ny AY NCIENT J RIGINS |MAGAZINE VRE a Pe Fy a ks a lO Anniversary of the King Tut Tomb r year Reconstructing the Wars of Egypt Finding the Lost Faces of Egypt's Navigating a Millennia Labyrinth ays Ca ett) Cm Ur ase) plus Christmas and Hanukkah: Forgotten OriginsRoca ORIGINS HISTORY MYSTERY SCIENCE Ancient Origins 2022 A Timeline of the Ancient Ancient Egyptian Wars: Turkiye Tour Egyptian Civilization Navigating the Millennia of Bloodshed CONTENTS |FEATURES Tribute to Author, Columnist and 68 False Doors: Gateways to the Friend, Charles Christian Egyptian Underworld 28 Revealing the Faces of Ancient 76 Therapies, Pseudo-Science, and Egyptian Mummies: An Interview Bizarre Remedies of Egyptian with Michael E. Habicht Medicine 36 How Deserts Played a Key Role Q4_ The Lost Labyrinth of in the Building of Egypt Ancient EgyptAncient Origins Magazine | Issue 41 |Nov - Dec 2022 magazine@ancient-origins.net ancientoriginsmagazine.com Female Pharaohs: King Tut’s Tomb: The Think Egypt Think Magic: 5 Women Who Ruled Discovery, Treasures and The Power of Heka in the Ancient Egypt Controversy Life of King and Commoner CHIEF EDITOR AUTHOR COORDINATOR ART DIRECTOR EDITOR 102. Travels Through Egypt ‘An Experience Like No Other, Interview with Ted Loukes 112 Hanukkah Origins and Traditions The Jewish Maccabean Revolt and the Miracle of Oil 118 The Man Who Was Wednesday: The Norse Origin of ChristmasNCIENT EGYPT ALICIA MCDERMOTT Chief Editor, Ancient Origins Magazine Wonders of Ancient Egypt I've always been interested in Egypt. Before | had the chance to go there myself, I'd read about the pyramids and temples, cosmology, medicine, pharaohs, battles, and mysteries surrounding the ancient Egyptian civilization. But | wanted to see for myself what makes the country so special that it seems almost everyone has a trip to Egypt on their bucket list. | was eager to find out what the people were like, how the food tasted, and if the ancient buildings were as stunning as they appeared on TV and in glossy photos. (FYI- The people are warm and welcoming, the food is delicious, and the buildings are even more astounding in real life!) There are many reasons people become fascinated by Egypt. It truly is a land of wonders - so ancient and sacred but also vibrant and full of modern life. It's been a couple years since | was there, but this issue brought back all the wonderful memories of excitement while looking out my window and gazing upon the Great Pyramids of Giza, the quiet peace of watching the sunrise while | stood beside the Sphinx, and the awe of venturing inside temples, pyramids, and tombs that were intricately decorated by artists who lived thousands of years ago. We open this issue with an extraordinary timeline of the ancient Egyptian civilization - it's 4 the kind of article you'd like to print off and share with people studying ancient Egypt. From there we discover the secrets of life and death in ancient Egypt through articles on medicine, magic, and the false doors incorporated into elaborate tombs. We see how both deserts and wars shaped Egyptian society and ponder what their lost labyrinth would have looked like. Our exclusive interviews with Ted Loukes on his travels through Egypt and Michael E. Habicht, an Egyptologist whose work includes facial reconstructions of ancient mummies using modern technology, bring the stories of Egypt's past and present together. November 4, 2022 marked the centennial of the discovery of King Tutankhamun's tomb, so we couldn't let this issue g0 by without discussing the discovery, treasures, and controversies surrounding one of the greatest finds in modern history. Finally, this is also the time of year when people begin to prepare for the December holiday season, so we explore the origins of two of the major celebrations: Hanukkah and Christmas. EXPERTS IN THIS ISSUE... ANAND N. BALAJI Anand N, Balaji isa researcher, author, and former journalist based in India With nearly three decades of experience researching and writing about the history of ancient Egypt ALESSANDRA FILIACI ‘Alessandra Fillaci was born in Rome in. 1964, Ata very young age she discovered the works of WIW, Atkinson and R, Guénon, texts on mysticism and oriental losophy, Greek mythology, study of symbols Tarot, astrology, the I Ching, The innate thirst for knowledge and the humanistic culture have provided the basis of her personal Inner Path, drawing sap from the study of historical-religious| and esoteric themes and the teachings of various Spiritual Masters, 2 a) x MICHAEL E. HABICHT Dr. Michael E, Habicht, is an Archaeologist, Egyptologist, and Senior Research Fellow at Flinders University, ‘Australia and the Egyptological Studies Coordinator atthe Forensic Anthropology, Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology (FAPAB) Research Center in Sicily, Italy. His work has appeared in several academic journals.Ted Loukes is an independent rese with a passion for ancient He is the author of Moses and Brod Im and Forty Days in Egypt in the Time of Corona, Ted hosts small private tours to Egypt with Ga? Tours. He also keeps the Facebook group Ancient Egyptian Society going and is actively involved in media creation and television production, running his own audio/ podeast studio, AI0 Consulting, in Johannesburg, South Africa eT ‘Temple of Pharaoh Hatshepsut. Anton / Adobe Stock CONTRIBUTORS LIST We'd love to hear from you! Tell us which issues and articles have inspired you the most, what you'd like to see more of in the future, and your other feedback on the magazine. Shoot us an email at magazine@ancient-origins.net Or