are a mix of eating quality, keeping,
and growing characteristics. Fruit quality characteristics include flavour, aroma, flesh texture, fibre
as well as fruit size, external appearance, and yield performance.

The adaptations of a variety to environmental pressures of drought, wet weather during flowering,
temperature, pests, and diseases are also important selection criteria, because they determine the
cropping consistency and fruit quality.

2.5. Environmental and Soil Requirements

2.5.1. Climate

Mangoes grow over a wide range of frost-free climates. The trees produce best in climates that
have a well defined, relatively cool dry season with high heat accumulation during the flowering
and fruit development period. Rain or free moisture (high humidity, heavy dew) during the
flowering and fruiting period is conducive to the development of fungal diseases that cause flower

31
and fruit drop. Optimum growing temperature is 24–27°C. Frost will kill small mango trees and
severely defoliate mature trees. Low temperature stress is necessary for floral induction.

Mango trees grow over a wide range of rainfall volumes and patterns. The trees produce best when
the most rain falls during summer months and there is a well defined winter dry period. Mangoes
need a dry period of 3 to 5 months to induce maturity of vegetative parts and flower. Fruit
development also needs plenty of sunlight up to 120 -135 days after flower induction. Bearing is
best when the dry period lasts from 1 to 2 months before flowering to after harvest. They require
an annual rainfall range of 400–3600 mm.

2.5.2 Altitude

Mango grows and produces fruit over a wide range of elevations from sea level up to 1200 m in
tropical latitudes. Most commercial varieties do not produce consistently above 600 m elevation.

2.5.2 Soil Requirements

Mangos are tolerant of a wide range of soils(light to heavy), but production is best on well drained
sandy or gravelly soils that dry out rapidly after the wet season, forcing the trees into a dormant
period, essential for heavy flowering. The optimal pH range is 5.5–7.5.

2.6 Propagation

Mango is propagated by seed and various vegetative methods. The genetic quality of a mango
seedling depends on the embryo type of the seed. Poly-embryonic seeds will usually produce three
to ten seedlings from each seed, most of which will come true to type with the tree they came from.
Poly-embryonic seeds also contain one embryo that is genetically different from the parents; that
is, this embryo will produce an off-type seedling.

32
In contrast to poly-embryonic seeds, mono-embryonic seeds produce only one seedling for each
seed that is always genetically different from the parents. For this reason, most mono-embryonic
varieties are propagated by grafting onto poly-embryonic rootstocks.

2.6.1. Seed Propagation

Seed from fully mature or ripe fruits are selected from trees that are free of seed weevils. Seeds
from the larger fruits generally produce the most vigorous seedlings. Only poly-embryonic seeds
will produce seedlings that are true to type. The best germination results are achieved when the
seed is removed from the leathery endocarp. Once the seeds are removed from the leathery
endocarp, they lose viability very rapidly due to desiccation and should be planted immediately or
soaked in water for up to 24 hours before planting.

Planting techniques

Seeds should be planted to a depth of 2 cm and oriented on their side to facilitate a straight stem
and roots. Seeds should be planted into seedling beds of sand with an impenetrable root barrier at
15 to 20 cm depth. The root barrier makes it easier to lift the seedlings when potting up. This is
usually done when the seedlings are approximately 30 cm high.

When potting up, only use the three or four most vigorous seedlings from each seed and discarding
the rest. Choosing only the most vigorous seedlings will avoid selecting the zygotic embryo that
is often the source of off-type trees.

The seedlings should be raised in a nursery under 50–80% shade. Avoid raising seedlings under
the canopies of larger mango trees, as this practice promotes infection of the seedlings with fungal
diseases. Young mango trees can be field-planted when approximately 12 months old and large
enough to compete with minor weeds. At the time of planting, seedlings should be at least 1 m tall
and have a stem diameter of at least 15 mm. The best time to field-plant is at the onset of the wet
season.

33
To avoid transplanting shock when field planting, trees should be hardened for at least a week
prior to field planting. If trees are excessively vigorous at the time of field planting, they can be
pruned to reduce leaf area and water demand on the establishing root system.

2.6.2 Vegetative Propagation

Many of the better mango varieties have mono-embryonic seeds which, when planted, will not
reproduce true to type. Grafting is therefore the most preferred method of propagating mango
varieties. Two popular methods for mangos are the cleft graft and the whip-and-tongue graft.
Veneer-grafting and chip-budding are the other common and successful methods used in mango
production.

2.7 Planting

The recommended planting time in Zimbabwe is during the beginning of the rainy season, in
October.

2.7.1 Field planting

This is usually done 1–2 years after germination. At this stage the trees are usually 60–120 cm tall.
Planting holes – 75cm x 75cm x 75cm (length, width, depth)

General recommendations for spacing is usually 8m x 8m, but larger spreading cultivars can be
planted at a spacing of 10m x 10m

2.8 Orchard Care

2.8.1 Mulching
Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reduces weed problems next to the tree trunk, and improves
the soil near the surface. Mulch with a 5-to15 cm layer of grass bark, wood chips, or similar mulch
material. Keep mulch 20-30 cm from the trunk.

34
2.8.2 Pruning
Orchard trees require regular annual pruning to maintain an open canopy of manageable size.
Pruning is necessary to thin the canopy and remove any dead branches inside the canopy. This
allows air and sunlight to penetrate, which reduces pests and diseases and enhances internal fruit
colour.

2.8.3 Watering

Although mangos are able to withstand periodic drought, it is best to water the trees during the
dryer months. Watering mango trees when the flowers and fruit are on the tree will improve the
fruit set and size of the fruit at harvest.

Newly planted mango trees should be watered at planting and every other day for the first week or
so, and then 1 to 2 times a week for the first couple of months. During prolonged dry periods (5 or
more days of little to no rainfall) newly planted and young mango trees (first 3 years) should be
watered once a week to keep the soil moisture depth at 600-1200mm. Once the rainy season
arrives, irrigation frequency may be reduced or stopped.

2.8.3. Fertiliser Management

As a rule, mangos do not require large amounts of fertilizer. Over fertilization can be detrimental
to yield, promoting excessive vegetative vigour at the expense of flowering and fruiting (rank
growth). Mangos are especially sensitive to nitrogen, which not only promotes vigour but also
reduces fruit colour at harvest and reduces the fruits’ tolerance of postharvest diseases.

Young trees should receive basal fertilizer applications every month during the first year,
beginning with 114g and gradually increasing to 455g. Thereafter, 3 to 4 applications per year in
amounts proportionate to the increasing size of the tree are sufficient.

Fertilizer mixtures containing 6 to 10% nitrogen, 6 to 10% available phosphoric acid, 6 to 10%
potash, and 4 to 6% magnesium give satisfactory results with young trees. For bearing trees, potash
should be increased to 9 to 15%, and available phosphoric acid reduced to 2 to 4%.

35
Mango trees growing in neutral and acid- pH soils may be fertilized with soil-applied dry materials
of iron, zinc, boron, and manganese either separately or in mixes. Copper should be applied as a
nutritional spray and boron only as needed.

Table 2.1: Essential plant food elements

Macronutrients Micronutrients

Nitrogen Zinc

Phosphorous Iron

Potash Boron

Calcium Molybdenum

Sulphur Copper

Magnesium Manganese

Chlorine

2.9 Crop Protection

2.9.1 Weed control

Ring cultivation is recommended for young mango trees. This is done by scrapping or hoeing the
weeds around the base of the trunk. An area of about one meter radius should be maintained weed
free. Thick mulching will also prevent weed growth.

Inter-row cultivation using a disc harrow is necessary for big plantations, avoiding deep discing
near the root system.

36
Non-selective herbicides like Gramoxone and Roundup can be used for controlling weeds in
mature trees.

2.9.2 Pests and their management

Many insects live in and feed on mango trees, but only a few of these are considered major pests.

2.9.2.1 Scale insects

Several species of scale insects are known to be pests of mango, including Phenacaspis dilatata,
P. cockerelli, Ceroplastrs rubens, and Aulacaspis tubercularis. They suck sap from all parts of the
tree and are often a serious pest in the nursery. The infested areas turn pale green or yellow and
eventually die.

Control

 Spray Mineral oil, Parathion, Azynphos-Methyl.

2.9.2.2 Tip borers (Penicillaria jocosatrix, Chlumetia euthysticha)

The larvae of these species bore into and kill the young developing flushes. The pest activity is
worst during hot, wet, summer seasons. These can be controlled by use of registered chemicals.

2.9.2.3 Fruit flies (Dacus sp., Strumenta sp., Bactrocera dorsaila, and Pardalaspis sp.)

Adult flies lay eggs in near-ripe or ripe fruit and the larvae tunnel and feed throughout the flesh,
destroying and decaying it.

Control

 Orchard hygiene, bury all decaying fruit in the soil at least 60cm deep.
 Use insecticides like Malathion and Trichlorfon.
 Suffocation

37
2.9.2.4 Mango Seed weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae, S. gravis)

The mango seed weevil bores into the seed early in the development of the fruit, with little or no
damage to the edible fruit. In the seed, the larvae destroy the cotyledons, thus reducing seed
germination.

The presence of seed weevils is a major quarantine barrier for the export of mango to many
countries.

Control

 Orchard hygiene, bury all decaying fruit in the soil at least 60cm deep.
 Use insecticides like lebaycid and Malathion.

Other pests

Other insect and mite pests of mango include fruit spotting bugs, seed caterpillars, plant hoppers,
flower-feeding caterpillars, thrips, leaf miners, fruit piercing moths, termites, mites, and coccids.

2.9.3 Diseases

2.9.3.1 Anthracnose

It is a serious fungal disease caused by the fungus, Colletotrichum gloeosporiodi, which affects
flowers, fruits, and leaves. Wet conditions during flowering promote anthracnose development.

Symptoms

Flowers and young fruit develop black lesions and are aborted from the inflorescence. After the
fruit reaches approximately 4 cm in diameter, the fruit’s natural defence mechanisms protect it
from anthracnose by inducing the fungus into a quiescent period. When the fruit softens during the

38
ripening process, the natural defence mechanisms break down, and latent infections of anthracnose
develop into black lesions that rot the whole fruit in days. Post-harvest anthracnose is the major
reason for losses of mangos during storage and transport.

Control

 Very susceptible cultivars, such as Haden and Irwin require a diligent fungicide program.
Begin fungicide applications at the first appearance of panicles and continue spraying at
recommended intervals until the pre-harvest waiting period is reached.
 Fungicides include Copper oxychloride and Prochloraz.

2.9.3.2 Mango scab

It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Elsinoe mangiferae. The disease affects leaves, stems,
and young fruit.

Symptoms

Results in slightly raised, gray, oval to elliptical lesions on the stems and leaves. In young fruit,
black, scabby lesions develop that can cause the fruit to drop off. As the fruits grow, scar tissue
develops around the black lesions, making them unmarketable due to blemishes.

Control

 Spray Copper oxychloride, Copper+ Zineb mixture

2.9.3.3 Bacterial black spot

It is a bacterial disease caused by the bacteria, Xanthomonas campestris, which affects leaves and
fruits. The disease is worse in windy areas and on trees with low growth vigour.

