Excavating Wilderness: A reOrienting trajectory across Central Park

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Jeff Kamuda
Thesis Preparatory Booklet Primary Advisor | Prof. Rosa Secondary Advisor | Prof. McDonald Fall 2010

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R E S E A R C H

CONTENTION GLOSSARY WILDERNESS CENTRAL PARK TOURISM PROPOSAL

Contents
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17 27 41 55 61

RESOURCES

HOMO SAPIENS HAVE INHABITED THE EARTH FOR FOUR BILLIONTHS OF ONE PERCENT OF ITS LIFESPAN

HUMAN INFLUENCE INDEX [on terrestrial ecosystems]

Maximum 64

Minimum 0
CIESIN at Columbia University, and Wildlife Conservation Society, comps. The Human Influence Index Ver. 2. Map. The Last of the Wild. CIESIN at Columbia University, 07 Mar. 2008. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. <http:/ /sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/wildareas/maps.jsp>.

YET WE HAVE REDUCED ITS WILD SPACES BY 83 PERCENT 1 WHY IS THIS LOSS SIGNIFICANT?
Greenpeace.AT. GP01MTC. 2010. Photograph. Flickr. Yahoo, 18 Oct. 2010. Web. 20 Oct. 2010. <http:/ /www.flickr.com/photos/29226883@N05/5093181198/>.

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If we are to understand that dwelling, a function of orientation, is an ultimate goal of humankind, and that architectures primary purpose is to provide this existential foothold, how can this be accomplished in an age when the very tools of orientation and its components (time, place, and identity) have been disconnected from the environmental phenomena through which they are truly attained?2 More specifically, as modern society attempts to be oriented to their surroundings through an increasing detachment from the natural world, how can architecture thus be used as a didactic mechanism that affords man a tangible link to understanding his meaningful place in the cosmos?3 I believe that constructing a framework around current ecocentric ideology, developed through the historical lineage of the wilderness concept, will produce an opportunity for an architectural intervention to confront the primal act of orientation while simultaneously grafting into a relevant societal context.
LE CORBUSIER TOWARD AN ARCHITECTURE Architecture is a thing of art, a phenomenon of the emotions, lying outside questions of construction and beyond them. The purpose of construction is to make things hold together; of architecture to move us. Architectural emotion exists when the work rings within us in tune with a universe whose laws we obey, recognize and respect.1

Wakefield, Simon. Stonehenge sunrise. Digital image. Flickr. Yahoo, 27 Dec. 2008. Web. 05 Oct. 2010. <http:/ /www.flickr.com/photos/simonwakefield/3149066878/>.

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v i rt ua l world

technocentric globalization virtualism

Modern

- alienated IDENTITY

time/space compression
- detachment from TIME

flattening space to image

- commodification of PLACE

alienation detachment isolation

Intervention

THE EXPULSION
The Path of Life
Although this conceptual diagram is rooted in a scriptural mode of coming-into-being (the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden), it represents both a quintessential distinction between cultivated and untamed wilderness as well as a universal concept of mans coming-into-being, whether scriptual or evolutionary. The notion of being expelled into the wild equates to man emerging as an unknowing being, where knowledge must be gathered in his journey through the forest; orientation is gained by reaching the clearing, where one can make sense of their surroundings. In this sense, the wilderness (specifically the forest) serves as a space of disorientation which man must skillfully navigate in order to gain orientation (knowledge) and ultimately an 'existential foothold' through dwelling, as Norberg-Schulz states, thus making his existence meaningful.
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W A N D E R E R
Traditional

orientation

meaning through knowledge

Time / Place / Identity

DWELLING
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translation

meaningful places

- settlements (foci) reveal genius loci (spirit) - cultural landscape formed (surface relief, vegetation, water) - Romantic, Cosmic, Classical, Complex - interpretation of earth/sky & outside/inside

l i f e world

p e r c e pt i o n

meaningful experiences
- natural world phenomena -multi-sensory bodily perception - sensorial perception, body as center

Contemporary society, specifically in America, has tended to disassociate itself from these primal notions of orientation, existing instead in what architect Juhani Pallasmaa describes as an estrangement and detachment from reality [...] leaving the body and the other senses, as well as our memories, imagination and dreams, homeless. 5 This process of disassociation is multifaceted and has occurred over a great period of time, although the diagram extracts three primary issues which I feel are the most current, pressing areas of concern: Ocularcentrism and its suppression of the human bodys perceptive capacities, technocentric globalization and its compression of time and space into a flattened sense of reality, and the rise of virtualization and its despatialization of place into an acontextual and ephemeral wandering. These issues will be further examined and scrutinized in an attempt to understand a relevant insertion point for an architectural intervention that will attempt to reconnect the user with the timeless architectural task of orientation while simultaneously addressing contemporary societal issues which largely inhibit them from doing so.
Image: Cole, Thomas. Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. 1828. Oil on Canvas. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA.

gathering

meaningful microcosmos
- cultural identity - existential foothold

visualize
express knowledge through replication
Diagram Derived From: Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1991. Print.

complement
add what is lacking in nature to heighten awareness

symbolize
translate knowledge of nature & self into things

build

Contention

FRAMEWORK

ocularcentrism

suppressed perception

THOMAS THIS-EVENSEN ARCHETYPES IN ARCHITECTURE

By being sunk into the ground [architecture] becomes primarily an opening to something primitive and elemental.6

From a conceptual perspective, wilderness (specifically the Forest in Western civilization) has provided an epistemological concept for the unknown, thus drawing parallels with both celestial and subterranean space. Religion has provided an historic framework for comprehending these unknown wilds (concepts of heaven & hell), functioning as a spiritual compass to navigate this metaphysical Forest.10 Hence one can understand the significance of orientation functioning as a clearing in a disorienting Forest (for one need be lost in order to find oneself).11 The loss of the forest on earth therefore suggests the loss of the clearing, both in a physical and metaphysical sense, inhibiting ones ability to grasp a meaningful orientation to their surroundings. Our modern tendency to detach ourselves from reality through technological agents has lead to a shifting of our attention from tangible life-world means of orientation to more intangible, superficial means.12 Consequently, I argue for an architecture which reconnects its users with the earth from which they came, reconnecting with natural place and acting as a mechanism for orientation (an axis mundi) through a didactic and phenomenological construction. In this way, the architecture will reconnect modern man with primitive nature. Situated in Central Park, a definitive interface between civilization and (constructed) wilderness, the project will perform excavations into the parks surface, redefining its entry and yielding a dramatic encounter with New Yorks subterranean wilderness. This act of paleontologically slicing through the earths skin symbolizes a return to the deep, timeless elements of the earth and mans existence upon it, concretized in the bedrock of Manhattan. Thus, a didactic intervention emerges, illuminating the narrative of the citys foundations as well as its unique tectonic and social history as a place of convergence. Working off of this theme, the project will provide a new node of orientation for the nearly 50 million [disoriented] tourists who visit New York City annually. Critiquing the current axis mundi of New Yorks Time Square, a pinnacle of ocularcentrism and arguably an insignificant superficial representation of its place, this intervention will instead provide a compelling means of revealing the city, rooted in its deep and significant history as a site of convergence. By exposing these timeless environmental forces in a thriving metropolis, the project hopes to remind us, as Nature once did, of something greater than ourselves.

Contention

ABSTRACT 08

lthough we have existed for .00004% of Earths lifespan, modern humans7 have detained the planets wild places into defined regions, less than 17% of which are now categorized as protected wilderness.8 Thus, wilderness must be defined and scrutinized both as a place and a concept. From an ecological perspective, the degradation of the environment has presented serious physical consequences for life around the world, much of which has captured the interest of contemporary society (ie. climate change and sustainability). However, I contend that the loss of wild space has even greater intangible consequences which are often overlooked; residing deep within our subconscious, and providing an elemental link to the very core of our being.9

W I L D E R N E S S
Any place in which a person feels stripped of guidance, lost, and perplexed.3 Where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain [yet can find solitude & recreation ...] These lands may also contain ecological, geological or features of scientific, educational, scenic or historical value. - Wilderness Act, 19644 A malleable concept representing mans interpretation of nature, acting as an essential embodiment of the primitive interface between humankind and the natural world. Over time it has come to offer man spiritual, recreational, and educational value as a quintessential space to lose oneself and gain a meaningful orientation to ones environment.
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FOREST
[Western World] A conceptually disorienting, orderless and infinite wilderness in which man encounters phenomena of the natural world. Invigorating and healing due to [its] multiplicity of peripheral stimuli effectively pull us into the reality of its space.9

DESERT
[Eastern World] A conceptually disorienting, orderless and infinite wilderness in which man encounters phenomena of the natural world. In the desert, man does not encounter the multifarious forces of nature, but experiences its most absolute cosmic properties.10

ECOCENTRISM
[Also known as biocentrism or deep ecology] Belief structures that value the symbiotic interdependencies of the natural world [...] and the importance of nature beyond what it offers humans.5

CLEARING
A space of orientation and understanding, free from the disorienting influence of the Forest.

OASIS
A space of orientation and understanding, free from the disorienting influence of the Desert.