fill out the contact us form at https://ancientoriginsmagazine.com/contact| Archaeonews I By Micki Pistorius TAPOSIRIS MAGNA TUNNEL MAY LEAD TO CLEOPATRA For several years speculations have been rife that the long lost tomb of Queen Cleopatra may be located at the Taposiris Magna temple, west of Alexandria in Egypt. Now a tunnel has been discovered that may lead to the missing tomb. The massive tunnel, discovered 43 feet beneath the temple, stretches over 4,265 feet long and has been described as a “geometric miracle” by Dr. Kathleen Martinez of the Egyptian Dominican archaeological mission of the University of Santo Domingo, who is heading the excavations. Part of the tunnel was submerged under water, and this supports the theory that the foundations of the Taposiris, Magna Temple are inundated as well, complicating the search for Cleopatra's tomb, but a newly discovered beautiful statue head of Cleopatra, along with 22 coins bearing her image, brings hope to Dr. Martinez’ quest. At least 23 earthquakes hit the Egyptian coast between 320 and 1303 AD, which would explain the collapse and submergence of part of the Taposiris Magna Temple. The tunnel found beneath Taposiris Magna, Credit of Tourism and Antiquities (One of the statue heads found .ar the Taposiris Magna Temple, Credit: Ministry of Tourism and Antiquitiesee cs Stock % ing to tell the children Father Christmas is dead? St Nicholas died in 343 AD, and was buried inside the Church of St Nicholas of Myra in the Demre district of the modern-day Turkish province of Antalya. However, his tomb was vandalized and his bodily remains stolen, and the church fell to ruin after a medieval flood. The current church was constructed over the old church in 520 AD. Osman Eravsar, the chairman of the Antalya Cultural Heritage Preservation Regional Board, knew that St Nicholas had been entombed inside a sarcophagus underneath a fresco that depicts Jesus Christ in the old church. Where three apses are covered with a dome, Eravsar discovered the fresco depicting the scene of Jesus holdin Bible in his left hand and making the sign of blessing with his right hand. They excavated below it and found two floors placed on top of one another. The older pre ‘one of which was inscribed with Greek words that tran: grace” in English. This is the place Eravsar is certain where the body of the famous St Nichc it was remarkal St Nicho SEUSS USE a ale Te VTA fo Eravsar to touch tl Crea es Cr eeaed cue) Cerrar Meee (a field, scientists can now Cee cee ec Peete ara specific sites were burned Chena eee eta ene CAEN eee cone encce Dees age kocd sical Prec ere nea aaicte ener ee ee Prat ees tee ert Ta yt Peete ace PMS eucrud fields in 21 archaeological Cooter ieee ed Cen ecreeeterl Prem nese eeiell Cresco CCRC 5 would have been interred. Although no trace of joor he had walked upon. Ne eee study. Geophysicists attempt en ca Re ee eae ae aac) Pye nee cee Poet tuetucs seals Ret Rents eee Mea eet as magnetic field at the time of mee kes a vessels and sun-dried mud bricks, Pe mee aaa satan Pete eau rae eS ee Nasu sees like in a kiln or a fire, they act like Pon cece Sea) the magnetic field of the Earth. Paleomagnetic data just proved aC eR agi Eee CRs ear ei icoMs [ora et aco)mel , pou te ran f tel eee) fected) a PeMeern discussing the history of life on et tec Rees ree oer ar ne ed eo mena os Oe uo caus oa om aies lem aa eo er ee ee ees Pree mueiy the History Channel can produce eae eee acca renee or Leet g Serres Catena TEEN Ler cue e ue pee a ene er eer Ng ee arate ee ticlay Pee eer uC ote ee eC Nee eC PER ees ee eget that an unexplained object tracked Dn ne ae en Pec sine cc ana all of that, and more, is true, shouldn't the possibility of an extra-terrestrial ene mem ia eae neo eas cod discussing? Cen Cd Dees In November 2017, a mysterious object dubbed ‘Oumuamua’ (Hawaiian for eee ete eae ae interstellar trajectory curving around ‘our sun. Shaped like an enormous black cigar, it was described by astronomers Pe eee eee a In his subsequent book, Extraterrestrial The First Sign of Intelligent Life Beyond ere eee aac Se ena Crate ee ea eo Creer eae cae ce yan Re a ec) TP hosted an intruder, possibly carrying Pav xea es Cease eaten acc intrigues not only UFOlogists, but many mainstream scientists as well. “The ete ee ea eerste et creme wonder whether it might be an artificially en eae eee a eal CMe Tac ee ca TaN is now under pressure to get more Pete ena ees ener sche a pn Een Ra tene Sean Ieee Nt) ECR Oe eo ree ees ae ee of the report say that the study of how kara ear ema aa Cer eT Reta eo Pere eA ei Saas Cee ree eget eu eel and conceptualization, to planning, to Ce eau Rete eco Impressed by recent discoveries of ieee ree teense ea Neier aaron ee eg eee en a Breet a ec eons eae: See een ao ignored, at least publicly. Meena a ec ae eeu gM OM Rr me een ec cura r Cee Un gy gee of star formation (still the most widely eens een auc Pees ict sete cuee acs Sci ig sect anaes RN Re eR aed to have directly communicated with the Peek ew Cece Can ee eee eee Stet tc cae Anu nReccuctad LIEK EAC UCM ORR ect Ud so—counting thinkers like Carl Jung, Pea cane cer) Tem eee eae ce eee ree POR aCe tg initial concepts concei Peete) Mee Pee ci asc Due ae Prorat ere Mea) Pvaeliecas Pome eee ct See ec his personal encounters with many of them. While Teena eect ecu yet UCC et ae Marie a ce en tuna Pens esa caT cern eae) eoneraeMomg Eer ceed eee eel pi aed Petes ieee cos Venus, the moon, Saturn, | ST eacu eee ket ee ae oe een este niet See eee ace alr’ a aU ea eel urearascoy eee eae nee een cent Leen re ett erent things, and