Symptoms

The disease results in black lesions on the leaves, with greasy margins delineated by leaf veins.
Fruit lesions initially appear as small, irregular, water-soaked spots. Later, lesions become raised

39
with a greasy appearance, cracking, and oozing bacteria-laden sap. The disease is spread in wind-
driven water from lesions to natural openings and wounds on the tree.

Control

 Plant disease-free propagules.

 Spray Copper oxychloride.

Other mango diseases

 Alternaria rot – caused by Alternaria alternate fungus

 Powdery mildew – caused by Oidium mangiferae fungus
 Stem end rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Dothiorella dominicana or Phomopsis
mangiferae)
 Mango malformation (Fusarium sp.)

2.9.4 Physiological Disorders

2.9.4.1 Mango Decline

This is caused by deficiencies of manganese and iron. These deficiencies may predispose trees to
infection by fungal pathogens (Botryosphaeria ribis and Physalospora sp.), which attack shoots,
or by root feeding nematodes (Hemicriconemoides mangiferae).

Symptoms

The disorder results in interveinal chlorosis, stunting, terminal and marginal necrosis of leaves as
well as retention of dead leaves that gradually drop. Dieback of young stems and limbs is common
and even tree death may occur.

Control

 Increased applications of iron, manganese, and zinc micronutrients.

2.9.4.2 Internal physiological disorders

40
Jelly seed — premature ripening from around the seed.

Soft nose — premature softening of the nose of the fruit.

Spongy stem end — breakdown of the flesh and vascular tissue at the stem end.

Internal breakdown — premature ripening and cellular breakdown of the flesh.

 All of the above disorders are associated with low fruit calcium levels.

2.10 Harvesting
The harvesting period in Zimbabwe is early December to mid April. The maximum eating quality
of fresh mangos is obtained when the fruits are harvested when fully mature. Early or immature
picking can reduce eating quality.

Fruits are usually picked as mature or green fruit and then ripened in crates or baskets. If the fruit
is left to ripen on the tree, birds and bats usually eat the fruit first.

Fruits are usually harvested by hand or with the help of picking devices. The fruits are handled
gently as they are easily damaged by abrasion and sap contamination. Care should be taken to
avoid sap contacting the fruit during the harvesting and packing operations, as it is caustic and
causes dark, unsightly blemishes on the fruit.

Maturity Indices

 The background green colouring of the fruit begins to lighten

 The fruit pedicle (stem) begins to shrivel and is more easily separated from the fruit
 Flesh colour changes from white to a uniform pale yellow.

2.11 Post-harvest care

To maximize the storage life of mangos, fruits are generally dipped in hot water and fungicides to
slow the development of postharvest fungal rots. Controlled cool temperatures are also essential if
fruit quality is to be maintained during storage. Dipping the fruits in Calcium chloride solutions
have been seen to increase the shelf life.

2.12 Yield potential

41
Average yields of 100 to 150 kg / tree per season can be expected from mature trees. Greater yields
are possible with good management and favourable weather conditions.

2.13. Activities
1. State the uses of mangos.
2. Briefly explain the botanical description of mango.
3. Describe the two types of mango seed and explain their suitability for propagation.
4. State the varieties available in zimbabwe and discuss the factors affecting the choice of a
mango variety.
5. Discuss the propagation methods and planting of mangos.
6. Describe the fertiliser requirements for mangos.
7. Describe the damage caused by named mango pests nand their control.
8. Describe the symptoms and control anthracnose and mango decline in mango production.

2.14. Summary
Mangos are among the most important tropical fruits in the world. Following the recommended
orchard care and management practices is of great importance in maintaining high yields
consistently.

2.15. References
Bally. I. S. E., 2006, Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry- Mangifera indica (mango),
Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hawai‘i.
Ministry of Agriculture and Mechanisation, 2010, Farm Management Handbook, Horticultural
Crops, Volume 2. 1:40-43.

Sheppard. S and Ndebele. D, 2010, Zimbabwe Crop Chemical Handbook Volume 1: Insecticides,
Fungicides, Growth Regulants, Fumigants and Public Health Products, CropLife Zimbabwe.

42
UNIT 3: Banana Production

3.0. Introduction

Banana belongs to the genus Musa of the Musaceae family and to the edible species Musa
cavendish. Its origin is in the tropics of South- East Asia which includes Burma, Thailand and
Malaysia. Musa Cavendish was developed from the two species Musa acuminata and Musa
balbisiana. They have their closely relative starch type species called plantains which belong to
the species Musa parabisiaca. Bananas are a valuable source of vitamin B6, vitamin C, and
potassium.

3.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 describe the banana plant

 the environmental requirements of bananas
 describe how bananas are propagated
 discuss the orchard care practices involved in banana production
 outline the maturity indices of bananas
 describe the process of harvesting bananas

3.2. Uses

Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten
raw or cooked. Bananas are eaten deep fried or baked. They can be made into jam, banana pancakes
or chips. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Banana hearts are used as a
vegetable, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.

Nutritionally, bananas are an excellent source of vitamin B6, soluble fiber, and contain moderate
amounts of vitamin C, manganese and potassium. Along with other fruits and vegetables,
consumption of bananas may be associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer in women.

It can also be source of income and foreign currency to the farmer and the nation respectively.

43
3.3. Botany
Banana is a perennial, herbaceous and fast growing plant which arises from a special underground
rhizome usually called a corm. The banana plant can grow up to between 1.5- 8m tall.

3.3.1 The banana stem

Banana trunk consists of all the leaf petioles wrapped around each other tightly forming a
pseudostem. New leaves start growing inside, below the ground originating at the centre (basal
meristem) around the apex of the rhizome. They push up through the middle and emerge from the
centre of the crown. When a banana plant is mature, the corm stop producing new leaves and
begins to form a flower spike or inflorescence which push up through the middle and emerge from
the centre of the crown (fig 3.1). After fruiting, the pseudostem gradually dies, but offshoots will
normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial.

Fig 3.1. The banana canopy.

3.3.2 Leaves

The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of
the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is
all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular.
As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart. Leaves are
spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres long and 60 cm wide. They are oblong with a rounded
tip, and are often shredded (torn) along veins by the wind resulting in the familiar frond look.

3.3.3 Roots and the rhizome

44
The rhizome is the base of the plant called a corm. A corm is a swollen underground stem in which
a plant can store energy that allows it to survive during harsh conditions, e.g. during a drought.
The banana tree corm is perennial and can keep on producing pseudostems for 15 years or even
longer. The corm (fig 3.2) acts as the true stem from which the leaves, roots, flowers and suckers
develops. The roots are flesh and thick (5- 8mm in diameter). They arise from beneath the base of
the oldest surviving leaves. A health plant produces 200- 400 main roots which may spread
laterally 4- 5m radius from the pseudostem.

Fig. 3.2. The banana corm.

3.3.4 Flowers

The inflorescence is produced terminally originating from the basal meristem. The hanging
inflorescence is elongated into the fruit stalk. Flowers develop in a series of double rows arranged
spirally around the fruit stalk. The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly
called petals) between rows of flowers (fig 3.3a). The female flowers (which can develop into
fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The
ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary
(fig 3.3b).

a) b)

45
Fig. 3.3. The banana inflorescence (a), and the female flowers (b).

3.3.5 Fruit

Fruits generally develop parthenocarpically (without pollination) and hence are seedless. The fruits
grow in hanging clusters called hands with up to 20 fruits per hand. The total of the hanging
clusters (hands) which can consist of 3- 20 hands is known as a bunch, or commercially as a
"banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kg. The fruit averages 125 g, of which approximately
75% is water and 25% dry matter content. Each individual fruit, known as a banana or 'finger', has
a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with a fleshy edible inner portion. Typically the fruit has
numerous strings (called 'phloem bundles') which run between the skin and the edible portion of
the banana, and which are commonly removed individually after the skin is removed. The seeds
are diminished nearly to non-existence and their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of
the fruit

Fig. 3.4. Stages of fruit development on the banana plant.

3.4. Banana Cultivars

There are a number of important banana cultivars grown in Zimbabwe although the majority of
bananas grown in villages are of unidentified origin. Of most importance are; the Dwarf
Cavendish, Williams and Gros Michel.

3.4.1 Dwarf Cavendish

46
This subgroup of the Cavendish bananas is by far the most important in Zimbabwe. They are short
(up to 3m tall) and can throw branches at about 2m height. Its height makes it less prone to wind
damage. It can produce up to 40 tonnes per hectare per year. Its bunches are small and can weigh
about 30- 40 kg as was recorded at Chiredzi research station. The Cavendish bananas are of good
quality but they do not transport well unless the hands are cut from the stalk and packed in
cardboard cartons. They are resistant to Panama disease caused by the fungus Fusarium
oxysporium f. cubensis and work well with high density planting drip irrigation.

3.4.2 Williams

The plants are bigger and grow up to 5m tall. They throw branches at the height of 3.5 m. It
produces larger fruits and the mean bunch weight is 100kg or more. It can yield up to 50tones per
hectare per year. They are highly susceptible to wind damage because of its weight and height. It
is also adapted to cooler regions.

3.4.3 Gros Michel

It is a tall cultivar about 4- 8m tall and produces fruits which are long and with an attractive colour
and taste. Because the fruits are larger , the plant population is low hence the yield is also low. Its
height makes it vulnerable to wind damage and is also susceptible to Panama disease.

3.5. Climatic Requirements

3.5.1 Rainfall

Bananas have a high water requirement of at least 25mm per week through out the year for
optimum growth. Under high water shortage leaves turn yellowish green and die prematurely.
Extended dry periods may cause choking, i.e. failure of the fruit stalk to come out from the
pseudostem. When the water is applied, the bunch resumes growth and may burst through the side
of the pseudostem. Annual rainfall requirement is 1500- 2500mm.

3.5.2 Temperature

Optimum temperature range is 20- 30oC. In cooler temperatures growth is slow. If cold
temperatures coincide with formation of female flowers, few flowers will be formed hence few

47
fruits. Temperatures of less than 21oC later in fruit development delays fruit colour change during
ripening. Frost can cause leaf death, poor bunch quality and reduced fruit quality. At high
temperatures bananas may suffer from sun scotch.

3.5.3 Wind

Bananas are prone to wind damage and even moderate winds can tear the leaves. Provision of
windbreaks is helpful.

3.6. Soil Requirements

Bananas grow well in a wide range of soils provided the soil is fertile, have moderate to good
drainage as root development is chiefly determined by the degree of soil aeration. Poor aeration
restricts root development. Many roots die if exposed to water logging for more than 24 hours.
Water logged soils reduces yield, plant size, root growth and turn the leaves to pale green. The
optimum pH of the soil is 5.5- 6.5 on a calcium chloride scale. The soils should be deep up to
1meter as the roots normally grow to a depth of 60- 80cm and occasionally to 1.2m. Bananas
require soils with high organic matter which aid in moisture retention and contain abundant
amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

3.7. Fertiliser Management

Bananas are gross feeders and make heavy demands on available nutrients. Yields can be
increased dramatically by fertilization. The elements nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are the most
important for the production of good quality fruits while phosphorous (P) increase the number of
hands and fingers produced per bunch. Both phosphorous and potassium have been found to affect
the flavour adversely when one of them is deficient. P and K should be applied in the planting hole
and thereafter once or twice yearly as surface dressings. For K, muriate of potash is required at a
rate of 75- 100kg for the initial application and 250- 750kg per hectare as surface dressing in four
equal top dressings. For P, single supper phosphate is required at a rate of 200- 350kg/ha as an
initial planting application and then 150- 300kg/ha each year in August or September.