ANTHROPOCENTRISM
Human-centered belief structures that value nature for its potential for direct human use as a material resource.6

Glossary

PLACES

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O R I E N TAT I O N
[Traditional] The ability to locate oneself in ones environment with reference to time, place, and identity.11 Knowledge of ones own temporal, social, and practical circumstances in life
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AXIS

MUNDI

A trans-cultural image appearing in every religion, this concept expresses a point of connection between Earth and Sky where the four compass directions meet [...] A center of the world and microcosm of order capable of operating in multiple locations simultaneously.18

An act through which meaningful interpretations of unknown phenomena and spatial structures are transformed into comprehensible systems of order. A clearing in a forest of disorientation.

IDENTITY
A knowledge and understanding of oneself through physical (perception), culture, psychological gender) character

PLACE
A space which has a distinct [...] a concrete manifestation of mans dwelling, his identity depends on his belonging to places.13

TIME
A quantitative and concrete natural phenomena, experienced in the periodicity and rhythm of mans own life as well as in the life of nature.14

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(cognition), and social (religion, profession, awareness.

T O U R I S T
[Technical] Individuals who travel for reasons of recreation, leisure, or business purposes.19 Individuals in a state of disorientation due to their exposure to an unknown environment.

IDENTIFICATION
To become friends with a particular environment, [...] complementing its natural situation by gathering it in a meaningful manner 15

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Glossary

FRAMEWORKS

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1 2 3 4

C AV E
An archetypal earthwork representing the first dwellings of man, carved from the earth.

HUT
The first constructed dwelling of man, forming an enclosure, or built boundary of separation. Defined by means of how it stands on the ground and rises to the sky.26

Man dwells when he can orientate himself within and identify himself with an environment, or, in short, when he experiences the environment as meaningful [...] In modern society attention has almost exclusively been concentrated on the practical function of orientation, whereas identification has been left to chance. As a result true dwelling, in a psychological sense, has been substituted by alienation22

To gather the world as a concrete building or thing.23

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HOUSE
A modernized hut in which man lives. To dwell in a house means to inhabit the world.27 A machine for living in.28 The temple of the family.29

TEMPLE
A house of worship.30 Dwelling of the Gods. A religious centre (axis mundi) which man utilizes for a ritual re-enacting of cosmic events.31 A sacred grove [with a] forest of columns.32

From the emergence of mankind (Following the expulsion from Eden in Judeo-Christian origin), man has wandered the path of life attempting to regain paradise (Eden) and find meaning in his existence (a process of orientation and identification resulting in dwelling).24

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Glossary

DWELLINGS

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A Wilderness Condition
For centuries the etymology of the term wilderness has challenged and bewildered those attempting to define it, resulting in multifarious yet indeterminate interpretations. Over time, the very process of defining wilderness can itself reveal not only a distinct American history, but additionally what historian Michael Lewis describes as a global history of modernity and its discontents: our values, our hopes, our blind spots, and our fears, overlaid on a rapidly changing planet. 3 Beginning with precolonial ecocentric native interpretations to the anthropocentric ethos of Judeo-Christian European settlers, the American definition of wilderness has deep roots indeed. In recent history, three crucial events proved to set the foundations for modern definitions of wilderness: First, and perhaps most importantly, was the creation of the National Park system following the Civil War, setting an international precedent for wild land preservation. Two decades later, Frederick Jackson Turners Frontier Thesis of 1893 noted the importance of wilderness as a Frontier which helped to define American identity, thus signifying the importance of preserving what was left of it. Half-acentury later, postwar America once again discovered the importance of wild spaces, leading to the pioneering environmental crusades of the 1960s, culminating in the creation of the Wilderness Act of 1964. These events not only reconstructed the ideological and physical frameworks of wilderness, but further represent significant crossroads in American history. The rise of American transcendentalist thought in the mid 19th Century through the work of prominent figures such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau brought to life the ideas of finding spirituality not through established religious doctrines, but individual perception, and wilderness was no longer a biblical space of moral confusion and despair but rather one of existential quality. Consequently, the movement suggested that God could be found in the natural world as opposed to the works of man, and perhaps Eden was outside the Garden walls, unconfined. Thoreaus own investigation in his work Walden revealed his belief in the restorative qualities of nature as a way of escaping the corruptions of civilized life [and] finding a more innocent self; returning to who [we] really are.4 Not surprisingly, Thoreaus call for a system of little oases of wilderness in the desert of our civilization was adopted by naturalists such as John Muir, who helped to raise public awareness of the importance of protecting wild places through his own ecocentric spirituality and published adventures through places such as Yosemite Valley, California. In a nation stricken by Civil War, Muirs work lead to legislation declaring Yosemite a state-protected land in May of 1864. Eight years later, President Ulysses S. Grant furthered this cause by signing an historic

bill declaring the Yellowstone region of Northwest Wyoming as Yellowstone National Park, the first of its kind in the world. 5 Thus began a new era of wilderness recreation in America. Nearly two decades later at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago (in this case, an ironic celebration of the discovery of America), F.J. Turners compelling theory defined wilderness as the frontier, an elastic borderland, the meeting point between savagery and civilization, upon which the very identity of America had been forged.6 Thus, the very bounds of the wild proved to be a defining characteristic of American societal development. Subsequently, as Turner pointed out, now that U.S. census data had revealed the frontier had closed, so too had the first period of American history.7 This seminal work not only linked wilderness with American culture, but further exposed the interconnectivity of mans actions with the natural environment. Thus, detrimental actions not only threatened wilderness as a place, but also as an ideology upon which American identity was built. Half-a-century later, America found itself on a postwar high, celebrating in the rediscovered frontier of recreational wilderness. Much like the popularity in wilderness recreation coincided with the rise of the railroad in post-Civil War America, so too did it in post-WWII America with the rise of automobile culture, heightened by the passing of the Interstate Highway Act of 1956.8 Wilderness thus became framed through what history professor Mark Harvey terms a windshield experience.9 Visiting wild spaces therefore became an American obligation. However, as popularity rose for these limited natural retreats, so did legislation to protect them. Through the work of individuals like Howard Zahniser, the monumental passing of the Wilderness Act of 1964 sought to safeguard this newfound wild by defining wilderness as those places where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.10 The federal government subsequently produced a polarized distinction between civilized spaces (city) and wild spaces (nature). However, this redefinition and federal management plan seemingly contradicted more traditional categorizations, labeling wilderness as spaces that humans do not control.11 Nonetheless, a diverse community emerged bound by environmental responsibility and a love of wild space. Riding this populous environmental wave in his highly influential work Wilderness and the American Mind, author and environmental studies professor Roderick Nash provided a deeply insightful perspective into the topic of wilderness, from its primitive etymological roots to its contemporary (late 1960's) psychological and physical circumstances. In defining wilderness, Nash takes inventory of past definitions, particularly focusing on the Wilderness Acts antipodal language between civilized and wild spaces. Building upon this, Nash determines

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The value of wilderness is not static [its value] alters over time in accordance with changes in the needs and attitudes of society.
-Hall & Page, The Geography of Tourism & Recreation2

Our kind has living in wilderness at least 100 times longer than it has lived in civilization. Certainly the influence of this immense background of collective experience would not dissappear easily or completely.
-Roderick Nash, Wilderness & the American Mind13

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14

NATURE = PARK

that wilderness is as much a physical space as it is a state of mind, existing subjectively in the imaginations of those who describe it; with the potential to define itself.16 However, this theory gains little ground in determining the actual physical boundaries of the wild. Thus, Nash introduces the concept of a [polarized] spectrum of conditions or environments ranging from the purely wild [...] to the purely civilized, allowing wilderness to spatially exist in variations of intensity rather than on absolutes.17 As his diagram illustrates, the metropolis (civilization) sits at one end of the spectrum, with cultivated nature existing in bounded regions such as city parks. On the other end of the spectrum sits wild nature (wilderness), with pockets of civilization existing as outposts. The space between these identities exists as cultivated landscapes (rural/pastoral) where a certain balance between the two poles is approached.18 The emergence of this complex dichotomic understanding of wilderness brings us to contemporary realms of discourse, and the Great Wilderness Debate of the 1990s.