some of its fans have even Peete Rea ea eats Ele eR tet ae LeeLee Telular eRe A TEL 2S else om Reco the Past,” (Atlantis Rising #94) some SF ree eee ra eee Cate nae yeter rae Pelee ere eens pre ane et poeta Cen ae clo Jonathan Swift's SEU ae considered by Canal nce fiction, ems Daan ae) ae ees ia ee discovery. ‘Swift aid they orbited at ee eros eee BOTs Mee MM Cae elo orbit at 1.4 and 3.5 Martian diameters from the red planet, in 7.6 and 30.3 rg Palmer Wa ome go Bl LCN) Caren ee eM ed eee Ce eae eames eee Ce Ag gu ea a Bone aei eum > el onesTRIBUTE TO AUTHOR, COLUMNIST AND FRIEND, j CHARLES CHRISTIAN \ BY MICKI PIsTORIUS e It is with great sadness that we have to take leave of one of our most appreciated Ancient Origins Premium authors and Ancient Origins Magazine columnists, Charles Christian, who unexpectedly passed away on September 23, 2022. His personal profile describes him as: An English barrister and Reuters correspondent turned editor, author, blogger, podcaster, award-winning tech journalist, storyteller, and sometime werewolf hunter, Charles Christian, He writes, he drinks tea, he knows things Descended from a motley crew of smugglers and rogues, Christian was born a chime-child with a caul and {grew up in a haunted medieval house by the harbourside in the Yorkshire seaside town of Scarborough. He now lives in a barn on a ley-line in rural East Anglia. According to folklore a caul-shrouded cchime-child can't drown at sea but can see and talk to faerie folk and also has protection against spells cast by malevolent sorcerers. And yes, he was once commissioned to go ona werewolf hunt on the night of a full moon by a newspaper. Spoiler alert: he didn't find one. (Or it didn't find him.) WEY 'n the five years a that | have work with Charles | was always excited to find his articles in my inbox. Editing his work and corresponding with him had me in stitches most of the time, and as I had interviewed him - and he interviewed me, | could hear his voice telling his stories behind his written words. Charles was a barrister and \ded to historical fact withsuch precision as he would prepare for a court case, but as a journalist, he also had a way of uncovering gems and snippets of history among boring facts, bringing to life the trials, tribulations, heartache, joy, scandals and love and hatred of individuals, with such humour and humanity, that one always had the sense of knowing his subjects personally. A best tribute to Charles and opportunity to remember him personally, would therefore be for him to speak in his own words: Charles, the Werewolf Hunte! I confess | do havea soft spot for werewolves, possibly because it is the only cryptid/paranormal creature I have ever gone hunting for. It was on the night ofa full moon in the summer of 2016, at the behest of an English newspaper. (Spoiler Alert: I didn't find one - or at least it didn't find me!) Not surprisingly | did my homework before | set off that night and while much of the material | uncovered is probably already well-known to Ancient Origins readers, there were a few surprises, not least the fact the much of what we in the West now regard as traditional werewolf lore ~ including the bit about if you shoot a werewolf with a silver bullet, the creature will revert back to its original human form ~ actually stems from a couple of movies made in the 1930s, namely Werewolf of London and The Wolf Man. if you go further back in time to the days of the mass witchcraft trials of the late 16th to late 17th centuries, which include a number of werewolf incidents, you will find the supposed werewolves were killed by hanging, beheading, being burned at the stake, shooting or just been run through by spears and pikestaffs. On wayward kings and queens: Bored with listening to his advisers and church officials discussing politics, the young king crept out of the coronation feast and was next encountered “minus his, crown in his private chamber “cavorting” with two women: noblewoman called Aethelsifu and her daughter| Eigiva (or Aelfgifu), who were members ofan influential Wessex family. Certainly, one report does describe him ‘as having to be “dislodged” from the bed where he was found lying between the two equally ‘amorous women, while another says the king "retreated to his chamber to debauch himself with two women, ‘an indecent noblewoman and her daughter of ripe age." Its also worth noting Eadwig was regarded at the time as being very good looking and was often referred to as King Edwy the All-Fair, so are we talking about a ‘Saxon-era babe-magnet? On the Yorkshire Wold: Itisa place where kings built hospices to protect weary travelers from wolves - and werewolves; a place where cloistered monks chronicled the predations of zombies, vampires and aliens; a place dotted with hhenges, barrows, tumuli and ancient burial mounds that superstitious locals once avoided for fear of encountering the fairy folk who dwelt there. It was here, in prehistoric times, that the first settlers in this countryside worshipped before stone monoliths, while wearing masks fashioned from the skulls of animals, and where in later times, the county's squirearchy had their masques disturbed by the screams of an unquiet skull. Unmatched by anywhere else in England, the Wold's many myths and legends also include green-skinned fairy folk, headless ghosts, ancient warlords, miracle-working priests, a disappearing river, an avaricious Queen, a black skeleton, a Parkin- eating dragon, sea serpents, turkeys galore, England's oldest buildings, shape shifters, enchanted wells, giant monoliths and agrid of