48
Nitrogen should be applied in small amounts at frequent intervals trough out the year. In
Zimbabwe, ammonium nitrate is applied at a rate of 400- 750kg/ha in four equal top dressings in
January, March, September and November. This prevents loss due to leaching.

The addition of 20- 40 tones of manure in the planting holes and as a side dressing is beneficial
nutritionally and also contributes to improvement the water holding capacity of the soil.

Banana plant residues can be copped into small pieces and spread in a thin layer around the plants
as they are rich in potassium and also act as a mulch to conserve moisture.

Lime is applied only on the basis of soil analysis. Generally 0.5 – 2 t/ha may be applied depending
on pH and texture of the soil. Where magnesium status is low, dolomitic lime should be preferred.

3.8. Land Preparation

Land preparation for bananas include ripping followed by deep ploughing to ensure adequate
aeration. Plough the land during the dry season and remove all weeds, particularly couch grass.
Discing is then done and planting stations made which should be large enough to accommodate
the propagating material.

Fumigation is necessary to protect the plants from possible attack by nematodes.

3.9. Planting material

For normal production, all bananas are propagated vegetatively by means of suckers, pieces of
corms, butts and bits.

a) Suckers

Suckers form the best planting material for bananas and the propagation is done by separating the
sucker from the rhizome and replant direct into the field. Suckers should be taken from a health
parent plants when they are about 50- 200cm height, and about 15- 25cm wide at the base. Before
planting the sucker, observe the control measures for banana weevils and nematodes. Several types
of suckers can be used, and these include peepers, sword suckers, water suckers and maiden
suckers.

49
Types of suckers

i) Peepers

These are very young suckers which are about 30cm above the ground. They have a thick base and
a strong connection to the parent plant. They have not yet formed leaves.

Fig3. 5. Banana peepers.

ii) Sword suckers

These are suckers which have developed 3- 4 narrow, sword-like leaves. They are planted when
they reach a height of up to 75cm. These are old peepers and have a broad base and narrow leaves.
It also has a strong connection to the parent plant. It is the most ideal sucker for propagation.

Fig 3.6. Sword sucker.

iii) Water suckers

These are superficially weak suckers with a narrow base and stem. The leaves are broad and the
suckers are not ideal for propagation.

50
Fig 3. 7. Water sucker.

iv) Maiden sucker

These are large strong suckers which have broad leaves but not yet developed the inflorescence.
After digging, they are cut back to 15cm above the corm and the central meristem is destroyed.
They are usually planted on their sides about 30cm deep.

b) Pieces of the corm with about 10cm of the pseudostem attached. These are placed in the
planting hole and covered with soil to a depth of about 5cm above the cut end of the pseudostem.

c) Butts which are similar to pieces but have about 25cm of the pseudostem attached.

d) Bits are sections of the corm tissue weighing about 2kg or more containing a bud. They are
used when plants are too big for planting.

3.10. Planting

3.10.1 Planting time

The best time to plant bananas is at or just before the beginning of the rain season. Planting can be
timed such that fruit matures out of season so as to fetch higher prices. Bunches formed in winter
are likely to be of low quality but winter produced fruits often fetches higher prices.

3.10.2 Spacing

Trials at Chiredzi have shown that although a wider spacing of 2.4m by 2.7m gives a greater mean
bunch weight, yield per hectare per crop cycle are less than that of closer spacing of 2.1m by 2.4m.
This is attributed to the effects of reduced plant population.

For Williams, to date indications are that different combination of spacing and time of sucker
selection encourage the development of bunches at different times of the year.

51
Wider spacing has various advantages which are:

 better quality fruits

 greater bunch weight and finger size
 easier orchard management and
 improved light penetration which promote sucker growth and initiation.

Close spacing is associated with some disadvantages which include;

 reduced fruit size and weight.

 the fruit does not fill properly
 sucker development is sparse and poor
 fungal disease incidences are greater and control is difficult
 orchard management become complicated and difficult
 Production cycle of the follower crop is prolonged

Wider spacing of 2.4m by 2.7m or 4m by 2m is therefore recommended for Dwarf Cavendish.

3.11. Post Planting Operations

i) Replanting

About 4- 6 weeks after planting a careful check should be made on the survival rate of the plants.

Replace all unsuccessful suckers preferably by lager maiden suckers.

ii) Mulching

The materials used may be the chopped stems of bananas from which fruits have been harvested
or banana leaves. The mulch should be spread evenly around the base of the growing plants.

iii) Weed control

Weeds should be controlled until the plants are large enough to prevent weed growth due to the
density of the shade produced. Broad leaved weeds do little damage unless they harbour pathogens.
Grass weeds should be suppressed. Slashing has been found to be the best solution when repeated
at every 6- 8 week interval. Chemical weed control involves the use of Diuron, Atrazine and
simazine and paraquat.

52
iv) Irrigation

Bananas require additional water when grown in low rainfall areas. The banana plant has a shallow
root system and the roots are poor water drawers therefore application should regular and adequate
rather than heavy and less frequent. Sprinkler irrigation is preferred than flood because of the
following reasons:

 labour requirement is less

 sprinkler can be used slope land without need for land leveling.
 it is more efficient as the application can be accurately controlled.
 more uniform distribution of water

Low trajectory sprinklers spraying below the foliage should overcome the possibility of increasing
the incidences of cigar end rot (Hendersonula toruloides) of the banana fingers.

A basin irrigation system is very effective but it is more labour intensive.

However a system of irrigation to be used will depend on the soil type, water availability and cost
for installation and management.

Table .3.1. A general irrigation guide.

Period Intervals between irrigation ( in days)

Light soils (35mm) Heavy soils (50mm)

April to August 9 13

September to November 5 7

December to March 6 9

3.12. Special Cultural Practices

a) De-suckering and selection of a follower sucker

53
De-suckering is the removal of excess side shoots to maintain the balance between growth and
yield. Failure to remove unwanted suckers inhibits the growth of follower suckers in widely spaced
plantings. Try to keep 3- 4 plants in the mat (clump) of varying sizes and maturities of
approximately 6- 9 months apart. This gives a more consistent harvest. However some varieties
seem to be affected by crowding than others. A follower sucker is a side shoot which is allowed to
grow as a successive plant to the fruiting plant after harvesting. In the low veld the best time to
select suckers of dwarf Cavendish is between July and October. The bunches emerge between
February and April and are harvested between July and October. It is therefore not recommended
to select suckers between December and March the plants tend to produce bunches of poor quality.

Considerations in selecting a follow on sucker:

 When the banana plant to be succeeded is about 1.5m tall

 It should be a sword sucker
 The sucker should be about 60- 80 cm tall
 It should be to the east or north- east of the mother plant for light interception
 The sucker should not be growing under the bunch of fruits
 The sucker should be in a marching direction

b) Trimming of leaves

Trimming involves the removal of dead leaves hanging down on the sides of the pseudo stem. This
practice helps combat diseases and enhances light penetration. It is recommended to be done
between April and August.

c) De-flowering

In dwarf Cavendish the flower parts often remain on the fingers during fruit development. These
withered floral remains should be removed shortly after flowering is complete. A light brushing
with a hand is enough to detach them. This improves the bunch appearance and lessens the risk of
cigar end rot infection. Removing floral remains during packing may damage the fingers.

d) Bell removal

54
This is the removal of the bell, the flower part at the end of the fruit stalk which is done shortly
after flowering is complete. It is done when the distance between the bottom hand and the bell is
about 150mm. This practice improves the bunch appearance and lessens the risk of cigar end rot
and bacterial wilt which is spread by attracted by the flowers. It also increases the average weight
of the fingers.

Fig 3.9. The bunch with the bell removed.

e) Bunch covering

This is the covering of the bunch by a blue polyethylene bag. The bag is loosely tied just above
the first hand of the bunch and hanging at least 150mm below the lowest hand. This protects the
fruits from hail damage, cold temperature and insects and promotes bunch filling. It is done at the
onset of the rain season and only to a bunch which is 3 weeks from maturity.

55
Fig. 3. 10. Bunch covering.

f) Propping

This is a practice whereby single wooden sticks or bamboo poles are placed against the stem or on
the curvature of the bunch stalk to support the weight of the bunch. It is done during the last few
months of its life cycle before harvesting. Williams are very prone to wind damage because of
their height and bunch weight therefore should be propped.

a) b)

Fig 3.11. A broken stem due to bunch weight (a), and a propped plant (b).

3.12. Crop Protection

3.12.1 Pests

i) Nematodes (Rhadopholus stimulus)

This is the burrowing nematode which destroys plant roots resulting in plants falling over.
Nematodes reduce yields and the degree of damage caused by nematode attack depends on:

 Soil type
 Age of the plant
 Water supply
 Fertilizer application and
 Species of the nematode present.

56
Control

Nemacur, furadan 5% granular and Mocarp 10% granular are effective as preplant applications.

Cut the roots of suckers before planting if the sucker is coming from a nematode prone area.

Dip the bases of the planting material in hot water (62- 65 oC) for 10 minutes or dip in a non-
phytotoxic nematicide.

Leave the infested field fallow for 6 months or more.

Fumagon and Ditrapex are registered nematicides for use in Zimbabwe. Fumigants are effective
in controlling nematodes.

ii) Banana root borer (Cosmopolites sordidus)

This is a dark brown to black weevil about 1cm in length. It lays eggs in damaged or rotten stems
or in holes made by the adult in living stems. The larvae tunnel into the rhizomes causing wilting
of the newest leaves and weaken the stem.

Control

Infested stems should be cut as near the ground as possible and the remains chopped into small
pieces so as to decay rapidly and thus will not be suitable for egg laying.

Trapping is done by laying 30cm sections of stems or rhizomes on the soil near the base of the
plants preferably in shade area. The sections should be split into half length wise and layered the
cut area facing down. Adult weevils will gather below the sections to feed and to lay eggs. The
sections are then collected every 48 hours. This reduces the banana weevils.

Other banana pests are the banana rust thrips, armored scales, banana aphid and the oriental fruit
fly.

3.12.2 Banana Diseases

i) Cigar end rot

A fungal disease caused by the fungus Hendersonula toruloides

57
It is seen by rotting of fingers starting from the blossom end (fruit tip).

Control

 Bell removal, deflowering, bunch covering and leaf trimming minimize the disease
incidence.
 Keep the plantation weed free.

ii) Panama disease.

It is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporium f .cubensis. This is a soil born disease. The fungus
enters the plants through the roots and rhizomes and travels with water into the trunk and leaves,
producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant leaves then
turn purple at first then to yellow and die at the same time exposing the rest of the plant to lethal
amounts of sunlight causing plants to wilt and slowly die.

Control

Plant Cavendish cultivars in infected soil as they are resistant. Burn al infected plants and obtain
new plants from a disease free plantation.

iii) Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)

This virus is spread by aphids. The leaves curl with some streaks, become smaller with short
petioles, resulting in a "bunched" appearance. Generally, an infected plant does produce no or
small fruits.