Cronons philosophical, deconstructionist abstractions as purely academic and based solely on intangible idealism rather than concretized circumstances eligible for debate. He supports the definition of wilderness as a self-willed land beyond human control, although again, managing these lands is contradictory to this statement. As Cronon points out, people should always be conscious that they are part of the natural world, inextricably tied to the ecological systems that sustain their lives, and polarizing wilderness as lands untouched by humans only serves to sever that connection. 21 He instead suggests that we embrace our relationship with nature, and protect it in a non-hierarchical manner which deconstructs previous concepts of wilderness in favor of a value system which would cherish the wildness of nature, whether it be a distant mountain range or the tree in ones backyard. This approach would thus honor the wild in a mode of critical self-consciousness [which] discovers a common middle ground in which all of these things, from the city to the wilderness, [is found] in the home [in which we dwell] that encompasses them both. 22 Beginning with Turners notion of the temporal, malleable space of the Frontier, followed by Nashs bipolar spatial conception of wilderness and civilization, ending with Cronons deconstruction of this concept into the space of home between said poles, a common thread of interstitiality, or 'betweenness' emerges. Wilderness, and the process of determining where, what and how it is, seems to continually exist in the ether of existence, neither here nor there, continually evolving to meet the needs of those determining its value. Perhaps this ambiguity is due in part to mans continual search for meaning and orientation in his/her life, continually referencing the primal relationship between man and nature. Just as nature serves as a humbling, tangible reminder to something larger than ourselves, so too does the eternal act of orienting ourselves within it remind us of the values through which we find meaning in our lives. Elaborating upon the issue of interstiality in contemporary culture is professor of American literature and language, Homi K. Bhabha. In his seminal work, The Location of Culture, Bhabha elects to unravel the emerging globalized multicultural community by studying its interstitial moments of interaction. He defines the notion of interstices as the overlap and displacement of domains of difference, labeling these hybrid spaces as crucial to understanding contemporary cultural values and identities. 23 These borderline engagements he further states, [may] challenge normative expectations of development and progress in an attempt to reveal the true forms of current cultural identity. 24 He believes that by recognizing this interstitial perspective through the exploration of liminal space or connective tissue, one can better understand the geopolitical circumstances that produce such identities.

More generally, by intervening between poles of identification, one can begin to re-frame traditional concepts of identifying each pole, addressing larger ideological frameworks in the process, much like Cronon has done in his critical dissection of the wilderness concept. Subsequently, to properly understand the conceptual significance of wild space, one must study it as an interstitial condition, viewing it as a liminal space through which polar distinctions (heaven/hell, city/garden, tangible/intangible, sacred/profane, nature/ civilization, self/cosmos, etc.) emerge, thus exposing a meaningful and multifaceted identification. 25 In order to perform such an investigation in a contemporary context, an appropriate place to begin would be the large-scale urban park: a socially-constructed stage, or liminal space which illustrates an essential interface between civilization (man) and nature (wilderness), embodying a critical lineage of social, cultural, and political values and motives.

civilized metropolis

Between Two Poles

Captured in the publication The Great New Wilderness Debate in 1998, a number of heated discussions surrounding contemporary conceptions of wilderness and its subsequent management emerged. Prime among these were the butting arguments of environmental historian William Cronon and environmentalist and EarthFirst! founder Dave Foreman.

NATURE // MAN

wild nature
CIVILIZATION = OUTPOST

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In response, Foreman utilizes his vast on-the-ground conservation background to dismiss

City/park relationship represents essential interface between man and nature

Wilderness

Cronons argument was directed towards the traditional definition of wilderness as manifest in the Wilderness Act as a polar distinction between that which is natural/wild, and that which is human/civilized. Attributing this polarized development to historical notions of the sublime and the frontier, Cronon contends that wilderness is a cultural construction rooted in the ideology of national renewal on the Frontier and religious redemption in sublime landscapes. Thus, a polarity emerged between the indistinct spaces of civilization (representing a confined, false, and artificial landscape), and wilderness (representing a free, true, and natural landscape). Cronon believes this ahistorical concept we label as wilderness only serves to offer us the illusion that we can escape the cares and troubles of the world in which our past has ensnared us.19 Furthermore, by constructing this illusory dualism, we grant ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead [...] encouraging us to believe that we are separate from nature [and thereby] likely to reinforce environmentally irresponsible behavior. 20 In this way, he believes wilderness can act as a threat to the very environmentalism efforts attempting to define and preserve it.

UNKNOWN // KNOWN

COSMOS // SELF

?
HEAVEN // HELL GARDEN // CITY

IDENTIFICATION

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As Linda Pollak illustrates in her essay Matrix Landscape: Constructing Identity in the Large Park, America was initially conceptualized as the new garden of the world, developed earlier through 18th Century British landscape gardens (ie. Stowe Gardens), especially in their representation of the sublimity of nature, addressing its infinite complexity in a tangible, picturesque manner. 26 The fear of the American wilderness thus emerged from these very same concepts of sublimity, or that which was beyond human comprehension and control, resulting in the taming of the sublime upon the charging frontier line. Following the conquering of the American wilderness captured in Turners Frontier Thesis of 1893, the sublime American landscape was facing complete eradication. Accordingly, the American parks movement was twofold in its agenda: first, to preserve the most extraordinary wild spaces left in the country (ie. national parks), and second, to capture the essence of those places in the design of urban parks for city-dwellers to experience. The urban park was thus a work of man (simultaneously attempting to conceal such work) evoking the sublime aspects of nature, aimed at preserving not simply the magnificence of the American landscape, but also the embodied history of the American people within it. Although not the first city park in the United States, New Yorks Central Park is hailed by many as a crowning achievement of American park design and the most important public space in the United States". 27 Responding to the ever-expanding boundaries of New York in the mid-19th Century, city officials elected to designate a central plot of stagnant wasteland on Manhattan island for future development as a city park. In 1857 a competition was held to design the park, resulting in the selection of Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vauxs Greensward Plan on April 21, 1858 as the clear winner. From a functional standpoint, the park was revolutionary for a number of reasons. For example, integrating various system of circulation which operated collectively as well as independently, granted access to the park for many types of traffic. The park also provided the city with vital drinking water through its intricate system of subterranean infrastructure and expansive reservoirs. From a social perspective, the concept of a democratic public space that would disintegrate class hierarchies and unify peoples of differing ethnic groups was not only revolutionary but especially vital in the midst of a national divided by Civil War. Supporting this ideology, Central Park is entered through twenty decorative gates dedicated to the laborers (ie. scholars, engineers, farmers) who illustrated the free, honest work that developed the city. Furthermore, 29 sculptures dot the park landscape, donated primarily by individuals

ECOLOGY & INNOVATION SOCIAL IDEOLOGIES

NATIONAL VALUES

Over time, significant city parks act as meaningful repositories which retain vital snapshots of the social, cultural, political, environmental, and technological forces which lead to their creation. Juxtaposed with a parks historical evolution, this information can begin to reveal the interconnected nature of these components over time and perhaps distinguish when conflict arises between them. In the case of Central Park, Civil War (political and social unrest), expanding cities (and shrinking open space), population diversity, and a dwindling frontier were all major factors in the creation of a peoples park located in the heart of Americas grandest city. By deconstructing the wilderness concept (see following wilderness timeline), one can begin to more clearly understand its relationship to the ideological foundations of the American city park, and further, seeing the park an an important embodiment of the eternal struggle to define the relationship between man and nature. Beginning with the 'Eden model' where ominous wilderness surrounded the cultivated garden, and arriving at the 'metropolis model' where the (un)cultivated garden is surrounded by the ever-expanding city, a definitive rolereversal emerges. This historical transformation is no doubt in many ways a result of the decline of natural wilderness (ie. the forest) and the rise of man-made wilderness (the city). Accordingly, as the natural wilderness once served as the antithesis of civilization, a disorienting wasteland where man continually strived to produce settlements, or clearings for comprehending his place in the wild, the wilderness in today's urbanized landscape has become the cities themselves, disorienting in their vastness, requiring the creation of open public space (ie. parks) to orient its inhabitants and allow them to extract meaning of the expansive metropolis they call home.

CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS

TRADITIONAL WILDERNESS [i.e. The Garden of Eden] Bounded civilization surrounded by an unknown expanding wilderness

MODERN WILDERNESS [i.e. The Metropolis] Bounded wilderness surrounded by an unknown expanding metropolis

SETTLEMENTS

NATIONAL IDENTITY

CULTURAL IDENTITY

-Sarah C. Miller, Central Park, An American Masterpiece28

Wilderness

The meaning of Central Park - its celebration of democracy, technology, nature, and popular culture - is written in its stones and reflected in its waters.

Uncontrolled/Unconstrained nature: Controlled/Constrained nature: wilderness projects negative connotations man projects positive values onto onto man wilderness

PARKS

CITY / PARK

Setting the Stage

who wished to endow the park with notable people and themes from their multicultural homelands. The centerpiece of these efforts of unification occur along the Mall, culminating in Bethesda Terrace; a social arena where citizens would congregate with one another and experience the diversity of the city. Hence, Central Park physically manifested the foundations of American identity: a democratic, multicultural landscape born upon a cultivated wilderness.

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6-7 Million years ago

PREHISTORIC IMMERSION

"Certainly this immense background of collective experience would not disappear easily or completely" -Roderick Nash1

4 Million years ago

PREHISTORIC EMERGENCE

Emergence from Forest Heightened ocular sense Hesitance to venture back into the wild

BIBLICAL

CREATION & EXPULSION

Later seen by many as an origin, marking the essential connection between man & nature Man thrown into the desolate wilderness, the Devil's domain

Late 14th C.

A SAVAGE WASTELAND
Biblical references produce the European concept for wilderness: a savage, alienating, mysterious, disorienting, orderless, immoral & uncivilized landscape

15th - 18th C.