ley lines. Charles Christian standing by ‘ tombstone posing for press photographs ahead of the ‘werewolf hunt. Saint Mary's ‘graveyard, Hull This is perhaps the best description of the world that Charles inhabited, and | sincerely believe that this is where he might find himself now, talking to ghosts and fairies and not coming to any harm at all. Fare thee well Brooms-up Charles! Our sincerest condolences to his wife Jane, and his family and friends. He is missed and made this world a fun place to live in. Charles’ legacy lives on. Read more about Charles’ wonderful work and imagination at: www,urbanfantasist.com https://Awww.youtube.com/c; UrbanFantasist https: WeirdTalesShow/ W /www.youtube.com/c,tes MEXICO CaaS erga oe) powerful Maya ee Usumacinta River Peeaetgenig Chiapas, Mexico). Rete een) craftmanship of the ote Rt SMe ce oes Cray suena Ree Nila Ld Geel astnes) Reena a friezes depict the ecu iecotrg Of the aristocracy Putian ME euro rg CLM a AMEN? ‘Although 1,400 Pree cal econ ar rN OR reeecu Pon eure Ee shag Oem ECO] Peay ie nol Deen ronviaysTOURSBy Dr. Micki Pistorius Ancient Origins 2022 Turkiye Tour ‘The October 2022 Ancient Origins Turkiye Tour in collaboration with our tour partner Travel the Unknown was a resounding success! Joined by guest author Ralph Ellis, 16 adventurers from the United States, Australia, Britain, and Mala set out to explore ancient Anatolia, time-travelling through Neolithic times, the Hittite era, and the times of the Crusaders, Ottomans, and the Byzantines. | ‘The tour group at Gobekli Tepe. | De Mik Pistorius . 15Our first day in Istanbul set ecu Race agora er Re CRM delightful surprises. Our Sao te Eee LAUR Geen nS gee Rrcucnsom uke Romina tls fender cee atc) Cee cout a Pecan) fers om Fa ees a ean a cg Runes ener) Ace eets palace of the Ottoman Pree ke Ore Te tects splendor. ee en SEs Re acces ae ac) Basilica Cistern, built in the rec Namen eens aoe cma Pee et auch aetna ao Bras ces ‘Awonderful surprise of ee aU Ce Ne eta eee eee Perens ey hats NCU arate k laren) old European elegance. How IIa roe Ron oat Carn es k nator ‘queuing we do not know, but once inside she explained the intricacies of the mosaics and Renee INT escchd er upon the face of an angel. ST eet Lee y Peas use me ea Pen teamsde mur dome was revealed for the first time in centuries! jar support in the of Medusa on a stone pill! a Basilica Cistern. Hilary Sherlock ang Chris Prost getting engaged at Gobokii Tepe, ling the face of the angel in Hagia Sophia. De. miokt PistoriusDr. Micki Pistorius Our second day was challenging when, despite knee, hip, and shoulder replacements we all joined forces and trooped up Mount Nemrut ~ 7,000 feet above sea-level - to visit the stone pantheon of King Antiochus Theos |, who crowned his kingdom of Commagene with a row of seated gods on the east and west summits. The gods Zeus/Ahura Mazda, Apollo/Mithras, Hercules/Ares and goddess Tyche/Anahita represent the deities of the east and the west, signifying the king's lineage - his own statue and face of course joined the chorus of gods. The long walk up the mountain was worth it when we enjoyed the gods’ view as the sun set over the plateaus of ancient Mesopotamia. We were fortunate that our guide was Pool of Abraham in Sanlturfa. Dr. Mik! Pistorius ‘The group made it to the summit of Mount Nemrut! Dr, Mik! Pistorius Mahmut Arslan, author of the book Throne of the Gods. Our guide Serdar Avci took us to the much anticipated 12,000-year-old Gobekli Tepe - where another surprise awaited us, as two of our members, Chris Frost and Hilary Sherlock got engaged here at what is described as the oldest temple complex on earth. The afternoon was spent wandering about discovering treasures in the Sanliurfa museum, such as Urfa Man - the oldest life-size statue of a human figure. Sanliurfa is also the ancient Edessa, backdrop to the dynasty of Queen Thea Musa, Queen Helena and King Abgarus, and eventually King Izates Manu— contender for the Roman purple cloak, as our guest author 17King Gordios, father of the famed King Midas. Then we were lucky again to be the only group at the time visiting the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordion, where a beautiful sunset turned the city of King Midas into gold once more. Ralph Ellis entertained us with this history on our bus rides. The day came to an end at the waters of the Pool of Abraham, at Balikligol, where Nimrod attempted to burn Abraham on a pyre and God turned it onto a pond and the coals into fish. Karahan Tepe is one of the semi-circle of 12 Tas Tepeler sites, similar and speculated to be older than Gobekli Tepe. The surprise here was that we were the only group on the site and could explore at our leisure. Author Don Carroll discovered a sculpture of a serpent and fox confirming one of his theories. The Sanliurfa Museum of Mosaics is also a treasure worth visiting - called the House of the Amazons, it not only features exquisite mosaics of amazing Amazons, but also depictions of the birth and life of Achilles. Dr. Micki Pistorius That night a few brave people visited the Kizilkoyun Necropolis, carved into the rock formations. This necropolis dates back to the second to fourth century AD and has only been opened for a few months - another unexpected surprise on our tour. The visit to Hattusa, capital of the Hittites, was a highlight of this tour. Photographs cannot capture the size of this monumental fortress and temples spread out over the mountain and enclosed by formidable fortress walls. Our excellent guide Mehmet Ali explained in detail and led us through the recently