Control

There is no cure. However its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-cultured plants (in
vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and destroying infected plants.

58
3.13. Harvesting

Bananas are ready for harvesting when the top most hands become light green and angles on the
fingers become round. Fruits ripening on the plant result in poor quality, fruit splitting and low
sugar content.

Harvesting requires two people, the cuter and the backer and it consist of two operations which
are; a) lowering and cutting the bunch and b) stalk cutting (fig 3.7). Bunches are cut and loaded
into trucks cushioned with layers of straw, foam rubber, or any other material. Bunches should be
in an upright position. Hand are picked from the bunch and dipped in a water bath with a fungicide
then graded and finally packed in boxes.

Fig. 3. 12. How the stem is cut (about 1.5 maters height) after harvesting.

3.14. Artificial Ripening

It is done using ethylene. Bananas are placed in small enclosed room or shed or covered with a
polythene sheet and ethylene is introduced. The ripening takes 5- 7 days at temperature ranging
from 14.4- 17.8 oC and relative humidity of 90- 95%.

Another method involves dipping banana hands in an ethrel solution and left in a room for 3- 4
days.

59
3.15. Summary

Banana is a crop which is widely grown throughout the tropics both in villages and for commercial
production. It is among the major fruits found on both local and international markets. Their quality
is depended on site selection, sucker selection, orchard care and post harvest handling of the fruits.

3.16. Activities
 Describe the botany, and the environmental requirements of bananas.
 Describe how bananas are propagated.
 Discuss the orchard care practices involved in banana production.
 Discuss the two major pests of bananas.
 Outline the maturity indices of bananas.
 Describe the process of harvesting bananas.
 Described how bananas are artificially ripened.

3.17. References

Birgit.B.,2013,TheTropicalPermacultureGarden.[Online],www.tropicalpermaculture.com/growin
g-bananas.html.

Evans .E and Frank. A., 1999, Plant Propagation by Layering, Instructions for the Horticulture
Gardener, Cooperative Extension Services, North Carolina.

Jackson. D. I and Looney. N. E., 1999, Temperate and subtropical fruit production. 2 nd Edition,
CABI, London.

Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development., 2011, Farm Management

Handbook, Banana Production, volume 2. Pg 250-255.

Rice. R. P. and Rice. L. w., 1987, Fruit and Vegetable production in Africa, MacMillan, London.

http://www.answers.com/topic/tropical-and-subtropical-fruit#ixzz2POgKboKL.

60
UNIT 4: Granadilla Production

4.0 Introduction

Passion fruit is a sub-tropical, perennial woody climber native to central and southern America. It
is grown for its flavor and it is a constituent of fruit juices, yoghurt, cakes and ice creams. There
are few commercial plantings in Zimbabwe save for areas which includes the Eastern districts and
the Mvurwi area. There is an increased interest in the growing of the fruit because of the lucrative
market in Europe. Two spp are cultivated and these are the purple granadillas (Passiflora edulis)
and golden granadillas (Passiflora flavicarpa).

4.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit learners should be able to:

 Differentiate purple passion fruit from the golden passion fruit.

 Know the production requirements for the export market of passion fruits.
 To know techniques used when training, trellising and pruning passion fruit.

4.2. Botany

The plant consists of a leader /main stem on which the lobed leaves are alternately arranged.
Tendrils assist in climbing. Vegetative buds and flowers are borne laterally on the leaf axis.

Flowers

The flowers of passiflora edulis are striking in form and reach 50mm in diameter. They resemble
the “crown of thorns” hence the name” Passion”. They are borne singly in the axils of the leaves
on the new shoots/ laterals, which hang from the main stem. Flowers borne on the younger part of
these shoots take longer to open so that a crop from one flush of shoot growth and fruit setting is
harvested over a period of 2-3 months

Fruit
61
The fruit is oval dark purple when ripe. It has a hard skin approx 3mm and lemon coloured flesh
contains about 150 grey seeds and each one will be enclosed in an individual juice sac.

4.3. Pollination

Very few are self pollinated. There is need for insects to ensure cross pollination. Carpenter bee is
effective in promoting pollination in the completely self sterile yellow granadilla. It is therefore
necessary to install bee hives to facilitate cross pollination and maximum pollination for each
bloom. It is important to remember that certain environmental condition can override the effects
of pollination and cause flower drop with consequent loss of fruit set. Wet weather during
flowering is a common cause of poor yields while very hot, dry weather frequently cause flower
drop under lowveld condition.

4.4. Climatic requirements

Granadilla is a sub-tropical fruit, indigenous to medium and high altitudes in the Brazilian tropics.
It grows best in relatively cool, moderate temperature condition without extremes.The humid
mountain escarpments 800 – 1000m in the sub-tropical regions, experience cooler temperatures
and less temperature fluctuations and are more suitable for granadilla production than hot lowveld
areas. A frost free environment is necessary since hardened purple granadilla plants can withstand
only a few degrees of ground frost for a short duration.

Succulent growth and young seedling growth is easily killed by light frosts. In higher lying
escarpment economic life is 8 years while hot lower lying area is 4 years. The yellow granadilla
requires warmer, more tropical condition and is tolerant to frost.

4.4.1 Rainfall and humidity

Granadillas require high, well distributed rainfall of 900mm or more per year for commercial
production. Irrigation is necessary during the dry winter to ensure maximum cropping. Granadillas
prefer high relative humidity and this lessens water loss due to transpiration and has a positive
effect on yield. Despite high water requirements the plants are drought tolerant.

4.4.2 Aspect

62
It is of minor consideration in hot areas but it is important in the cooler, better suited subtropical
mountain sides. The cooler the locality, the more desirable it is to select the warm, protected north
and west facing slopes with long hours of sunshine. In hot, dry areas a cooler southern slope is
often preferable. In mist belts, good air drainage will help reduce both diseases and frost incidence.

4.4.3 Wind

The crop is fairly fragile due to its trailing growth habit, thus, wind can create a great deal of
damage if vines are not sheltered. Cold winds can cause mechanical damage, reduce fruit set and
subsequent yield. It can also increase the severity of the woodiness diseases.

Hot dry winds cause wilting of the vines and shriveling of the fruit before it ripens. Premature fruit
fall, external marking and bruising of the fruit while on the vine are caused by wind. Protected
sites are essential and suitable. Windbreaks are good investments when wind is a problem.

4.5. Soil requirements

Granadillas tolerate a wide range of soils although medium textured are the most suitable. A well
drained fertile loam soil of at least 60cm deep with a good water holding capacity would be ideal.
Granadillas do not tolerate water logging as it encourages the root rot fungus (Phytophthora spp)
to attack the roots.

Excessive vegetative growth occurs on over fertile soils to the detriment of the fruit crop. Over
luxuriant growth also encourages fungal attack and it is therefore important not to over fertilize.
The ideal pH range is 5.5 – 6.0.

4.6. Fertiliser Management

Well tilled, deep ploughed land gives granadilla a good start, also encouraging a deeper, wider
spreading root system. On heavy acid soils, it is wise, when preparing the soil to apply phosphate
fertilizer at the recommended rate of between 300 -500kg/ha. The rate depends on soil analysis
results or the history of fertilization of the land. Fertilizer is applied a few weeks before planting
and it is worked well in the soil. After land preparation, dig out the planting holes. Size of the hole
is 500mm * 500mm square and 400mm deep.

63
A granadilla is a gross feeder and it respond to heavy fertilization. 500g ssp and 10kg of well
decomposed manure are mixed into the hole before planting. Fumigation is a recommended pre-
planting treatment.

Fertilisation according to plant age (g / plant / year)

Age of vine LAN SSP KCl or K2SO4

1st Year 250 150 150 180

2nd Year 350 300 300 375

3rd Year plus 450 450 450 540

Apply as follows:

July - August 1/3 N, All P and ½ K

1
December /3 N, ½ K

1
April /3 N

 If N is in excess the plant grows luxuriously but yields poorly.

 If N is lacking, it is advisable to have foliar sprays of urea at the rate of 1.35kg urea / 450L
water.

Granadillas often have zinc and boron deficiency:

 Zinc oxide can be added at 200 g per 100 litres of water

 Solubor at 100 g per 100 litres of water
 Spray especially new growth during spring

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4.7. Variety Selection
The two commercially cultivated cultivars are:

 Purple granadilla (Passiflora edulis)

 Yellow or Golden granadilla (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa)

Purple granadilla

 Fruit is smaller and vines are less productive than the purple one.
 The flavor and aroma is preferred both in canning and fresh markets.
 Ripens earlier i.e. December/ January.
 Has low acidity and juice contents

Yellow or Golden granadilla

 More productive
 Bears over a long period of time
 Produce larger fruits
 High disease tolerance
 High growth vigour

The yellow granadillas are recommended for use as a root stock for the purple granadillas.

The following are suggestions to help growers to select healthy productive vines.

1. Disregard all vines bearing round shaped fruits because the juice recovery is 10% lower
than the oval.
2. Disregard all fruits having orange coloured rinds as these tend to yield off flavour fruits
which are commercially unacceptable woody taste.
3. Select for flavour and other desirable characteristics such as high yields, good quality, and
disease resistance. A good fruit has a strong pleasant aroma.
4. Having selected over a number of years, a few selections which fit all desired
characteristics, grow all future planting from cuttings/seeds from these trees.

65
4.8 Propagation

Granadillas can be propagated vegetatively or through seed.

a) Vegetative propagation

Granadillas are propagated from seeds, cuttings or layering (air layering mostly). Budding and
grafting are becoming highly important due to the fact that a pest and disease rootstock has
been found for the purple passion fruit.

b) Seed

Seedling production is the widely used method in Zimbabwe. Select seeds from the desired
characteristics. Healthy fully ripe fruits of average size collected from the selected plants.
These fruits are stored until they change to a deep purple colour and skin wrinkles. The seeds
should be scarified to ensure a good germination percentage.

Scarification should be done by rubbing them lightly on a fine grained sand paper. Seeds are
planted in shallow drills 10cm apart in seedbeds. All soil should be fumigated before use
against nematodes and pathogenic fungi.

 Time of sowing is determined by climatic condition and is usually any time from spring
through to late summer.
 Seeds from 30 – 40 granadillas should provide enough plants for 1hactare.
 Avoid overwatering as it encourages damping off complex.
 Thin seedlings to leave them 10cm apart.
 Hardening off the seedling before transplanting by gradually removing shade and reducing
frequency of watering.
 Seed sawn in September should reach should reach transplanting, size (approx 20cm) by
mid-summer and a good crop will be produced about 12 months later.
 Plants sawn in autumn and transplanting in spring will produce a significant crop 15
months
 Laterals should be removed from seedlings

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4.9 Establishment

A north/south row orientation in the cool subtropics will expose the plants to maximum sunlight.
The plants grow fast in lower lying areas than high cooler areas

The rows should be 2.5 to 3.0m apart

In southern Africa the economic lifespan of granadilla is 3-5 years

4.9. Management Practices

a) Irrigation
The granadilla has high water requirements although it can withstand drought. It drops leaves and
fruits during the dry weather with a loss in yield. Thus supplementary irrigation during the dry
periods will obviously benefit the plant and yields. It is advisable to irrigate during the dry periods
of August and October to maintain a wet period during the flowering period of granadilla to
enhance fruit set and thus high yields.