THE CONQUERING PIONEER

Wilderness was to be conquered in the name of progress (on the frontier) Wilderness as that which wasn't controlled (civilized) Natives viewed as savages

Pr wi otoh th um en S mu viro ahla ans lti- nm nth live se en rop in ns t w us w ory h tc ild aw ere had fore are the ens sts ne se is. W of c ss hu of nt ilde entr the er- rn al A ir s gat ess fri urr he w ca, ou rer as be nd s re a p gin ing lie rim nin s fo d u it g Pro r s po ive the toh urv n a lea m um iva l. Th din to m ans e o g t o ar ov er cu o th ve g e p the lar eir re rim ex sen em ater aril pa se er d y b ns is ge ist ip ive d nc an ed pla eve e fr ces al a ins lop om ov t t . ed th er his as e fo the po a m res lan int, ea t int dsca allo su o t p wi re he e, ng Ge of pl and se ain Ed ne cu s. en sis it rity an , s 2 ea d e tin w tt de fr i ou om g fro atc ng pict ts th m h ma s G ide e t ov n o its Ga he T er wi d p wa rde ree it,' thi lan lls n, of K cul n i tin . int n tiv ts g o ow ati bo th th led ng un e G e de ge G its ds ard so od wi 'to en lat e lds w o e xp . A or f Af w els ft k te in ild m e rJ er a r a p 138 oh ne n an lac 4, n W ss ds e w of ild ycl av ag dis ern iffe e ( or es 's Na ien s b tra sh tat ec nsla , 2 ion om ti ). an es on o d sy f t w no he ild n L ne ym at ss o in B , a us ib lie w le In na it tin h cu an g in ltiv e Eu the atin ffo rt th ro N g th e w pea ew the to e n ild n W w re am s a set or ild cre tle ld ern at e o nd r e f p tra s m (to ess p ro ns ad o v th ara gr fo e a at d es rm it st c ise s. th the to y onfr (E em ir et on de int goa ap ted n) o l to pre th by civ c ci em iliz on ate at qu ), ion er in

Mid - 19th C.

at distinct moments, acting as a collective manifestation of natural and human history, and capturing fundamental societal principles. Thus, preserving wilderness acts to both protect the natural world as well as to retain a primal truth of human existence.

lens, the wilderness concept embodiment of the eternal WILDERNESS Seen through this historical nature. The malleability of thecan be seen as an concretizes this relationship relationship between man & concept over time

SACRED NATURE
God found in nature Wild nature is spiritually restorative A means of escaping the corruptions of civilized life A return to primitive roots of man & finding one's true identity

1860's/70's

A NATIONAL REFUGE
Parks established to provide escape from industrial society National morals & values are united with wilderness in urban & national parks (the people's park)

Late 19th C.

A LANDSCAPE LOST
Turner's Frontier Thesis states the Frontier is lost, & threatens to take the American identity it produced with it, sparking conservation efforts to save this American landscape

1960's

10 11

CONSERVATION
Anthropocentrism to ecocentrism Wilderness formally defined and protected in the Wilderness Act of '64 Nash's polarized theory of wilderness and civilization

21st C.

DEBATE + TOURISM
Polarized theory questioned for its use as a means to justify destructive behavior outside of defined wilderness regions Contradictions in management emerge (preservation vs. resources)

22

T Th he r or ise D th ura eau of e nd , tra n co atur trad , Bie Mu nsc ca uld e, u itio rst ir...) end th n n na ad ed ow itin l t) a ent ra g rela du nd alis ls be s p ti rin la t t of th fou iritu onsh g t nds hou e w nd al ip hi ca gh s ild in ity b p pe t ( sp n and etw erio ar Em ac atu w ee d t ers es re il n re (C on of , a de m de ol , Fo Ea nd rne an fin e, llo (e rth t ss a ed ind sp. win . he . G nd (C us by g m od an & ent tria Jo the y es na ral liza hn ro pr tab tio Pa tio Mu m es lis na rk, n ir) an er he l vin d ( 185 & p , co tici Ye 8- lu u zi g n as l p n at a low 83) nge led g ion m st , s in w o al ean one tat to ith f ide s , e ( ci t wi nt of 18 Yo vil he lde ity p 72 se w n rn & rov ) mi ar, atio ess Tu va id pa te, ur n' lue ing rk 18 ba s as rne s. es s 64 n Am th r's e Fr ca we ), its e m o pe re ric a nt pr ier a l & th ese end n leab Th em rv . ide le es se ing Co nt Fro is o lve th ns ity nt f 1 s. e w eq ), ier 89 ild uen one lin 3 d wa tly w e ( efin sa , h its ed lso Am ich elf a wi a w eri ha so lder ay can d r urc nes ea e s of s Bu pr rea che for (L ilt es liz d m eo up er ed vin ec id pold on e g oc 20 , ar W e Na ilde ntr th Ma ly 2 Am sh rne ism C. rsh 0th sh a eri 's q ss C. ca u Ac culm ift ll, e n M int t ina fro Car nvir ind esse in 1 te m so on . nt 96 d an n, me ial 4, in th P nt te fol the rop inc al a xt low oc ho ct W ed sign ent t), ivis m ild i r Ec ern by ng ism the pr oce es Ro of to s (C ess nt an der the co ron ure ric s d ick w ntr on s o oc th ild ad , i e er ic F f clim al m ne to or or at al ss ry em e s re ten an ch al gio d ) an ong ns en g ga cie ove e s with ins s. r pa th po Tou ma rk n e in pu ris na ew cr lar m, ge d ea ity es m eb sin . pe en at g cia t es lly & to

Where are the protected wilderness areas (omit AK & HI) under the 1964 Act (followed
by similar acts in 1975 and 2009)...

...& how do these areas correlate with the places most Americans live?

WILDERNESS PRESERVATION AREAS [Federally Managed]

Designated Areas
Bureau of Land Management Fish and Wildlife Service Dept of Agriculture Forest Service National Park Service

UNITED STATES POPULATION DENSITY [by county]

avg < 300 160 - 299
Avg = 86.9

86.9 - 159 40 - 86.8 10-39 > 10

National Atlas, comp. "Wilderness Preservation System Areas." Map. Map Maker. National Atlas of the United States, 17 Sept. 2009. Web. 20 Oct. 2010. <http://www.nationalatlas.gov/natlas/Natlasstart.asp>.

U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, comp. "Population Density for Counties." Map. Population Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau, 01 July 2009. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. <http:/ /www.census.gov/popest/gallery/maps/PopDensity_09.pdf>.

Wilderness

LOCATIONS

24

p o p u l a t i o n /m i 2

Excluding: Hawaii (.1%) No Wilderness: CT, DE, IA, KS, MD, RI

3

as k ifo a rn Ar ia iz on a W Ida as ho hi ng Co to lo n ra M do on ta N na ev ad a O N reg ew on M ex ic o U M ta in ne h so G ta eo W rgia yo m M in g ic hi ga n Vi rg Ar ini ka a ns N a ew Fl s H or am id W p a es sh N t V ire or i th rgin Ca ia ro l Ve ina rm on So Te t ut xa h s D ak W ot is co a n So Mi sin ut ss o h Ca uri ro Te nn lina es s Al ee a N or ba th m D a ak ot a Ill O ino kl is ah om a M a Ke ine nt u Lo ck ui y si an In a di N an eb a N ra ew sk J a M ers is ey Pe siss nn ip M as sy pi sa lva ch nia u N se e w tts

al

Al

Yo r

O hi

NEW YORK CITY represents

500

the of

quintessential civilization in

pole the

1000

contemporary

wilderness

construct. In addition to be the country's most populated and dense city, New York is also the furthest of any
DISTANCE FROM NEW YORK [Miles] Excluding AK, HI
Mapping Worlds, comp. "Wilderness." Map. SHOW USA. Mapping Worlds, 16 Dec. 2009. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <http:/ /show.mappingworlds.com/usa/?subject=WILDERNESSPROT>.

1500

2000

come to define as protected wilderness.

2500

3000

Wilderness

major city from what we have

WILDERNESS

PROTECTED WILDERNESS AREAS [Federally Managed, by Millions of Acres]

26

BRONX 1,397,287

JERSEY CITY 242,503

MANHATTAN 1,537,195

QUEENS 2,306,712

NEW YORK CITY 8,391,881

At the heart of New York City lies Central Park, a constructed representation of wilderness for the citys inhabitants to experience. This articial refuge from the wild metropolis which both encapsulates and denes it also functions as a critical window into the compelling geological and societal foundations of New York.

STATEN ISLAND 491,730

BROOKLYN 2,567,098

Census Bureau. Population - New York City Department of City Planning. Population. NY Dept of City Planning, 01 July 2009. Web. 18 Nov. 2010. <http:/ /www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/census/popcur.shtml>.