discovered tunnel underneath the walls, back up a steep rock staircase, and through the Gate of the Sphinxes. We Next we flew to Ankara and the ensemble of artifacts at the Ankara Anatolian Civilization Museum prepared us for the next few days of archaeological discoveries. The first on our list was the tumulus mound and tomb of 18 ‘The mysterious face at Karahan Tepe. ‘Tour group inside Kaymakli Underground eity with tour gulde Mehmet Alt Dr. Mkt Pistorius also had the opportunity to watch archaeologists excavate the Hittite kings’ and queens’ palaces. A long drive brought us to our hotel in Cappadocia at night. The next morning, we were awed by waking up to a spectacular view from our balconies of the hotair balloons gliding silently over the fairy tale landscape of fairy chimney volcanic rockformations. Our first stop was the Goreme Open Air Museum with its magnificent Christian frescoes in the rock churches. Another highlight was the visit to Kaymakli Underground city, where Mehmet Ali explained how populations managed to live over centuries in these subterranean cities - some burrowed eight floors down! Some of the tour group members became argonauts and enjoyed sunrise balloon rides before we set off again. We travelled to Catalhoyuk and once again we were privileged to be the only group at the time exploring this ancient site dating to 10,000 BC. The reconstructed model houses provided excellent examples of life in this first city on earth! The little museum even exhibited an ancient saltshaker! The museum and tomb of Mevlana, where the poet Rumi is buried at Konya, is not far from Catalhoyuk and that evening we were treated to a show of the Whirling Dervishes, and we celebrated Chris Frost's birthday with a chocolate cake. Our trip ended back in Istanbul, where our guide Nilufer Early morning hot air balloon rides gliding over fairy chimneys of Cappadocia, Dr. Micki Pistorius took us for some last-minute Turkish-delight shopping at the Spice Market. A conclusive surprise was the luxury yacht which picked us up at Galata Bridge to take us on a tour of the Bosphorus Strait - where we gazed in wonder at the Ottoman yalis or palaces. Sailing between Asia and Europe, our eyes feasting on the skyline of Topkapi Palace, the Hagia Sophia, Blue Mosque, and majestic Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent’s mosque coloring the palette of Istanbul, we were grateful for having had the opportunity to visit and explore the splendors of ancient Anatolia. Wish you were here and see you next year! = 19Spotlight TN ea }} Yy Dp AARON NRINNR |. BZ Psy 8 Ancient A Circa 2055 to 2004 BC: PAP eget sah Sg ea eer onsen the famed Step Pyramid - the earliest monumental stone pyramid. POET First true pyramids built by Snefru ofthe Fourth Dynasty: The Meidum Sn nn ec posal Deere ea esr Tevet tad Creation of the Second Pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx Sea eneCjuilization yee omen) When discussing ancient Egypt, which existed within the northeastern African valley of the Nile, few can truly grasp the __f oe eae eRY Oo Coogee Ua Aone Deen een crn tg Cech mc ue Aes pas ene oe Bist REL dt rd 30BC: Alimose I expels the Hiyksos and reunites Egypt Corsica 1353101336 BC: fissecnten meyer rag 30B¢: eee ee eee See as Paes Gish mine 1332 to 1323 BC: Letras OETA RI Ee Tay Rule of Ramses III, the last of the great pharaohs, Pe eee eesPea eaten eek ecu emu eee eat ate ea Eaters ieee uo emt eu encase eRe eee cas Ca EU one oR ee tesa oa ars eM ces set RT ee ee cE Pere Otel cue eee a he story of ancient Egypt is so vast that it has inspired its very own field of research known Early en . Dynastic Period. Geni / CC BY-SA 4.0 ‘Dynastic Predynaslic Period Pertod gi eter Tiel e-) D BC rly Dynastic Period kicked if uCkt Nerang eg a Medea eon cS RRS ee CT Ree mE PSE el ee eco) : step is believed to have come ESTelel vem en aes i during the rule of King Narmer, Ces oeee aT who reigned circa 3140 BC from Paleolithic, this era saw Dione CEM Cuno Bes eur a cy Pelee ene tsa ices eee acess culs nem alee Ra ena Frage tem kere) emelME UC Roles aT reac late See ee an included the firs > hieroglyphic writing, Pee cea ie Ue a mee leo Pe eee eer Terenas Se eng reece RUE ou ee SU eee rach Led DEN teu es Col on cee RSE SUR SE Cue Rema Secu ECS al-Zebib, the massive funerary mudbrick tomb at Abydos Cree eet P a0: (e PRES econ recone ment Pee ee eee ery Pe een rater reese Tey Brooklyn Museum / CC BY 30ICC a eee ec Me a dolce) laoreet ricnaen EP ech asle Nr hy inter enRoute hi ke ce este cee Ol Cte ead g d Cot ace aren Ce PSK MRT eRe arcane In et om Pe OR Rue aoa eM ates Se Sioa Cos eric ce een 2686 to 2181BC, Pee Ue Rl RR cod Pee Cee CY the Bent Pyramid, and the Red (provincial governors), and the Cyc) growing pressure and hostility TERR etl During the Old Kingdom period, The Great Pyramid at the Giza Cae ee Ec aren eee a ttt Pree Oo heen ee re replay Pharaohs enjoyed absolute power, the second pharaoh of the Pete Oe cae at eae resources. This explains why the Coteus Ce Se Ur aed RUT ee eR ET RTS aa au LE eee ey Cen ee mee once) Cres Deen ieee 2500 BC. Pea MD Coad Paes ens 17 7 ae nL ect) OPT eee ae ene Na A ease eT pyramids, such as the Pyramid PCC Mute Reso’ aS ileal le iia ieee whic a4 PY br a pee MULE eee he Ce eC Step Pyramid. Created using PRR le Tse Mere cma MC tl EU Rarer eR bee Pore tee en tenet CL Ce era oe Poa ke cored gm _The last significant pharaoh Pelee aU Roe art) et Simones) eee oo een rr) eee) first true 7S wy Genera nse‘Hirst Intermediate Period 2181 to 2125 BC, Dynasties 7 to 11 Meo een Coe als te See Nn Sa oes eC oa Per Mure