Over irrigation must be avoided especially in areas where soil drainage is poor. Stagnant water is
harmful as encourages root rots. Fairly frequent but light irrigation (25 – 35mm) are likely to have
the most positive effects because roots are shallow. Clean cultivation and mulching will reduce
moisture loss during the dry period.

b) Trellising

Gum poles 13 -15cm in diameter, spaced 6m apart standing approximately 2.0m above ground
will form the basis of the system. The end poles should be very strong and solidly entrenched. The
single strand wire is then run from one strainer pole, along the top of all the poles within the row
secured to the top of each pole and finally secured to the strainer pole at the end of the row. A
second wire may be strung 0.6m below this top wire to support the hanging laterals.

The most important point to bear in mind is that the designed system must be able to support the
vine and a potentially heavy crop of fruit.

c) Training

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After planting, the vines must be trained up the string to the top wire in a systematic manner. This
involves tying the leader stem of the vine to the pole at regular interval twisting it lightly around
the string until it reaches the top wire. It is advisable not to coil the young stem tightly around the
string as this may restrict growth in later years.

All side shoots must be removed until the leader reaches the wire. It is important to disentangle
the developing laterals so that they hang freely. The tendrils may be removed at fortnightly
intervals to facilitate this.

Training the laterals to hang down ensures:

 Better light penetration hence improved fruit colour.

 Less pest and diseases build up.
 Pruning and picking is facilitated.

Pruning and training equipment must be sterilized after use on each individual plant by dipping it
in 4% solution of formalin / 10% solution of household bleach. The woodiness virus is transmitted
mechanically.

d) Pruning

Flower and fruit development only occurs on the current season’s growth hence all growth older
than a year is unfruitful and must be pruned. Pruning is usually done in winter when the vines are
unproductive.

It is important to prune because:

 It encourages and stimulates development and growth of new fruiting branches.

 It promotes healthy vine growth and allows for better air and light penetration, which in
turn creates less favourable condition for pest and diseases.
 All unproductive, dead and injured parts are removed.
 Vine overlap and completion is prevented.
 Dusting and spraying for pest and diseases control is facilitated.
 Bearing wood is kept closer to the frame work of the vine.
 The total weight of the vine on the trellis is reduced.

68
The longer fruiting side shoots, which reach ground level at 12 to 15 months after planting out
vines, should be regularly combed to allow them to hang freely on alternate side of the wire.

After harvesting, these laterals must be pruned back to a length of 15 – 30cm. this is severe pruning
and it is done in February/March near the end of summer crop and again in July/August when the
first signs of new growth are visible.

This “severe pruning” should be delayed until general vigour of the vines start to decline.

4.9. Crop Protection

4.9.1 Diseases

4.9.1.1 Stem / Base / Root rot

A fungal disease caused by Phytophthora spp. The disease develops in condition of poor aeration
and drainage. It is initiated in ageing plants by mechanical injury and over-watering.

Symptoms includes abnormal stem swelling occurs at ground level, followed by drying out of the
tissues and eventually there will be wilting and death of the plant.

To prevent the disease, avoid damage to plant and water logging of the soil.

4.9.1.2 Leaf spot

A fungal disease caused by Alternaria and Septoria spp

It is characterized by necrotic brown spots on the leaves or sunken necrotic areas on the young
shoots and fruits. A severe infection may lead to defoliation.

Routine sprays with chemicals such as copper-oxychloride, Mancozeb, Benomyl can prevent the
disease

4.9.1.3 Anthracnose

A fungal disease caused by the Collectotrichum spp

69
The shoot tips die off and leaves dry out and remain hanging on the plant. Affected tissue may be
dotted with black fruiting bodies. Disease Appears on poorly growing plants.

Thinning out of dead and diseased foliage and use of copper containing fungicides will help to
control the disease.

4.9.1.4 Damping off

It is a fungal seedling disease caused by Rhizoctonia and Pythium spp

Emerging seedlings wilt rapidly i.e. drying out and die. High temperatures, wet weather, wet soil,
poor drainage, dense planting of seeds resulting in overcrowding , high N levels, poor aeration
favours infection by damping off pathogens.

To control spray copper-oxychloride/ captan to young plants every 7-14.

4.9.2 Pests

4.9.2.1 Nematodes / Eelworms (meloidogyne spp)

These reduce vigour, yield and economic longevity of the plant. Die back of young laterals occur
with severe infestation of nematodes.

Control

 Treat seed beds with EDB at least two weeks before planting to ensure that the young
seedlings are as nematodes free as possible.
 Clean cultivation of land during the period prior to planting of the orchard.
 Use of clean seedlings only and fumigation of the planting stations.

4.9.2.2 Thrips

They damage crops in the nursery by sucking sap on leaves at growing points causing them to
wrinkle and misshapen. On older vines the young fruit is target for attack. The outer rind of the
fruit is damaged and grey blotches appear as the fruit matures.

70
Control measures

Can be controlled using systemic chemicals which must be applied from time of blossom to the
time when the fruit is about 2.5cm in diameter.

4.9.2.3 Mealy bugs

Damage appears as ‘mealy like’ white colonies over the stems, tendrils and fruit stems.

Control

 A good ant control programme help control the pests.

4.9.2.4 Pumpkin flies

These damage young fruits which drop a few days after being stung. A round sunken lesion on the
rind of the fruit usually with a small hole at the center is typically a pumpkin damage.

Control

 Plant granadillas away from Curcubitaceae family crops as they are good hosts for this fly.

Other common pests includes Scales, Stinkbugs, Aphids

4.10. Harvesting and yields

The fruits are harvested 6 – 9 months after transplanting. Full bearing is reached within 18 months.
Thereafter, two crops are borne annually. Summer harvesting time is from November to January
whilst winter harvesting time is from June to July.

Approximately 70 days from flowering and pollination the fruit will mature and fall from the vine.
It is important to harvest regularly as fruits which have fallen will quickly develop brown sport on
contact with the soil.

i. Only ripe fruits should be harvested, green fruit, even if allowed to ripen off the vine for
processing, possess a woody off-flavour.

71
 ii. The grower could lose up to 20% by weight if the fruit is not harvested and sold/ processed
promptly.
iii. Unless the fruit is harvested and stored in a cool, dry places disease may account for a
considerable lose
iv. Fruit should be stored in a well ventilated area in open crates to reduce loss from over
ripening and decay.
v. In most cases it is advisable for the processor to wash and cool fruit as quickly as possible
in-order to reduce spoilage and water loss. At 10oC and high RH.

4.11. Marketing
 Granadillas may be sold in pockets of smaller sizes to citrus.
 Maybe marketed in trays to improve the appearance of the fruit.
 The fruit must be graded- size, colour, and appearance.
 Many growers supply the processing industry thus makes it easier for the fruit to be
delivered and the farmer is paid/tone of the fruit

4.14. Activities.

1. What is the importance of pruning in granadillas?

2. Differentiate between pruning and training.

4.15. Summary

72
Granadilla is a subtropical crop and has a trailing habit and therefore special emphasis should be
given on training and trellising. Pruning of old and diseases branches is of paramount importance
since these will be unproductive.

References

Farm management hand book (Horticultural crops) Volume 2

UNIT 5: Citrus Production

5.1 Introduction
Citrus trees provide fruits for human nutrition. The production of the fruits is done on the farm
hence the farmer should have some information on the classification, climatic requirements,
propagation, planting, fertilizer application, pests and diseases. This unit will cover the mentioned
topic in citrus production.

5.2 Objectives of the unit

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

73
  Explain the climatic requirements of citrus.
 Cary out the planting of citrus, and fertilize the crop.
 Control pests and diseases of citrus.

5.3 Classification of citrus

Citrus fruits are grouped into five groups:
(1) Citrus sinensis
Are referred to as sweet oranges citrus oranges originated from north east of indice and central
china. Can be divided into four classes according to their morphology and chemical composition.
(a) Common or round oranges are the most important commercially produced oranges. The most
common cultivars are Valencia, Natal, and Pine apple.
(b) Navel orange
Is a polyploid fruit (comprising several fruits).
(c) Pigmented or blood oranges are limited to Mediterranean type of climate. The pigmented
oranges are mainly used for juice extraction.
(d) Acid less oranges - have no common value because people need ascorbic acid.
(2) Mandarins
Mandarins comprise numerous spp. The central axis is hollow. It is segmented and seeds have
green cotyledons. Naattjies and Tangarins can be refered to as Mandarins
(3) Grape fruits (Citrus padisi)
It is a hybrid of pumello grands and sweet oranges. Have high heat requirement and fruits are 8-
14 cm in diameter who makes them the largest fruit. They are used for juice extraction.
(4) Limes
Limes belong to the citrus arentifelia group. They are frost sensitive.
The major groups include acid and acid less lime. Only acid limes are of common value.
(5) Lemons belong to citrus limon. Lemons produce throughout the year. Good quality cultivars
are smooth, thin skinned and have high acid levels.

3.4 Growth and environment

Citrus originated from monsoon climate. Temperatures for shoot growth are 12.5oC up to 20oC.
Temperature has a lot of influence on the growth of citrus. Temperatures between 25 and 30 oC

74
favour fewer shoot growth with longer inter nodes. Root growth like the shoot is regulated by
temperature.

3.5 Flower induction and differentiation

First flower induction is caused by ceasation of vegetative growth (winter rest). Cold and water
stress are some of the inductive factors. Cold being the major flower inductive factor in subtropics
and water stress major in the tropics. If the plant is subjected to temperatures more than 25-30oC
flowers appear. In the tropics where cold temperatures are not experienced water stress for less
than 30 days induce flowering. Differentiation indicate whether a bud will become a vegetative
or floral meristem. The apical meristem broadens and shortens. Oogenesis begins which formation
of sepal primodia. Once the flower have differentiated, provided there are ideal temperatures, and
adequate moisture flower start to produce pollen. Most species produce 100-2000 flowers but only
1-2% grows into harvestable fruits because of flower and fruitlet drop. Harvest corresponds which
nutrients supplied.

Fruit growth

Most fruit growth of citrus cultivars follows a sigmoid growth of plant. The development pattern
is divided into four phases as follows:
(1) Cell division. Cells of the mature fruit are formed through cell division.
(2) Is differentiation cells.
(3) Cell enlargement.
Cells are enlarged rapidly in size and total soluble solids cell volume increase. The enlargement
phase takes three months for lemons and lime and six months for orange and grape fruits.
(4) Peal colour change from green to yellow or orange.
Towards the end of phase four growth will level off. There is gradual increase in total soluble
solids and rapid decline in total acids.
External quality includes
(I) Peal colour – colour of the fruit skin
(ii) Level of blemishes – damage discolouration sports of chlorophyll not graded

75
(iii) Fruits shape –conform to the fruits shape

5.6 Propagation
All common grown citrus are produced by grafting. Root stocks affect the fruits colour, vigour,
and instill diseases resistance.
The root stocks used are from mazoe rough lemon, mandarins citranges and citrulemons. The bud
should come from the desired plant material. Propergation is through inverted T and T budding.