Central Park

THE METROPOLIS

28

1857 (land opened) 1858 (designed) - 1873 (completed) DESIGNERS

MAJOR GREEN SPACES OF NEW YORK CITY

PROTECTED LAND GRAVEYARD GARDEN / ZOO PARK
N

Frederick Law Olmstead & Calvert Vaux SIZE 2.5 miles long x .5 miles wide 843 acres (1.32 mi2) BUILDINGS Delacorte Theater (1962) Tavern on the Green (1934) Belvedere Castle (1869) Cleopatras Needle (1450 B.C.) Loeb Boathouse (1874 org., 1954 rep.) Central Park Zoo (1870, 1934, 1988) Swedish Cottage Marionette Theater (1876) Metropolitan Museum of Art
(1871: Interior [Vaux], 1902: facade [R.M. Hunt])

American Museum of Natural History

(Across street/ 1874 [Vaux], 1936 [J.C. Cady])

FACTS Most visited urban park in the U.S. Valued at $528,783,552,000

Sits atop Camerons Line, a suture fault line Managed by the Central Park Conservancy

Central Park

1,600 people displaced during its creation

NYC GREEN SPACES

CREATED

30

CHRISTO ON THE GATES OF CENTRAL PARK PROJECT, 2005

The most unusual and surrealistic place in New York City is Central Park.1

Wilkes, Stephen. Central Park, Day Into Night. 2010. Photograph. Monroe Gallery, New York. VEN Magazine. Vol. 4. Fairfield, 2010. 48-49. Print. Nov/Dec.

32

When Olmstead and Vaux submitted their Greensward Plan proposal for Central Park in 1858, America was in the midst of heated division that would eventually break out into Civil War in 3 years time. This division also manifested in social class segregation, particularly evident in New York during a period of inux in immigration. Thus, Central Park was a monumental effort of democracy and unication even when the Nation around it seemed destined for separation. A Nation Divided: America as seen during the Civil War (1861-65) Division was also seen in the distinct social strata of the city. During the mid-18th century the Five Points exemplied a distinct where the stratied social geography of poverty and race (particularly with immigrants) was especially evident.

Central Parks 22 gates are not merely denoting locations of entry, but were originally intended to capture the essence of this peoples park by commemorating the honest, hard working Americans who forged the nation the park was to serve. Most of the gates are thus named after important gures in the countrys free labor system (in opposition to the South), instilling a sense of national identity into those who entered the park. The Merchants Gate entry which also houses the Maine Monument Examples of the 22 gates which greet visitors to the park

THE MALL + BETHESDA TERRACE [Unifying, Democratic Space]

A focal point of the park, and the only straight line in its 843 acres, The Mall and its culmination in Bethesda Terrace was designed as a grand avenue where urban hierarchies were temporarily erased, yielding a democratic space for residents of all social classes to partake.2 Whereas the Mall was designed as a natural cathedral of elms where one could see and be seen, the Fountain served as a critical moment of unifying the naturalistic landscape with the architectural promenade, a symbolic gesture to the life-giving power of water. The angel was sculpted by Emma Stebbins, the rst woman to receive a major public art commission from the city in 1859, inculcating the space with a further layer of social equality. The Mall as a grand avenue of social interaction to see and be seen Bethesda Fountain still serves as a focal point of gathering in the park

ARTWORK [Cultural Representation]

Although met with opposition from Olmstead, Central Park began to receive sculptures and monuments representing major gures and events associated with the diverse cultural landscape of America. By representing the people for which the park was built, these works helped to solidify it as a new democratic institution to be shaped and dened by the public.3 Ranging from the commemoration of the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus to various War memorials to popular literary gures such as Alice in Wonderland, these artworks create an important representation of Americas multicultural identity and national history. Hans Christian Anderson & The Ugly Duckling [Georg Lober, 1956] Untermeyer Fountain [Walter Schott, 1910_placed in park 1947]

Central Park

SOCIAL HISTORY

HISTORICAL CONTEXT [National + Social Division]

ENTRANCES [Social Value]

34

Late Precambrian [550 Ma]

_An active volcano emerges (thin strip of land) offshore due to subduction (when one tectonic plate moves under another) on the eastern edge of the continent, narrowing the Iapetus Ocean Mesozoic + Younger Cover Rocks Jurassic Diabase Hartland Formation Manhattan Formation Fordham Gneiss + Inwood Marble

Late Cambrian [500 Ma]

_NA continent folds downward due to accumulating sediments and compressional forces in the crust from increased subduction _volcanic ring grows

Late Precambrian Gneiss Hudson Highlands Gneiss Complex Created during the Taconic Orogeny (see maps), Manhattan is composed of three intertwined bedrock strata: Manhattan Schist, Inwood Marble, and Fordham Gneiss. Schist forms the citys strongest foundation, readable in the shifting building heights between midtown and downtown, as it allows for increased weight when reachable. The Manhattan Prong illustrates the unique geological history of the region through its composition of shallow water origin metamorphosed rock (Manhattan Formation) bursting through the surrounding deep water origin metamorphosed rock (Hartland Formation), forming a rich mosaic of sedimentary history. Camerons Line, an extensive thrust fault zone, indicates the convergence of these contrasting zones, slicing across Manhattan through Central Park.4

Middle Ordovician [470 Ma]

_Shallow water carbonate deposition gives way to ne-grained clastic deposition and deeper water conditions _volcanic ring sinks into subduction mantle to create the Taconic island arc as well as transforming its micra-rich shale into schist (later bedrock of Manhattan)

Late Ordovician [450 Ma]

_Taconic island arc collides with NA continent, creating mountains and intensely folding and faulting sedimentary and igneous rock (NYC), marks the end of the Taconic Orogeny _Camerons Line marks the suture zone of this massive continental collision
Blakey, Dr. Ron. North American Paleogeographic Maps. Map. Paleogeography and Geologic Evolution of North America. Ron Blakey, July 2010. Web. 08 Dec. 2010. <http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/nam.html>.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY [SE New York]

Alden, Andrew. New York Geologic Map. Map. New York Geologic Map. About.com, 2001. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http:/ /geology.about.com/od/maps/ig/stategeomaps/NYgeomap.htm>..

MANHATTAN PRONG

Central Park

GEOLOGIC HISTORY

KEY

36

KEY
Walloomsac Schist Hartland Schist Manhattan Schist Inwood Marble Fordham Gneiss Camerons Line

TIMELINE
Middle Ordovician (470 Ma) Early Ordovician (485 Ma) Cambrian (500-550 Ma)

Rat Rock, SW Corner

WISCONSIN ICE SHEET [1.5 Ma - 18 ka]

_The ice sheet advanced as far as New York City (about 70 ka), depositing rock and debris which today form the hilly areas running through the city, before retreating (about 50 ka) _Advanced again (about 45 ka) reaching the city (about 20.5 ka) forming the Harbor Hill Moraine and leaving rock debris (glacial erratics) from the Palisades and exposing rock outcroppings in present-day Central Park (later developed as a theme in the Parks design), before retreating (about 18 ka)

ROCK OUTCROPPINGS [Manhattan Schist (North) & Hartland Schist (South)]

Proterozoic (2.5 Ga -543 Ma) Camerons Line Inwood Hill Thrust

MANHATTAN COMPOSITE
Baskerville, Charles A. Bedrock and Engineering Geologic Maps of New York County. Map. US Geological Survey. Reston [VA]: US Geological Survey, 1995. Print.

CENTRAL PARK [Camerons Line Composite]

McCully, Betsy. City at the Waters Edge: a Natural History of New York. New Brunswick, NJ: Rivergate , an Imprint of Rutgers UP, 2007. 8, 12. Print.

Blakey, Dr. Ron. North American Paleogeographic Maps. Map. Paleogeography and Geologic Evolution of North America. Ron Blakey, July 2010. Web. 08 Dec. 2010. <http:/ /jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/nam.html>.

Central Park

_The sheet at its height in New York, was 1000 thick, nearly 10,000 thick farther north where it carved the Hudson River, Great Lakes, Finger Lakes, and Adirondack Mountains.

Currently, the exposed bedrock is a platform for a multitude of uses: Platforms, stairways, perspectival landscape components, building components (bridges, belvedere castle), recreational activities (ie. rock climbing, picnicking), staging for artwork, and picturesque fantasies (grotto, pool, cave). However, they constitute only the uppermost surface of an intricate underground network of tectonic drama.

GEOLOGIC HISTORY

38

SUBTERRANEAN GEOLOGICAL

SURFACE COMPOSITE
26,000+ Trees, 30 Tennis Courts, 26 Ball Fields, 2 Ice Rinks, 1 Swimming Pool, Theater, 36 Bridges, 10 million cart-loads of raw material, 4 million trees/shrubs/plants

WATER FEATURES

OPEN RECREATION SPACES

MAJOR ROADS/PATHS

MINOR PATHS

TRANSVERSE ROADS

BUILDINGS

Central Park

LAYERS

40

37 35 25 17 14 12 6.5 5.2 4 3.5

DISNEY WORLD

TIMES SQUARE

CENTRAL PARK ...direct proximity to a park is one of the 3 most important factors in real estate; if the park is Central, its the rst. -Martin Levine, Metropolitan Valuation Services

NATIONAL MALL & MEMORIALS

NIAGARA FALLS

BROADWAY THEATERS

EIFFEL TOWER

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART STATUE OF LIBERTY

2007 25 Million

YOSEMITE

ANNUAL VISITS COMPARISON [Millions/Yr]

2000 20 Million

1982 14.8 Million 1973 12.5 Million 1873 10 Million

$979/sf
NYC 70% International 15% Remaining U.S. 12% NYC Metro Area 3%

1863 5 Million

CENTRAL PARK VISITATION [Millions/Yr]

CENTRAL PARK VISITOR ORIGINS [2005]

Central Park Conservancy, comp. 843 Acres, 35 Million Visits. Chart. The Official Website of Central Park. Central Park Conservancy, 20 Oct. 2010. Web. 01 Nov. 2010.