Cen eel Cee eto Cees oon) Piece Coie use neo on een eed eee PR uae eel gem a Ur appearance of coffin texts used in the coffins of individuals outside of the RO es eis eee et fea Pts eee eee ern eee Nee Kingdom 212510 1650 BC, Dynasties 11 to 13 eae AU ono cite Peete eRe ad Ce Roe ane Or ea eS eens oR ere Coes eccuee ee faeces eR Rei aM Co a strengthened borders, and invested in Ce Mere atc gseacsBU Looe ln) 3)) Second took control of northern eee Kerma culture controlled faleymantexe| ell ommneentne nena introduced new aspects to ‘Pe riod Seep esi ta Re ee eres Pere eats 165010 1550BC, = improved pottery, military DEO SoM Mma ole AEC eI rr New Kingdom Reh Ole Beet aa Ee eed econ crue eared ee the New Kingdom initiated Apert er nee des ee |e 1 a Been emer tr) Pee EU une SR Ri ees ce eos ancient Egypt date to this era, eRe een ed React eee ae acid Sen ane Rag Pen RNa es Perens Chores okay PNA lech eee car ace) Pee ena ears reco RS Rese ea) SULSIsol The rule of Amenhotep IV from BELEK Aol ee) eee ea seca Eres un aia Peau Meats Pere Oc cm monuments were destroyedeen ee aie Re acs Peace MUR) ruled from 1332 to 1323 BC, PES eet) due to the discovery of his Beccles Tue eoe Ramesses II of the 19th Dynasty, Rn Rie PLe ROR Pay -(en PSC nt Oeste ne ace SN Mae Rea oo STM sakes Ee een ea Renee hen Cee aR Eeoere nti ang Umea coc) eens Peco Ree arya COR Seem OM Tela] Pas) Oe Sea su eL rece ea ee eves evens Sec a ecu in 1155 BC. According to Eric Cline, author of 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed, Baa toe ee ecg eee ue‘Third Intermediate Period 1069 to 747 BC- Dynasties 21to 25 Bil Rass aCe UT Na) CULE Osea COE rege secure eC aL SCLIN Lale Period Peery Td Dynasties 26 to 30 Ptolemaic aU eon ates ee Same Romeo a s/o CUR ea Ree Aes Unt eassd ee Me Ramen oun Ure has been remembered as the last significant ees he Reed a eeu Min Rene aes ACU RU Relics After Alexander the Great of the Greek kingdom. Cie enc et mone) PET eae YA OR Aa cele) CRUE e WS EU ECC) eS CMRP ow aU Cones Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals RT Rom tM Aah SAIC Ste ey Aen ee ou ol) aol ROS ema ens Cee Re ao ee Sl PTC e ie Color NM Mee RON on Se Re nn ee Egyptian civilization with support from the ee ed eee ee) first with Julius Caesar and then with Mark Antony. After being defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium, she famously committed Ete rn em cena 8 ee PRA Cucu sae) Pea gear Sateen30 Revealing the Faces of Ancient Egyptian Mummies PRO iad AiR at eee Pine ver since mummy KV55 was discovered in 1907, it has generated deep interest, debate, and controversy. The big issues have been identifying the KV55, mummy in ancient Egyptian history and combining its most probable identity with that person's proposed age of death. Avo nerTy Could mummy KVS5 really be the ‘heretic pharaoh’ Akhenaten, as many scholars believe? If so, a team of scientists at the Forensic Anthropology, Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology (FAPAB) Research Center in Sicily, Italy, have finally revealed the image of this famous pharaoh ~ and it’s nothing like how he was portrayed in the ancient artwork! FAPAB Director Francesco M. Galassi, a physician and palaeopathologist, and Egyptological studies coordinator Michael E. Habicht oversaw the creation of the new facial reconstruction of the KV55 mummy, which was completed by the well-known, Brazilian expert Cicero Moraes, KV'55 male, new reconstruction, © Cicero Moraes / FAPAB Research Center 2022 who has been recognized for his skilled facial reconstructions. Dr. Michael E. Habicht, who is also an Archaeologist, Egyptologist, and Senior Research Fellow at Flinders University, Australia, told us about the facial reconstruction and the research team’s perspectives on the mysteries surrounding mummy KV55, ‘AM: Please describe the process used to create this facial reconstruction. MH: Based on published data and images from various studies, a three- dimensional skull model of KV 55 was created. This was then checked again against the images. Facial muscles, eyes, fat pads and skin are now modelled on this digital skull model using the so-called Manchester method. TheFacts and Controversy Surrounding Mummy KV55 The mummy was found with grave goods attributed to different people and a desecrated coffin in the Peconic hen neon a ama) See Oe aac er mT RO eae Me nen eS eC A RS eo to Ee en Cen on ere oc Re cere Dg pelvis), but Australian scientist Grafton E. Smith later declared the remains are male. PASE Se ere cso Poa aMen rat eg eur ecet et Rene eae ese) Historical and archaeological research, including some PR et ces ae a ee Ee eco) NEE KEE O NOE DT eee a cemetery RL eee anor Re ACN e Ee Ue Un EL Rac mg ae ey Potten ee en Rie nC ur eel a suggests that Akhenaten died when he was about 40 Neo Rn ea ae ee ee nek cna See eR an ae eo ee ot CRC oR meee etre ie en cuenta Rua gee Remains of KV 55. Kenneth Garrett tissue thickness is determined for numerous anatomical points based on forensic mean values. The skin, eyes and shape of the ears are approximations based on the fact that this is an Egyptian, which accounts for brown eyes and a skin complexion that is still common in Egypt today. (AM: How does this facial reconstruction balance forensic art with anatomical and anthropological information? MH: The facial reconstruction was blindfolded: Cicero Moraes, our expert for face reconstruction, only received the skull data and the information that it was a man from Egypt, and not older than 25 years. Therefore, thi reconstruction has no Egyptian 3132 KV 55 male, new reconstruction. © Cicero