5.7 Planting and planting distance

Planting positions are achieved by use of planting board. Oranges and mandarins are planted at
6x6m, lemons, limes 4.5x4.5, grapefruit 12x12. Dwarf varieties are planted at very high
populations at a spacing of 2x2.

5.8 Irrigation
Mature citrus require 1000-1500mm/annum. Allow moisture depletion of 30-45% and be watered
down to 75cm depth.

5.9 Fertilizer Management

On non bearing trees apply 600g comp C basal dressing and 200g an/annum.
Half of the N applied in July and ½ in November.

5.10. Crop Protection

5. 10.1. Pests of Citrus Fruits

Table 5.1: Pests of citrus fruits

Pest Damage symptoms Prevention / Control

Mediterranean fruit fly ( Damage the skin around the Remove fallen fruits and
Ceratitis capitata) oviposition punctures. If the destroy them.

76

Citrus thrips (Sciiirtothrips
aurantii)
American ball worm
(Heliothis armigera)
Orange dog
(Papilio demodocus and
Papilio nireus)
fruit is greenish in coloure the -fulll cover sprays of
punctured area first become chemicals like Malation 25%
yellow. On well coloured EC or Dimethoate 40 EC are
fruits the punctured area applied.
becomes brown. These signs
can be seen eight days after
the damage has occurred.
Thrips attack newly Proper irrigation scheduling
unfolding buds resulting in result in uniform blossoming
scaring. in winter when the pest
Scaring can result in overwinters. Systemic
malformation of the newly chemicals can be used for the
formed leaf. control of the pest, e.g.
Less damage can occur on Dimethoate 40 EC,
older leaves. and Hostathion.
The primary feeding outlets of Biological control can be done
the heliothis are the fruitlets through the use of parasites
which are destroyed before the like: Trichogramma lutea, and
blossom petals have fallen. chelonus curvimculatus.
After fruit set the damage Parasitoids can be planted in
appear as shallow marks on the field for the control of
the deep holes in the peel. orange dog. Possible
Edges of young leaf are also chemicals for use on the
eaten away. control of the orange dog are:
Lannate SP, Lannatte SL
Thiodan EC.
Young leaves are eaten Hand picking can reduce the
inwards from the edges. pest population on young
Leaves can be totally eaten plants.
77
 away. Young trees can be Parasitoids can be planted in
entirely defoliated the field for the control of
orange dog. Possible
chemicals for use on the
control of the orange dog are:
Lannate SP, Lannatte SL
Thiodan EC.
Soft scales The insects do not cause direct Commonly used chemicals for
(Coccus hispiridium L, damage to the citrus trees. soft brown scale are:
Coccus aethiopicus) They produce significant Malathion EC and Malthion
quantities of honeydew WP, Hostathion
leading to secondary problems
like:
- The honeydew acts as a
substrate for the development
of sooty mould fungi which
inhibits the passage of
sunlight there by reducing
photosynthesis. Yield and
fruit size reduces
significantly.
- Ants are attracted to the
sweet honeydew.
- honeydew reduces efficiency
of thrips control with sugar
containing baits because it
saves as an alternative source
of food to thrips
Bud mite Affected axil buds die off due Azodrin applied to tree trunks.
(Eriophyes sheldoni) to mechanical feeding of the
pest. This promote multiple

78
 bud formation and Sprays of Mitac, Lime
malformation of plant organs. sulphur, or Hostathion can be
The mite affects twigs, leaves, applied.
blossoms and fruit.

5.10.2. Diseases of citrus

Table 5.2 Common diseases of citrus

Disease Symptoms Prevention / Control

Melanose Leaves are redish-brown to Prune dead twigs and
Cause: Fungus Diaporthe citri black, raised pastules. Affeted branches prior to flowering.

79
 leaves are rough to touch and Use 50% Benomyl
may fall prematurely.
Circular brown spots appear
on the fruit and the affected
part is rough.
Black spot Small sunken spots up to 3mm 50% Benomyl
Cause: Fungus appear on the leaves.
Guignardia citricarpa - Dark brown
- Speckled blotch shown as
dark brown to black speckling
on the skin.

Brown spot Blackening and death of - Encourage air circulation by

Cause : Fungus
Phytophthora citrophthora
Blue and green mould
Cause: Fungi
Penicillium italicum (blue)
Penicillium digitatum (green)
Scab
Cause: fungus
Elsinoe fawcettii
young tip growth. Dark water pruning all branches which
soaked areas on the leaves at are 30cm above ground level.
the tips and along the margins. - spray with 5% Metalaxil
On the fruit it appears as dark
brown discolouration on the
rind.
Small water soaked areas -On harvested fruits use
develop readly in warm humid sulphur dioxide.
conditions.are blue and green - reduce fruit damage at
masses of spores respectively harvesting and packaging.
Always disinfect the boxes
used for harvesting.
The disease can manifest itself Spray with 50% Benomyl
as grey to light brown corky
scabs on the leaves twigs and
leaves.

80
5.11 Harvesting

Most citrus start bearing in the fourth year, lemons and limes in the 3rd year, and the peak bearing
of citrus is at 10 years. Grape fruits 10 years. Economic life of fruit trees is 25-40 years. Fruits are
peaked when yellowish green, yellow or orange.

5.12 Summary
Fruit tree production is affected by several factors like climate, fertilizer application, pest and
disease management. Proper management of these factors in the field lead to higher yields.

5.13 Activities
1. Describe the planting of fruit trees.

2. Identify pests and diseases of citrus in your area and suggest control measures for each disease.

5.14 References
Agritex (1993) farm management handbook Agritex Harare.

Mashall. C. and J Grace (1992) Fruit and seed production, University Press, Cambridge

Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation Development (2010) Farm Management

Handbook, Horticulture Crops volume 2. Ministry of Agriculture Mechanization and Irrigation
Development, Harare

81
Outspan International, Production guidelines for export citrus, Volume III, Research and
Extension services, Hennopsmeer South Africa.

Samson J.A, (1980), Tropical fruits, Longman Inc, New York.

Sibiya Julia, (1999), Crop Physiology and Crop Protection, Plant pathology, Zimbabwe Open
University, Harare, Zimbabwe.

UNIT 6. Grapes Production

6.0. Introduction

Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae and species Vitis. There are three important species which
include Vitis vinifera (French grape), Vitis labrusca (American grape) and Vitis rotundifolia
(Muscadine grape).

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6.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Describe the classification, botany and adaptation of grapes.

 Outline the agronomic practices involved in grape production.
 Explain grape vineyard management.
 Describe crop protection in grape production.
 Describe the maturity indicies and harvesting in grape production.

6.2. Origin and Distribution

V. vinifera is native to the area near the Caspian Sea, in Asia Minor whilst the species V. labrusca
and V. rotundifolia are native to the USA.

The genus Vitis is broadly distributed, largely between 25° and 50° N latitude in eastern Asia,
Europe, the Middle East, and North America. Additionally, a few species of Vitis are found in the
tropics - Mexico, Guatemala, the Caribbean, and northern South America.

The leading producers of grapes in the world include Italy, China, France, Iran, USA and
Argentina.

6.3. Uses

 Wine – V. vinifera; V. labrusca, to some extend.

 Table grapes – all species
 Preserves – V. rotundifolia and V. Labrusca.
 Rootstocks - V. Labrusca.

6.4. Botany

Plant

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The plant is a woody vine which requires support and careful pruning to yield well.

Leaves

Are often large, deeply lobed or rounded with entire or serrated margins.

Flowers

Are small, indiscrete, borne in racemose panicles opposite leaves. Vinifera grapes are perfect-
flowered and self-fruitful, whereas some muscadines have only pistillate flowers.

Fruit

Fruit are berries, with 2 to 4 seeds; ovaries contain 2 locules each with 2 ovules.

6.5. Cultivars

6.5.1 White Varieties (V. Vinifera)

Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot blanc and Sauvignon blanc

6.5.2 Red Varieties (V. Vinifera)

Merlot, Pinot noir, Cabernet franc and Sangiovese

6.6. Environmental Requirements

6.6.1. Temperature

Temperatures between 100C and 200C mean annual temperature is ideal for grape production.
Grapes are temperate fruits with a chilling requirement for growth and production. Relatively high
temperatures in summer are required for the fruit to develop better aroma.

6.6.2. Rainfall

At least 400mm annual rainfall is required for grape production.

84
6.6.3 Wind

Extremely windy conditions cause mechanical vine damage and plant desiccation.

6.6.3 Hail

Locations which tend to have a higher probability of hailstorms should be avoided as grapevines
are very susceptible to hail damage.

6.7. Soil Requirements

Grape vines are grown in a wide range of soil types around the world. Ideal soil requirements are
loam, sandy loam or sand clay loam soils. The soils should be deep, well-drained and not overly
fertile. Deep soils, at least 1 to 1.5 metres are needed to discourage shallow rooting.

Grapes are not tolerant of high salts, and thus unleached soils or spots that accumulate salts through
seepage and evaporation will not support vine growth. Areas with high water tables are unsuitable
for grapes due to high salts and excessive moisture. It is possible to maintain low salt levels with
low volume irrigation systems.

Soil pH values between 6.0 and 6.8 provide the optimum availability of nutrients in vineyard soils.
Soil pH less than 5.0 increases the aluminium solubility within the root zone and precipitates
essential micronutrients such as iron out of the soil solution.

6.8. Propagation
The most common method of grape propagation is bench grafting, although rooted cuttings (where
phylloxera is not a problem), T-budding, layering (difficult-to-root types like muscadine), and to
a limited extent, tissue culture are used in various situations.

The fully dormant rooted cuttings should have a substantial root system and reasonable top growth.
They should be long enough so that two buds of the previous season's growth are above ground
and the bulk of the roots begin at a depth of 30 to 35cm. The rooting depth is critical; shallower
roots will respond too quickly to winter soil temperature changes and lead to winter killing or frost
damage. Uniform rooting depth also is very important for controlling drought stress and properly
maturing the crop.

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The cuttings must be carefully protected before and during planting to avoid drying and
overheating. Generally it is best to avoid the coldest winter temperatures and high summer
temperatures. Cuttings should be stored in a cool place and kept moist until planting can begin.

At planting, the cuttings should be set in water (in containers like drums) until they are actually
placed in the hole, but should not be kept in water more than one day.

6.9. Planting

Inter-row: 2- 4m

Inrow: 1-2.5m

The vines should be irrigated immediately after planting, making sure that water reaches the roots.
Throughout the remainder of the first growing season, maximum growth of the young vine should
be encouraged. This can be done by providing a balance between the water and oxygen needs of
the developing root system, avoiding over- and under- watering.

6.10. Water Requirements

Once the vine is planted, an irrigation schedule should be established. Surface irrigation every 2
weeks (6-8 hour sets) is very effective for the establishment year. Drip irrigation of 60l per vine
per week is also recommended for the establishment year. These recommendations are for deep
clay loam soils. More frequent irrigations may be necessary on sandy well drained soils.

6.11. Fertiliser Management

Grapevines have lower requirements for mineral nutrient levels than many other crops. Therefore,
few soils require substantial fertilization to support grapes. High nitrogen avail-ability can inhibit
the transition of grapes from vegetative to fruiting to dormant states and thus should be used with
caution.

The essential nutrients in grape production include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulphur, zinc, boron, iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, and chlorine. The last

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seven elements listed above are micronutrients and are used in smaller quantities than the
macronutrients.