How can the park space and surrounding properties be further utilized to tap into such prime real estate?

AVG. MARKET VALUE OF BLOCK [per lot sqft]

ONeill, Hugh, ed. Valuing Central Parks Contributions to New York Citys Economy. Rep. Appleseed, May 2009. Web. 01 Dec. 2010. <http:/ /www.appleseedinc.com/reports/centralpark-may2009.pdf>.

Central Park

View, access, and proximity to Central Park has had an incredible impact on Manhattan real estate, especially in the past decade. Due to an increased investment in the park facilities, infrastructure, landscapes, and security the properties around the park have subsequently made properties surrounding it more attractive. Proximity to the park has been estimated to add nearly $17.7 Billion in additional market value to properties, an increase in 18% over the rest of Manhattan.

$462/sf

ECONOMIC IMPACT

2010 35 Million

42

Because of Manhattans bounded island condition, growth for the city means redening preexisting sites, typically resulting in vertical expansion. However, along the historic boundary of Central Park, this option is limited.

GROWTH = DENSITY

Bounded Island Condition

Developing new subterranean typologies for this region will provide not only a means of producing new space along the park, but also a radical means of reading the city.

44

HOW CAN CENTRAL PARK, ITSELF A REPRESENTATION OF NATURE [A QUINTESSENTIAL SPACE OF ORIENTATION], BE UTILIZED AS A MEANINGFUL SITE OF ORIENTATION?
45.6 Million [disoriented] Tourists Visit New York City Every Year

CANADA: 880,000 UNITED STATES : 37,000,000 MEXICO: 234,000

EUROPE: 4,249,000 MIDDLE EAST: 524,000 ASIA: 749,000

As weve seen, New York City has been the site of intercontinental fusion for over half-a-billion years, producing the foundation for the great metropolis that harbors multicultural fusion today...

SOUTH AMERICA: 525,000 OCEANIA: 450,000

...yet, this remarkable history is concealed under the skin of the city, an undiscovered world of incredible potential, waiting to be revealed.

Tourism

STATS

46

While tourism declined signicantly

Human and business activities associated with one or more aspects of the temporary movement of persons away from their immediate home communities and daily work environments for business, pleasure, and personal reasons. 1

in cities across the country, we fared far better than most. In fact, for the rst time in 20 years, we were the most popular tourism destination
Food 22% Lodging 27% Transport 21%

in the country with more than 45 million visitors generating nearly $30 billion in revenues.

SERVICES
A sector of the economy or an industry including the management & promotion of tourist activities

NYC TOURISM SPENDING SECTORS [2005]

50

-Mayor Bloomberg, 2010

40 30

TOURISM
TRAVELLERS
The movement of people for business, pleasure, & personal reasons, including their needs & wishes

20

DESTINATION
Local culture, residents, attractions, interactions, character, personal connections

10

0 0

0 1

0 2

0 4

0 5

0 7

0 8

0 9

10

11

0 3

NUMBER of VISITORS to NYC & SPENDING [millions]

0 6

Chart: ONeill, Hugh, ed. Valuing Central Parks Contributions to New York Citys Economy. Rep. Appleseed, May 2009. Web. 01 Dec. 2010. <http:/ /www.appleseedinc.com/reports/centralpark-may2009.pdf>.

Tourism

Domestic

International

Projected

$ Spent

12

DEFINITION

WHAT IS TOURISM, & WHAT IS ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN NYC?

Recreation 10%

20% Retail

48

in leisure, subsequently encompassing particular categories of fulllment.

Renowned psychologist Abraham Maslows motivation theory as illustrated in his Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates human motivations for personal growth as a pyramidal concept. As an individual fullls each need, they become aware of the next level of motivation and strive to attain it, eventually leading to self-actualization as an ultimate aspiration. Thus, personal growth is facilitated only when a sound network of needs can be fullled during the tourists experiences. This network relies in part upon essential elements of architecture: quality of shelter, safety, security, fostering a strong sense of belonging and place.
SAFETY + SECURITY BELONGING & LOVE SELF-ACTUALIZATION/ PERSONAL SELF-FULFILLMENT ESTEEM

SOCIAL MOTIVATION

BODILY PLEASURES

SOCIAL LEARNING

explore play communicate escape relax challenge

sport interaction

help

power sex

prestige learn adventure family

drink eat culture bored shop

dream experience create

This data will be further mapped in order to produce an applicable set of program requirements for an intervention
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
[hunger, rest, thirst, shelter]

Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. The Demand for Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 29. Print.

Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. The Demand for Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 53. Print.

Tourism

MOTIVATIONS

WHAT MOTIVATES TOURISM?

Social psychologist Michael Argyle outlines three primary principles of motivation for specic tendencies

50

HIGHWAYS METRO NORTH LAGUARDIA AIRPORT

RESIDENTS
Non-Travellers Within scope of travel & tourism Travellers

VISITORS

LONG ISLAND RAIL ROAD JFK AIRPORT

Other travellers Commuters

NEWARK AIRPORT NJ TRANSIT 52

International Intercontinental Continental

Domestic Interregional Regional

Other local travellers (3) Crews Students (4)

Staying one or more nights (1)

Same Day (2)

Migrants (5) Temporary workers

Grand Central Terminal, New York

50 40 30

Primary purpose of travel Business Primary Activites Consultants Conventions Inspections Secondary Activites Dining Out Recreation Shopping Sightseeing VFR Visting friends or relatives (VFR) Primary Activites Socializing Dining In Home Entertainment Secondary Activites Dining Out Physical Recreation Shopping Sightseeing Urban Entertainment Other personal business Primary Activites Shopping Visiting Professional Medical Appointment Secondary Activites Dining Out VFR Pleasure Primary Activites Recreation Sightseeing Dining Out Secondary Activites VFR Convention Business Shopping (1) Tourists in international technical denitions (2) Excursionists in international technical denitions (3) Travellers whose trips are shorter than those which qualify for travel & tourism (e.g. under 50 mi from home) (4) Students travelling between home & school only - other travel of students is within scope of travel and tourism (5) All persons moving to a new place of residence including all oneway travellers such as emigrants, immigrants, refugees, domestic migrants & nomads

20 10

NYC TRANSIT NETWORKS

dotted = underground RAIL_outgoing RAIL_local BUS CAR
JFK EWR LGA

AIRPORT PASSENGER RESIDENCE [millions]

INTERNATIONAL NYC US-Outside NYC

Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. Urban Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 60. Print.

The Port Authority of NY & NJ, comp. Airport Traffic Report. Rep. The Port Authority of NY & NJ, 28 June 2010. Web. 02 Dec. 2010. <http:/ /www.panynj.gov/airports/pdf-traffic/ATR2009.PDF>.

Tourism

RESEARCH

WHO & WHAT ARE TOURISTS?

AMTRAK

Photos taken by locals Photos taken by visitors Photos taken by either

USERS [demand]

CITY + REGIONAL RESIDENT

PLEASURE

VISITOR CONFERENCE

WORK

American Museum of Natural History - 4 million (3rd most visited museum in U.S.) Metropolitan Museum of Art - 5.24 million (Most visited museum in U.S. 3rd most visited in world) Central Park - 9.6 million (Most visited park in U.S.) Rockefeller Center -? Museum of Modern Art - 3.09 million Times Square - 37 million (most visited place in U.S.) Bryant Park & NYC Public Library - 3.5 million Empire State Building - 3.09 million (Most visited building in U.S.) Broadway Shows - 11.89 million World Trade Center Site - 1.1 Million (5 million projected) Ellis Island - 2.02 Million

FUNCTIONAL LINKS [program overlap]

USERS [resources]

HISTORIC MONUMENTS

MUSEUMS, GALLERIES

THEATERS, CONCERT HALLS

NIGHTCLUBS & RED-LIGHT DISTRICTS

CAFES, RESTAURANTS

SHOPS

OFFICES

Burtenshaw, David, M. Bateman, and G. J. Ashworth. The City in West Europe. 2nd ed. Chichester [England]: Wiley, 1991. Print

Fischer, Eric. Locals and Tourists #2 (GTWA #1): New York. Digital image. Flickr. Yahoo, 05 June 2010. Web. 01 Dec. 2010. <http:/ /www.flickr.com/photos/walkingsf/4671594023/>.

Tourism

Statue of Liberty - 3.15 Million

FUNCTION

WHAT FUNCTIONS DOES TOURISM EXPLOIT?