Moraes / FAPAB Research Center 2022 crowns or royal jewelry to distort the impression. Therefore, we think that ‘our reconstruction is as objective as possible and follows purely scientific methods. As technology in the field of forensic facial reconstruction is. advancing very rapidly, the reconstruction of KV 55's face has also been revised to what you see here. AM: There is a lot of controversy surrounding the skin color of ancient Egyptians, could you please tell us how you made the choice of skin color for this reconstruction? MH: Its indeed a highly debated topic but it should be assessed with an open mind, pushing away the racist connotations that have characterized this debate in the past. We decided to use skin tone IV (in the Fitzpatrick scale of -VI) which is typically encountered in Egypt and in the Mediterranean, an olive completion. Based on the available evidence it would be unrealistic to opt for a much lighter or much darker skin tone. Eventually, a new genetic analysis of KV5S's remains would add more evidence. ‘AM: Why has it been so difficult to pinpoint an age of death for this mummy? MH: It wasn't particularly difficult, to be honest, as the comprehensive study by the late anthropologist Eugen Strouhal demonstrated. It required an objective evaluation using all available skeletal districts and a consultation of the recent anthropological literature. The main problem was the a priori identification See en Cee o eenswith Akhenaton plus the assumed age at death of the heretic pharaoh (about 30 years old or older) This has represented the main problem, but by objectively assessing the skeleton and published literature it appears clear that it belongs to a younger individual between the end of adolescence and early adulthood, 19-22 years). AM: With so much controversy surrounding the mummy's identification, who do you think is the best candidate? 's it Tutankhamun’s father Akhenaten? If so, how does that information ft with the belief that his death occurred when he was around 40 years of age and this mummy being younger? Or could the mummy be the remains of the enigmatic figure called Smenkhkare, as some scholars have proposed? MH: It is most reasonable to assume that Akhenaton and Nefertiti are the historical parents of Tutankhamun, due to historic inscriptions. If one accepts the genetic study from 2010, KV 55 shall be the father and the younger lady KV 35 is the genetic mother of Tutankhamun. Historical records testify 17 years of reign by Akhenaton. It is debated if some of the first years might be a co-regency with his father Amenhotep Ill. We acknowledge that an age of 22 years and 17 years of reign would make Akhenaton very young at the time of accession, It would hardly be arguable that Akhenaten could be the real father of the eldest daughters (Meritaton, Maketaton and possibly also Ankhesenamun). The mummies of these daughters. have not yet been identified, so Amenhotep III could also be the father (contrary to inscriptional propaganda). Since Tutankhamun was only born in the 12th year of Akhenaten, itis still possible that Akhenaten was the real father, even if he was very young. If Smenkhkare is assumed to be the father of Tutankhamun, this is also problematic. There is no certain historical evidence that Smenkhkare was a younger brother of Akhenaten. Moreover, many experts argue that Smenkhkare is in fact the fictitious figure that Queen Nefertiti assumed at the end of Akhenaten's reign to succeed him as male king {analogous to Hatshepsut, who ruled as King Maat-Ka- Ra). AM: If this is Akhenaton, why does he look so different from the ancient representations of the ‘heretic pharaoh?" Could it be due to the style of art that was used by artists in the Amarna period?34 Remains of the Younger Lady KV 35, UNESCO MH: Egyptian art is generally not very realistic, but reflects a desired ideal image, especially in the case of the king. In the Amarna period, a grotesque, almost comic-like sense of art was introduced, In the course of time, art became more moderate and elegant again (the famous Berlin bust of Nefertiti is in this later tradition). Itis therefore not surprising that the family members of the royal family of Amarna look normal and not like in Amarna art. ‘AM: Please tell our readers alittle about the significance of the other mummies you are studying in your most recent research. MH: The Younger Lady KV 35 is particularly important because morphologically and genetically she is considered the mother of Tutankhamun. Since the inscription in the royal tomb at Achet-Aton suggests that Nefertiti gave birth to another child in year 12 of Akhenaten's reign (most likely Tutankhaton, the later Tutankhamun), we probably have Nefertiti with this mummy. Mummy Cairo CG 61076 is that of a woman about 21 years old with a strongly elongated head and morphological similarity to Queen Tyje (Elder Lady KV 35) and Younger Lady KV 35, making her a good candidate for one of the daughters of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Genetic results are not available toee my knowledge. It would be Pea aa renner very difficult to say which of Daynés in partnership with Travel the daughters she could be, hannets "Expeition Unknown even with a genetic profile. Se eS For historical reasons, the following women are the most likely because of the age they reached: Meritaton, Ankhesenamun or Baketaton (other daughters such as Meketaton died in their infancy/teenage em years and are therefore anthropologically out of the question). Ree ey Mummy KV 21 Ais questionable, as the genetic profile of 2010 