Deficiencies and/ or excesses of these nutrients can be determined using proper laboratory
diagnostic methods.

Laboratory analysis is used to appraise problems related to pH, salinity, and certain toxicities. Soil
analysis is not a reliable means of determining nutritional problems and fertilizer requirements in
grape production. Plant tissue analysis is a much more effective and reliable means to determine
vineyard nutrition than soil analysis.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is acknowledged to be one of the most important and most likely limiting nutrients in
grapevines. Nitrogen is the essential element used in greatest amounts by vines. Soil higher
inorganic matter content can more easily convert organic nitrogen to available forms (nitrate and
ammonium ions) capable of being absorbed by the vine.

Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency:

 Light green colour of leaves, particularly on basal to mid-shoot leaves.

 Newly developing leaves often have a pale green colour
 Slow rate of shoot growth, short internodal length, and small leaves.
 Reduction in cluster berries and berry set.

Nitrogen application rate

Apply 22.5-45 kg of actual nitrogen per hectare should be applied on sandy loam soils for mature
crops. Young vineyards (first and second growing season) require no more than 35 kg of actual
nitrogen per hectare.

Time of Application

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Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied during periods of active uptake to minimize loss through soil
leaching. This includes the period from bud break to veraison, and if leaf fall has not occurred,
immediately after fruit harvest.

Foliar Sprays

A properly applied foliar spray program usually focuses on micronutrients and can be beneficial.
Before applying any nutrient spray, a laboratory analysis of petiole samples from affected and
normal leaves and a soil analysis should be performed and evaluated. Micronutrients can be
extremely toxic even in small amounts. They can kill vines if applied in excess. Some nutrient
deficiency symptoms can be confused with factors other than nutrient supply. Care should be taken
before applications are made to verify visible symptoms by tissue analyses.

The foliar spray program should be considered as a supplement to basic root feeding.

6.12. Special Cultural Practices

6.12.1. Trellising / Training

There are several dozen different trellising systems in use today. Trellising and training go hand
in hand. Training is the strategic development of grapevine structure and the trellis supports that
vine structure.

The basic goal of trellising and training is to maximize production, facilitate cultural operations
(spraying, tillage, pruning, harvesting), improve canopy microclimate and to support the
mechanical load of the vine.

Factors to consider when selecting a trellising system:

 Vineyard potential
Vineyard potential includes environmental factors (temperature, topography, soil, rainfall
and wind) and cultural management decisions (shoot thinning, fertilization, irrigation).

 Variety vigour
Variety vigour can often determine the choice of trellis system. For example, choosing a
single wire trellis as compared to an improved multi-wired trellis system with moveable

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 foliage wires may be sufficient for varieties with low vigour. Vines with excess vigour
(long shoots, lateral growth, and shading) need a more extensive trellis system. The high
vigour trellis systems usually divide the canopy to support a higher number of buds and
thus increasing canopy surface area.
 Canopy spacing
Is a combination of row spacing and plant spacing.

6:12.2 Pruning

 To establish and maintain the vine in a form that will facilitate vineyard management.
 To produce fruit of a desired quality.
 To select nodes that are fruitful.
 To regulate the number of shoots/ clusters.
 To regulate the vegetative growth of the vine.

Common training systems

i) Spur or short pruning

Leaves only a stub with 2-6 buds on each renewal cane and is used on excessively vigorous
cultivars which have fruitful basal buds.

ii) Cane or long pruning

9-16 buds retained at base of the previous year's canes. The system is used on less vigorous
cultivars with unfruitful basal buds.

Common training systems

i) Head training

Permanent part of vine consists of trunk and 4-5 small stubs at top called arms.

ii) Cordon training

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Permanent part of vine consists of trunk and 1-4 long, straight shoots trained along a wire
(cordons). Spurs or canes are developed at regular intervals along the cordons.

6:12.3. Shoot Tying

As young shoots reach above the second wire, it is a good practice to tie two to three of the shoots
of each cane to that wire to stabilize the whole cane. This prevents it from rolling in the wind and
exposing the fruit to sun burning. Two or three pairs of moveable catch wires can keep shoot tying
to a minimum and allow for excellent sunlight exposure and air circulation.

6:12.4 Suckering

Suckers (shoots appearing at ground level or on the lower 2/3 of the trunk) should be removed
while green and easily broken off.

If a systemic herbicide such as Roundup is to be used, it is critical that all green tissue near the
ground be removed.

6:12.5. Shoot Thinning

Vines typically grow more shoots than the nodes left after pruning. These extra shoots develop
from buds at the base of the spurs or out of old wood and often are not fruitful. Shoot thinning of
these unwanted shoots should be started when new growth has reached about 40 cm and can
continue until soon after fruit set.

Vines are commonly thinned along the cordon wire so that they are evenly spaced at a distance of
8 to 12 cm. Vines are typically shoot thinned to about 15 shoots per metre.

6:12.6. Leaf Removal

Leaf removal in the fruit zone can improve fruit composition, spray penetration, enhance fruit
colour and reduce disease by increasing the exposure of the clusters to sunlight and aircirculation.
Normally, removal of one to three leaves per shoot is sufficient. The ideal time for leaf removal is
3-4 weeks before the time when berries begin to colour.

6:12.7. Crop Thinning

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Crop thinning is a final adjustment technique of crop regulation that results in the most significant
fruit quality improvement. Crop thinning adjustments may be necessary to mature the fruit earlier.

Vigorous varieties have high initial fruit set and continue to produce abundant flowers late in the
season which must be removed for proper fruit composition and maturation.

Bunch thinning or cluster thinning is done after flowering and set. This operation involves removal
of undersized, poorly-set or immature clusters.

6:12.8. Hedging, Trimming or Topping

Hedging, Trimming or topping involves cutting off shoot tips. Vine trimming is a temporary band-
aid solution to vineyard canopy problems.

6.13. Crop Protection

6:13:1 Diseases

1. Powdery Mildew

The disease is caused by the fungus Uncinula necator. Powdery mildews are unique among fungal
pathogens in that they do not require free moisture for spore germination or for penetration of the
host plant. The spores are spread by wind.

Symptoms

The infected plant surface develops a white to gray, powdery appearance. Almost any green tissue
of the grape vine is susceptible to mild infection including tender parts of the shoot, blossoms,
leaves, berries, the rachis and pedicles, but the most common form of mildew damage concerns
the fruit.

Control

Elemental sulphur is the oldest known fungicide for mildew control. Sulphur dust should be
applied on a 7-10 day cycle.

2. Crown Gall

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Crown gall is a bacterial disease caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Symptoms

Gall type of growth on infected plant parts. Galled vines frequently have poor shoot growth and
fruit production, and portions of the vines above the galls often die prematurely. The galls interfere
with normal sugar and water transport in the host and, depending on the location and size of the
gall, can kill the plant or stress it so that it becomes non-winter hardy. Injuries for gall initiation
are most common in the nursery and during planting.

Control

An eradicant chemical such as kerosene can be used on the gall itself to kill gall tissues.

3. Verticillium Wilt

Verticillium wilt is caused by the fungus Verticillium dahlia

Symptoms

The symptoms mimic those of drought stress. Shoot wilt, collapse, and death can be extremely
rapid by mid-summer, and leaves and young berries just dry up and remain attached to the dead
cane. The diagnostic symptom is the greyish to brownish discolouration of the vascular elements
within the base of the collapsing cane.

The reason for the drought stress type symptoms and the vascular tissue discoloration is that the
Verticillium fungus colonizes and plugs up the vascular tissues. This disease is mostly a problem
in young plantings between their second and sixth leaf.

Control

Avoiding any sites where the disease has killed grapevines.

4. Grape Leaf-roll Disease

The disease is caused by the grape leaf-roll virus. Leaf-roll infection does not kill affected vines,
but causes yield losses of 20 percent. The disease is distributed through propagation from diseased
mother vines

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Symptoms

Coloured leaves (yellow or red to red-purple) with green veins and downward rolled leaves.

Prevention / Control

Removal of the affected vines.

Other Diseases

Botrytis Bunch Rot, Sour Bunch Rot and Fanleaf Degeneration

6.13.2. Pests

1. Climbing Cutworms

These pests hide in the soil or debris beneath the grape trellis by day and move up the vine at night
to feed on buds just as they are swelling and pushing in the spring. Their feeding leaves small
tunnels into a bud; this kills the bud and results in crop loss.

Control

Sprinkling suitable carbaryl bait around the trunk of each vine.

2. Grape Berry Moth

The larval stage of this insect enters young berries and causes them to wither as they mature. Entry
of the larvae into the berries of some grape varieties causes the berries to turn red in response.
Eggs are laid on the berries, and emerging larvae invade the fruit.

Control

Pheromone traps are available that can help determine periods when adult moths are flying and
laying eggs. Insecticide applications are suggested for approximately 10 days after flight periods
begin.

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Other pests:

Grape Leafhopper, Grape Flea Beetle, Mealybugs, Thrips, Grape Cane Borer, Cottony Maple
Scale, Nematodes and Birds.

6.13.3 Weed Management

It is beneficial to take steps to reduce perennial weed infestations before planting. This will greatly
help to control these perennial weeds later. Annual weeds also can be controlled prior to planting
if proper steps are taken in the preparation period.

Most weeds between grape rows can be controlled by cultivating, discing and mowing. Weeds in
the row can be controlled by hand hoeing by the use of herbicides like Diuron and Trifluralin) and
foliar active types (Glyphosate and Paraquat).

6.14. Harvesting

6.14.1 Maturity indicies

The maturity of wine grapes is usually based on three parameters:

1. Sugar content
White wine grapes are usually harvested between 18 and 24 percent sugar. Red wine grapes are
generally harvested at 21 to 25 percent sugar.

2. Acid content
High acids above 9 % are preferred for wine grapes.

3. pH.
The optimum pH range is 3.0 to 3.4.

For table grapes the time of harvest is determined mostly by appearance, including color and size
of berries. The stems of the cluster also turn a wood or straw color when berries are mature.

6.14.2 Harvesting methods

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Mechanical and hand harvesting methods are very common.

6.14.3 Average Yield

Up to 8000 kg/ha

6.15. Activities
1. State the uses of grapes.
2. Briefly describe the botany of grapes.
3. Outline the climatic and soil requirements for grape production.
4. Discuss propagation and planting in grape production.
5. Describe the pruning and training methods used in grape production.
6. Explain the significance of shoot thinning, leaf removal; shoot tying and suckering in grape
production.
7. Describe powdery mildew and verticillium wilt under the following subheadings:
a) Causal organism
b) Symptoms
c) Control.
8. State any five important pests in grape production.
9. Briefly describe the weed management practices in grapes.
10. State the maturity indicies for grapes.

6.16. Summary
Grapes are important fruits grown for wine production and fruit. Plants require intensive
management practices in order to attain the highest possible yields.

6.17. References

1. Rice R. P, Rice L. W and Tindal H. D, 1987, Fruit and Vegetable Production in Africa,
Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London.