MOST VISITED PLACES [Photos tagged online & visitors/yr]

54

MAJOR MUSEUMS [Annual Visitors] 47 Museums total [2006] The Met and AMNH account for half of visitors

MAJOR HOTELS [Capacity] 37% of New Yorks total inventory 78% $400+/night

MAJOR SHOPPING DISTRICTS [5th Ave, Madison Ave]

MAJOR EVENTS [concerts, parades, theaters]

MAJOR RESTAURANTS [highest Zagat rated]

NEW YORK TOURIST CITY [Composite]

Tourism

FUNCTIONS

56

natural world

As we have seen, the essential act of orientation in a disorienting environment can be traced through the wilderness concept to the origin of man (whether navigating the forest as primitive being or following the expulsion from Eden), emphasizing its importance in our comprehending the natural world and producing meaningful experiences within it.
In The Image of the City, Kevin Lynch developed a visual system of spatial networks to understand how individuals create cognitive maps of new environments such as cities.2 LANDMARKS Ext. Reference Points
(ie. hospital, monument)

SPACE
Norberg-Schulz argues that in addition to orientation, the act of identifying with an environment is what produces a meaningful image of a place. This occurs when one can grasp and experience the character of an environment, concretized by the place itself. This entails that the architecture of the place be in touch with its genius loci, thus exhibiting the signicance and unique qualities of its natural environment. Juhani Pallasmaa supports this claim by stating: Architecture articulates the experiences of being-in-the-world and strengthens our sense of reality and self3 Tying together themes of orientation, identication, and cognition Pallasmaa goes on to state a similar role of architecture, highlighting the importance of sensory perception: In memorable experiences of architecture, space, matter and time fuse into one singular dimension, into the basic substance of being, that penetrates our consciousness. We identify ourselves with this space, this place, this moment, and these dimensions become ingredients of our very existence. Architecture is the art of reconciliation between ourselves and the world, and this mediation takes place through the senses4

MATTER

TIME

built world

Cha

(ie. s nels o S tree ts, s f Motio idew alks n )

PAT H

MAP

(ie Fo NO . M ca D all l P ES ,S tat oin ion ts ,H ote l)

D ch e.
(i

S ns ) CT io nt RI regterfro ST e a DI ctiv n, w in ow ist inat

These mental images also holds values of the places they represent, illustrating how ones interaction with a city can be altered by the built and natural environment in order to convey societal values, morals, etc. During the period of mass immigration of the early 20th Century, the Statue of Liberty served a distinctive orienting landmark which signied important national values such as freedom & hope.

SENSES

COGNITION

Tourism

This constructed reality is vital in that it contrasts against an individuals expectations, yielding a critical reaction. Furthermore, if a citys spatial structure is weak, it inhibits orientation and leaves one feeling lost & disconnected. From an economic standpoint, the stronger a citys spatial orienting structure, the more likely visitors are to visit further reaches of the city (distributed $).

SENSE OF REALITY

SENSE OF SELF

ORIENTATION

HOW DOES A CITY FACILITATE ORIENTATION?

58

ES ries EDGounda ores) B , sh ning ings De alls, build

(ie. w

Cities produce spatial structures which can either reinforce or inhibit orientation, although this process simultaneously hinges upon an individuals ability to navigate and comprehend the natural and (especially) the built environment. This capacity is inherently dependent upon their abilities of perception and cognition.
JUHANI PALLASMAA THE EYES OF THE SKIN

The city and my body supplement and define each other. I dwell in the city and the city dwells in me 5 Vision separates us from the world, whereas the other senses unite us with it [...] buildings have turned into image products detached from existential depth and sincerity 6

Hall and Page describe orientation as a two-part mental process consisting of Perception and Cognition: Whereas perception is a collection of information signals from ones environment gathered through the senses, cognition is the translation of this information, ltered by ones knowledge, values, and attitudes into a mental image of a place 7 In an ocularcentric age afxed upon visual stimuli, the creation of multi-sensory didactic architecture is of utmost importance in creating compelling interactions with the built world.

=
The Real World Information Signals Sense Perception Cognition
[ltered by knowledge, values, & attitudes]

Mental Image of Place

In New York (and now the US), Times Square reigns supreme as the most visited tourist attraction, attracting nearly 40 million visitors annually. It also includes the citys most recognized information centers, although in reality only a gloried ticketing booth. Thus, I contend that Times Square is in many ways a supercial, insignicant landmark in the city, its content leading to visitors wandering aimlessly without having forged any meaningful connection with the place beyond mere visual spectacle. What if ones orientation to New York occurred in a halfa-billion year-old tectonic ssure which marks a site of the citys dramatic natural history concealed beneath its most important public space?

Orienting oneself within an environment (by encountering new places/travelling) not only allows for a meaningful comprehension and connection with a place, but further strengthens our notions of being-in-the-world, placing us in the continuum of time and constructing meaningful experiences which help to shape our identity.

Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. Urban Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 171. Print.

Tourism

ORIENTATION

HOW DOES AN INDIVIDUAL ATTAIN ORIENTATION?

60

Redefine the urban wilderness condition by revealing the citys unique geological history through a subterranean entry into its most significant public space, Central Park.
Cognizant of how individuals are oriented to and identify with a place through encounters of the built and natural world, I propose an intervention that seeks to gather its environment in a meaningful and relevant way in order to provide a new and compelling reading of the city: Marking a crucial connection between the park and the city, the project will be located in/under Grand Army Plaza, historically the main entry to the park and strategically located adjacent to the most visited tourist districts in Manhattan. A major pedestrian entry to the park will serve as the nerve center of the project, while ancillary program [ie. geological museum, visitors center, and access to public transit systems (NQR subway lines)] will provide a means for the project to become a magnet institution for tourists and locals alike. Acting as an archeological excavation, the project will unpack the layered history of the park while providing a didactic orientation to the throbbing metropolis above.

JUHANI PALLASMAA
THE EYES OF THE SKIN

Buildings and cities are instruments and museums of time. They enable us to see and understand the passing of history and to participate in time cycles that surpass individual life. (EotS 52)

Proposal

INTENT

Project Intent:

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GRAND ARMY PLAZA

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[3000 BC - 1600 BC]

This mysterious work of rock and earth has confounded historians for centuries as it was continually reshaped and reinterpreted by nearly 1.5 millennia of inhabitants _Many experts believe Stonehenge to be an ancient temple of the cosmos, or prehistoric observatory which translated the vital phenomena of the sky (sun and moon) into a comprehensible system of order which gave their cyclical processes meaning _As the sun, moon, & re were the only sources of light at the time, & no gods or idols were worshipped at this point, these celestial bodies were an essential fact of life to those who constructed & used the ancient site _Others believe that in conjunction with the surrounding sites (Woodhenge & Durrington Walls), these constructions represented a path of life, where ones journey between life and death was acted out, beginning in the domain of the living (Woodhenge) & concluding in the domain of the dead (Stonehenge). Materials and celestial alignments would therefore support such allegorical narratives, & produced a meaningful interpretation of the eternal cycles of nature (life & death of man was juxtaposed with the life & death of the sun).1

Hills of Sainte-Baume, France 1948-1960s | Le Corbusier

Placed atop the La Sainte-Baume massif, a dramatic uplifted wall of limestone shooting up from the earth, Le Corbusier envisioned an underground basilica dedicated to Mary Magdalene, whos grotto formed the entrance to the sacred structure of the mountain. Central to the scheme was the connection to a primal harmony with nature (especially that of light and dark) and a use of architectural sequence to produce a desired symbolic effect: This sequence (or spiritual quest) was intended to represent the cosmic path of the sun, life and death, and the existence of a divine presence, granted by an invisible architecture which instead highlighted the the intrinsic power of nature placing didactic meaning over form (223). Linking the body and the environment, knowledge would be achieved through an engagement with the body on the journey from dark into light (Le Corbusier in Detail, 75).

La Sainte-Baume Massif

Grotto of Mary Magdalene above the treeline

Sequence up and into the grotto

Midsummers Sun

Midwinters Sun

Range of Moonset @ minor standstill

Range of Moonrise @ minor standstill

It is a building without an exterior, the architecture would have to come to life within the rock (BGL, 15). -Le Corbusier 5

4 2 1 3

1. Disorientation | Woods 2. Passage | Lower Chamber 3. Transcendence | Central Chamber 4. Emergence | Upper Chamber 5. View of Sun + Sea | Mountain Top

Ascension from the wood through the womb of Mother Nature into an elevated spirituality
Chart: Richards, Julian C. Why Was Stonehenge Built? Stonehenge: the Story so Far. Swindon, UK: English Heritage, 2007. 220-28. Print.

Proposal

PRECEDENTS

STONEHENGE

Range of Moonset @ major standstill

Range of Moonrise @ major standstill

La SAINTE-BAUME

66

boundaries slip away, I believe it is imperative we begin to grasp and concretize the power of the 1 Peezza82. Pantheon. 2006. Photograph. Rome [Italy]. Flickr. Yahoo, 09 Apr. 2006. Web. 04 Nov. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/peezza82/159143812/>. 1 2 Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture. [United States]: BN Pub., 2008. 19. Print. The notion of orientation entails one to understand the notions of time, place and identity, subsequently requiring a tangible concretization of natural phenomena which architecture provides. 3 This detachment refers to mans increasing separation from what Norberg-Schulz defines as concrete life-situations which in his terms, anchor us to meaningful experiences of our 1 This data is collected from recent studies conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society in conjunction with Columbia Universitys Center for International Earth Science Information Network, where the group identified that 83% of the earths land surface is influenced directly by human beings.2 This data, together with a 2003 report conducted by the IUCN/UNEP in which the group identified Category 1a Wilderness as unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence, without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition [] strictly protected areas, generally with only limited human visitation yields the noted decline in defined wilderness areas.3 While the IUCN states that only 11% of the world is protected category 1a wilderness, the WCS data serves to relate this data more directly to human habitation, hence its use in this document. However, as only spaces that are managed and protected by an administrative body have entered the said definition of wilderness, this leaves much of the residual wild spaces of the world (ie. Forest land in America) in question. 2 CIESIN at Columbia University, and Wildlife Conservation Society, comps. The Human Influence Index Ver. 2. Map. The Last of the Wild. CIESIN at Columbia University, 07 Mar. 2008. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. <http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/wildareas/maps.jsp>. 3 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Ed. Nigel Dudley. Gland: IUCN, 2008. 9 8 7 6 4 5 Being.14 This detachment from reality is resultant from a number of forces, many of which stem from forces might include our increasing reliance upon technological instruments that provide a superficial level of orientation. Furthermore, as Finnish architect Juhani Pallasmaa explains in The Eyes of the Skin, our evolution into an ocularcentric society has lead to a dramatic shattering of the inherited construction of reality and a separation of the self and the world.15 Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 5. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Cichester: Wiley-Academy, 2005. 19, 21. Print Thiis-Evensen, Thomas. The Sunken Floor. Archetypes in Architecture. New York: Oxford UP, 1989. 79. Print. Term refers to the evolution of Homo Sapiens as described in the Smithsonian Museum of Natural Historys Timeline of Human Evolution.
16

wild spaces from which we came. 10 11 See diagrams: Religious Symbols as Axis Mundi Reference Location This statement refers to the common phrase of individuals going into the wild to find themselves. I believe, in part, that is the sense of humility and enlightenment through orientation (a product of the disorienting qualities of the wilderness) and later orientation that occurs when a deeper understanding of self is acquired as one realizes (metaphorically and physically represented by the clearing) that they are one with nature, part of something larger than themselves, that attracts us to wild spaces. 12 Examples of these superficial means of orientation include the many technological gadgets which increasingly control the way in which we experience our surroundings. By interacting with the virtual realities in which these digital networks create, we become detached from reality by means of a flattened sense of space, reading our environments through bits of impersonal data rather than sensorial perception. 13 More specifically, these studies are focused in the following areas: Ecocentrism and globalization have recently arisen symbiotically through our increasing awareness of worldwide environmental degradation by way of a scientifically based, nature-centered societal value system (Rowe, find page #). Additionally, globalization has through its process of cultural, political, economic, and social integration, played a major role in creating new hybrid conditions of global human civilization and identity. Ocularcentrism is also integral in contextualizing the roles of globalization and orientation in contemporary society through its close study of a sensorial evolution and its affects upon human perception, specifically in architectural environments. 14 15 16 Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 12. Pallasmaa. The Eyes of the Skin. 21, 25. Human Evolution Timeline Interactive. Human Evolution by The Smithsonian Institutes Human Origins Program. Smithsonian Institution. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. <http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive>.

Surez, Toms. Noviembre. 2008. Photograph. Santa Maddalena, Trentino-Alto Adige [Italy]. Flickr. Yahoo, 10 Nov. 2008. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/jtsoft/4092444389/>.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Moosemonger. Alaska Oil Pipeline. 2006. Photograph. [Alaska]. Flickr. Yahoo, 03 Sept. 2006. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/moosemonger/240166257/>. Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind. London: Yale University Press, Ltd., 1973. 3. Print. Wilderness Act of 1964. Pub. L. 88-577. 03 Sept. 1964. Stat. 16 U.S. C. 1131-1136. C.M. Hall, S.J. Page. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Envrionment, Place, and Space. New York: Routledge, 1999. 223. C.M. Hall, S.J. Page. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation. 223. Photograph. Desert Pictures Nature Landscape. ThundaFunda.com. Web. 14 Oct. 2010. Marciat, Francios-Xavier. La Vernaz (France). 2009. Photograph. [France]. F6 Creations. 2009. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. <http://expo.f6creations.com/>. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Seattle: Wiley-Academy, 2005. 65. Print. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 45. 1991. Orientation. Merriam-Websters Medical Dictionary. Ed. Merriam-Webster, Inc. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/orientation>. Orientation. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. Web. 30 Oct. 2010. <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/orientation>. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 5. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 32. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 21. Rohn, Sam. Planet New York :: Skyline. 2009. Photograph. New York. Flickr. Yahoo, 13 Aug. 2009. Dorret. New York. 2007. Photograph. New York. Flickr. Yahoo, 16 June 2007. Web. 04 Dec. 2010. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/nylocations/4314461123/>.

INTRODUCTION

This data is collected from a Columbia Universitys CIESIN study on the Human Influence Index. CIESIN at Columbia University, and Wildlife Conservation Society, comps. The Human Influence Index Ver. 2. Map. The Last of the Wild. CIESIN at Columbia University, 07 Mar. 2008. Web. 17 Nov. 2010. <http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/wildareas/maps.jsp>. I believe, as Nash states in his work, that there is a subconscious need for the wild ingrained in the psyche of human beings. We have an inherent need to experience the wild for it humbles us in its presence, reconnecting human with their primitive beginnings. Phenomenologists would argue that the genius loci (spirit of place) embedded in natural places brands a deep impression on the mind which strikes a primal chord in our psyche; for we are but products of

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COVER

CONTENTION

nature ourselves. In an age when both the very definition of wilderness as well as its physical

GLOSSARY

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Eliade, Mircea. Symbolism in the Center. Images and Symbols: Studies in Religious Symbolism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1991. 48-51. Print. World Tourism Organization. Collection of Tourism Expenditure Statistics. Rep. no. 2. Madrid [Spain]: World Tourism Organization, 1995. World Tourism Organization. 1995. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. <http://pub.unwto.org/WebRoot/Store/Shops/Infoshop/Products/1034/1034-1.pdf>. 1 Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1991. Print. 15

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Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 58, 63. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 5-23. Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture. [United States]: BN Pub., 2008. 4. Print. Birksted, J.K. Le Corbusier and the Occult. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2009. 317. Print. Temple. Dictionary.com Unabridged. Ed. Random House, Inc. Web. 02 Oct. 2010. <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/temple>. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 56. Norberg-Schulz. Genius Loci. 52. Photograph. Flickr. A, 01 May 2010. Web. 14 Oct. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/ad_jester/4583250415/>

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<http://www.flickr.com/photos/dorret/1420117256/>.

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Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 11 Oct. 2008. Web.

R E S E A R C H // W i l d e r n e s s T i m e l i n e

<http://wilderness.org/content/wilderness-act-1964>. 1 2 Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind. London: Yale University Press, Ltd., 1973. ix. Print. Carr, Karen. Sahelanthropus Tchadensis, Male. 2010. Photograph. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins. Smithsonian Institution. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/sahelanthropustchadensis>. 3 Gurche, John, and Chip Clark. Australopithecus Afarensis. 2010. Photograph. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins. Smithsonian Institution. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/ species/australopithecus-afarensis>. 4 5 6 Cole, Thomas. Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. 1828. Oil on Canvas. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA. Wycliffe. Photograph. My Two Cents. WordPress.com, 24 Oct. 2008. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://mytwocents.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/wycliffe.gif>. Palmer, Frances Flora Bond. Pioneers Home in the American Wilderness. 1867. Oil on Canvas. Artchive. 1st-art-gallery.com. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://www.artchive.com/web_ gallery/F/Frances-Flora-Bond-(Fanny)-Palmer/Pioneers-home-in-the-Americanwilderness,-1867.html>. 7 Bierstadt, Albert. Sunset in the Yosemite Valley. 1868. Haggin Museum, Stockton, CA. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 12 Jan. 2008. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bierstadt_Albert_Sunset_in_the_Yosemite_ Valley.jpg>. 8 Tourist at Glacier Point. 1902. Photograph. Yellowstone National Park, WY. The National Parks: Americas Best Idea. PBS. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/media_detail/58/>. 9 10 Bresson, Henri Carter. Arizona, USA. 1947. Photograph. [Arizona]. Henri Carter Bresson: City and Landscapes. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001. 105. Print. President Johnson Signs the Wilderness Act in 1964. 1964. Photograph. The Wilderness Act 3 4 5 6 7 2 1 3 4 2 1 11 Moosemonger. Alaska Oil Pipeline. 2006. Photograph. [Alaska]. Flickr. Yahoo, 03 Sept. 2006. Web. 05 Nov. 2010. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/moosemonger/240166257/>.

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TO U R I S M
Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. The Demand for Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 274. Print. Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. Urban Recreation and Tourism. The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place, and Space. London: Routledge, 1999. 171. Print. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Cichester: Wiley-Academy, 2005. 11. Print Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. 72. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. 40. Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. 25, 30. Hall, Colin Michael, and Stephen Page. Urban Recreation and Tourism. 170.

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R E S E A R C H // W i l d e r n e s s T i m e l i n e

of 1964. Wilderness.org. Web. 05 Nov. 2010.