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 2. Richard A, Hamman I, Savage S. D and Larsen H. J, 1998, The Colorado Grape growers’
Guide, Colorado State University, Colorado.
3. Rieger M,2011, Quality Wine and Ale Supply,www.homebrewit.com/Grapes.php.
4. Smith L and Whingham P, 1999, Spatial Aspects of Vineyard management and Wine
Production, University of Utago, Dunedin.

UNIT 7: Apple Production (Malus domestica)

7.1 Introduction
Apples are sometimes referred to as pome fruits which imply that the fruit has central seeds. It is
a deciduous fruit which is grown essentially in temperate zones and require chilling (low
temperature exposure) during the winter period, in order to break the dormancy for the trees to
bear fruits sussesfully.

For this reason, apples are grown commercially in the cooler parts of Zimbabwe and main area
being Nyanga, Chimanimani, Odzani, Rusape, Vumba. Research has led to the production of low
chill cultivars that can be successfully grown in Chiundura, Masvingo, and even Chiredzi.

7.2. Cultivars
Golden delicious, royal gala, granny smith, panorama golden, fuji. Low chill cultivars include
Anna, Michael, Elah and Israel.

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7.3. Climatic Requirements

Temperature

Winter temperature is most important i.e. the cooler it is the better it is. Summers are always
warmer enough to ripen fruits but insufficient chilling in winter can induce delayed foliation i.e.
bud breaking is erratic and delayed. (inconsistent, unreliable, unpredictable, variable, irregular)

Chilling requirements vary with crop type and cultivars e.g. pome fruits require more chilling than
stone fruits (apricots and peaches). Where mean temperature exceeds 12 oc delayed foliation is
expected to occur. Apple requires an exposure of temperature of 7.2oc for 10-12hrs to ensure
natural flower and leaf bud development and subsequent (later) attainment of full cropping
potential. When cold is lacking the tree will suffer from a physiological disorder called “delayed
foliation”. This problem of insufficient chilling requirements can be overcome in the tropics by:

- Cultivar selection
- Carefull site selection
- Use of dormancy breaking treatments. DNOC (Dintro-Ortho-Cresol)

Aspect

Sites with westerly aspects are not suitable for deciduous fruits because they receive afternoon
sunshine and are sheltered from the cooling effect of the prevailing south eastern winds. Southern
and Easterly aspects get more chilling from the wind but would require wind breaks to reduce wind
force.

Rainfall

Apples require up to 1000mm/year. Irrigation is essential because the rains are concentrated to ±
1/3 of the year. Irrigation is therefore done during the dry period./ increased rainfall is assorciated
with incidence of fungal diseases, difficulties in spraying and harvesting. Dry spells during rain
season make irrigation is essential for new plantings because the newly planted trees are more
susceptible to water stress.

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Wind

Damage by wind in Zimbabwe is rare. Windy sites should be avoided because trees will develop
a lopsided head by growing away from the prevailing winds and this reduces the potential cropping
area.

Dry winds in spring desiccate young leaves and flowers and they and they also reduce activitiesc
of pollinating insects.

Strong winds cause fruit drop and damage the trees and cause bruises in fruits later causing
infection. Wind breaks are required to protect trees unless the site is naturally sheltered.

Frost

Dormant buds of deciduous trees are resistant and are damaged by frost when swelling starts.
Flowers and small fruitlets can be killed by frost.

Most apple varieties bloom after frosting period is over therefore apples can be planted in frost
pockets to gain advantage with greater chilling.

7.4 Soils

Deep soils for root development, good water holding capacity and well drained fertile soils are
ideal. Avoid:

 Shallow soils with impervious subsoil.

 Very light sandy soils
 Soils that are water logged

A depth of 0.9m over a permeable layer such as gravel is regarded as minimal. Apples can grow
on a wide range of soil types. Clay loams to sand loams provided the subsoil is permeable.

A pH of 5.5 (CaCl scale) is considered as optimum.

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7.5. Propagation
Apples are propagated vegetatively because of the following reasons:

 Trees that are true to type are favoured by the market

 Vigorous trees are difficult to manage if raised from seeds
 Impact diseases and pest resistance
 Uniformity of characteristics
 Improve on fruit quality and adaptability

Grafting (mostly whip and tongue or cleft) and budding (mostly ‘T’ or chip) are the methods being
used to raise pome fruits so that the trees will be true to type. The rootstock has a considerable
influence on the growth of the fruit affecting its vigour, cropping capacity, size, age at which it
bears its first fruits, resistance to pests and diseases and its economic lifespan.

Rootstocks used in Zimbabwe are MM106 and MM111 and these are raised from rooting cuttings
collected from the mother plants during the dormancy season from June to the end of July. It is
also possible to use apple seedlings as rootstock.

7.6. Planting
7.6.1 Planting Time

This is best done during the dormant season when there is less stress. The land should be cleared
of all trees at least two seasons before planting to control Armillania spp which causes root rot on
trees. The land should be ploughed to 400mm deep but if the land was under cropping just mark
the planting holes.

7.6.2 Spacing

Spacing varies with the management system.

Use wider spacing were tractors are used 3-4m (inrow) x 4-6m (interow). Aim is to come up with
400-1000 trees per hectare.

7.6.3 Planting procedure

 Planting holes 75 x 75 x 75 are dug
 Top soil is pilled separately from the subsoil
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  Mix topsoil with the fertilizer compound Z 700g and 10kg compost manure
 Or you can mix top soil with 500g SSP and 300g KSO4 and 300g AN used as top dressing
at 3 weeks.
 Compound Z has Zinc and Anna is very susceptible to zinc deficiency.
 Return the mixture into the planting hole
 Apply 15l of water per hole 2-3 days before planting
 Put the seedling in the hole and ensure that the grafting union is above the ground.
 In windy areas stake the trees using subsoil, make a basin 1m2 and 15cm high.
 Apply 10l of water to the basin

7.7. Fertilizer requirements (After planting)

1. During non cropping years topdressing using compound J at 350g/tree once per year. It
contains 0.1% Bo
2. Cropping years- apply 500- 1000g SSP/tree, 250g KSO4 and 1000g AN/ tree.

Time of application

Nutrient At bud break Early Autumn After bud break

N 1/3 1/3 1/3

P ½ 1/2 -----

K ½ 1/2 -----

Fruit trees utilize a fraction of the fertilizer as nutrients are neither leached/ became unavailable.
Apply the fertilizer when most needed by the plant. The time of max nutrient requirement is early
spring and after harvesting.

Nutrients taken up in spring are used for plant and fruit development

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7.8. Irrigation
Apply water when necessary for the established trees. Mulch should be added to the basin to reduce
water loss by evaporation. Various methods of irrigation can be used which includes sprinkler and
basin methods.

The basin method is the most common and the cheapest. Basin should be expanded each year to
allow for the extended root system

7.9. Pruning
It involves cutting off some branches from the tree. The main objectives of pruning are to:

 Produce a well balanced tree (capable of supporting a heavy fruits) with young growth and
every shoot receiving sufficient light and air.
 Development of structurally strong framework capable of supporting heavy fruit.
 Produce a well balanced branch bearing and vegetative growth. Pruning stimulates buds to
grow and the plant start to produce after a period of 2years.
 To remove excess vegetative growth. During summer season trees are active in growth and
they have excess water shoots (shoots with no buds, unfruitful). These shade the fruits
hence poor fruit colouring and poor quality.
 To encourage early and sustainable production
 To shape the trees and space tree branches for optimum light penetration.
 To remove dead and diseased wood.
 To maintain a practical plant size which is easily managed e.g. harvesting and spraying.

There are basically two phases of pruning:

a) Pre-bearing phase
This is very important and it is during this time the tree is shaped. Any mistakes made at
this stage are difficult to correct. In Zimbabwe most deciduous trees are pruned to an open
center which comprises of short trunk with 3-4 major branches of equal sizes arranged so
as to allow each to receive maximum sunlight.
b) Bearing phase
i) Pruning in first year

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 In the first year the tree should be cut back in the first and leave the stem. This allows plant
to concentrate on replacing the roots lost during transpiration. This is done also to induce
of scarfold branches

7.10. Apple Pests

Pest Damage Control
Fruit fly Lays eggs below the fruit skin. The larvae Malathion can be used as bait.
hatches and begins feeding from the inside Rotten fruits should be burnt to
and causing rotting of the fruit. reduce the spread of adult flies..
Fruit piercing Ripening fruits are attacked. Bore small Malathion sprays with a
moth holes on the fruit skin to suck juice from the sticking agent can be used to
fruit. As a result there is formulation of dry control the pest.
spongy tissue under the skin.
Scales Fruit flies secret toxins into the plant during Orchex and malathion sprays
the feeding process. This causes reddish to can be used to control the pest.
purple colour on leaves, shoots and fruits. Prunings also help reduce the
Death and dieback can result from heavy rate of infestation. Burn the
attacks. removed infected parts of the
plant.
Aphids Suck sap from plant leaves resulting in Spray with Dimethoate, or
curling of leaves. This reduces the Malathion
photosynthetic area, hence low yields are
obtained.

7.11. Apple Diseases

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Disease Signs Control
Bitter Pit Small sunken spots, like hail damage, later Apply Calcium Nitrate at Zinc
becoming dry with dead tissue beneath the Max with Agral 90 as wetting
skin. Symptoms may not become apparent agent
until after harvest.
Bitter Rot and Sooty An internal fruit rot which appears on the Apply a full cover spray of
Blotch surface as a circular, light-brown sunken Dithane M-45, Captan 50% WP.
lesion. Where heavy infestations of bitter
rot have been experienced, spray
at fortnightly.
Cankers and die back Twigs die from the tip and under severe Supply enough water, and Prune
conditions the whole tree can dry up. affected parts. Apply fungicides
and paint cut surfaces after
pruning to reduce the spread of
diseases.

Other common diseases of apples:

Scab, Powdery mildew, Black rot and leaf spot, Rusts and Collar rot.

7.12. Harvesting
The maturity indices for apples are as follows:

 the base skin color of the apple changes from green to yellow as the fruit matures
 flesh color also loses its greenish tint and turns yellow or white
 a mature fruit will be crisp and juicy
 a pleasant taste is the final indicator of fruit maturity.

Apples are harvested into crates and immediately taken to the grading shade where they are
weighed and graded. Grading is done according to size, colour, variety, disease and insect damage.

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They are then packed into khaki envelops ready for marketing which can be either local or regional
or international market.

7.13. Summary
Apples are important fruits grown for a variety of uses in the industry and at home. Lack of chilling
requirements is one of the most limiting factors in its production.

7.14 Activities
 State the uses of apples.
 Briefly describe the botany of apples.
 Outline the climatic and soil requirements for apple production.
 Discuss propagation and planting in apple production.
 Describe the pruning and its importance in apple production.
 State any five important pests of apples.
 Briefly describe the weed management practices in apples.

7.15. References

Rice R. P; Rice L. W. and Tindal H. D. 1987. Fruit and Vegetable Production in Africa, Macmillan
Publishers Ltd, London.

Richard A, Hamman I, Savage S. D and Larsen H. J, 1998, The Colorado Grape growers’ Guide,
Colorado State University, Colorado.

Rieger M,2011, Quality Wine and Ale Supply,www.homebrewit.com/Grapes.php.

Smith L and Whingham P, 1999, Spatial Aspects of Vineyard management and Wine Production,
University of Utago, Dunedin.
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