proves various deviations from KV 55. Kate Phizackerley had already pointed out this mismatch at that time: KV 21. Aand KV 21 B can hardly be the daughters of KV 55, nor of Amenhotep III. Moreover, the genetic profiles are so incomplete that they would not stand up as genetic36 Remains of KV 21 A and KV 21 B, CC BY-SA 30 evidence in any court of law. A facial reconstruction of KV 21 Ais very speculative, since large parts of the upper face are lost from about the cheeks upwards. Decisive information on appearance is thus not available. KV 21 Bhas been classified as about 45 years old and thus much too old to be considered an Amarna princess known to us. Here the head is completely missing, so that the question of a facial reconstruction no longer arises. According to the current state of knowledge, the two mummies from KV 21 could also be court ladies or more distant members of the royal harem. ‘AM: It seems that much of your recent research focuses on the late 18th Dynasty (the Amarna and Amarna Succession periods, specifically, Is that the main timeframe that interests you for the study of royal mummies? MH: Although the Amarna period is historically very exciting, as many questions remain unresolved, | strongly advocate an overall holistic study of royal mummies. In this way, especially securely assigned mummies of kings can provide not only interesting genetic data. Radiocarbon dating of samples already taken would also provide researchers with absolute chronological anchors for dating the dynasties (as is well known, the beginning of the New Kingdom and the volcanic eruption of Thera are roughly contemporaneous, but the dates differ.a Female Mummy Cairo CC Cicero Moraes / FAPAB Re: Center 2Have you done MA eal hristmas _shopping Mt - Ql ee “3gypt is made up of deserts that surround the green and lush Nile Valley and its vibrant, bustling cities. To the west lies the inhospitable Libyan desert and to the east the Arabian and Sinai deserts. In the past they were feared as places of danger and chaos, yet studies have shown that the ancient Egyptians had a long and complex relationship with these barren desert regions. Uninhabitable desert areas were savannah habitats teaming with wildlife roughly 8,000 years ago, a fact confirmed by ancient rock art. But some 6,000 years ago climate change transformed the grasslands into increasingly arid wastelands, leading to the migration of people into the water-rich Nile Valley, a key event in the rise of ancient Egypt. For “civilized” Egyptians the deserts came to be considered dangerous places associated with raiders, storms, and other threats. These were all personified in the god Set, the deity that ruled over deserts, of whom carvings have been 38 discovered, made to obtain his protection from attacks and sandstorms. Yet the Egyptians were also familiar with the deserts, whose sandy wastelands were key for ambitious pharaohs on the hunt for much-needed resources. In the Old Kingdom period Egyptians conquered the fertile oases of the Western Desert because they were rich agricultural areas full of useful raw materials and rare minerals. Libyan desert glass and copper were vital to the advancement of Egyptian building techniques. “Copper used to manufacture tools necessary to process stone blocks for the construction of temples and pyramids was obtained from the Sinai Peninsula,” explained Dr. Pawet Polkowski from the Poznan Archaeological Museum. In other words, copper sourced from the desert allowed the Egyptians to complete construction projects such as the pyramids at Giza and the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Researchers have uncovered evidence of organized desert expeditions, in the form of inscriptions and carvings, as well as stopping stations built by the state to support these resource- finding missions. Inscriptions discovered near the Dakhla oasis were probably made by members of a caravan sent to the area by Khufu, one of the greatest pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, in order to source iron oxide which was needed for producing a dye used in tomb decoration. The deserts were also fundamental because of the trade routes that crisscrossed them, especially from Nubia, with its abundant gold and ivory resources. In conclusion, the deserts themselves played a crucial role in the development of the pharaonic state and of the ancient Egyptian civilization as a whole. =ANCIENT DNA TES 1S NOW AVAILABLE! Kh DNA Ut ean rien LT eee eel eee) 3 awe[aera ue oy} I |Pras CRo ea cate ton eons taes acd s one thing that was always a certainty: war. To fi RE Oa CRS sr orm Tata) _be waged, whether to conquer or to defend.42 gypt is probably the longest lasting civilization that was characterized by war. In their long history that spanned millennia, the ancient Egyptians had many ups and downs, at times nearly losing everything and facing destruction, only to rise again as a more powerful force. The ancient Egyptians waged many wars and often had to defend their prosperous lands from foreign invaders. Not all the Egyptian wars are interesting or notable, but many were. This article summarizes the outstanding. wars that ancient Egypt fought and describes how cunning pharaohs managed to win using the earliest forms of organized military and tactical warfare. Early Ancient Egyptian Wars In reality, conflict was part of ancient Egypt's formation. Long before Upper and Lower Egypt were unified in roughly 3150 BC, Egypt was the backdrop for continuous intertribal conflict, as numerous independent kings and chieftains warred for supremacy. For a long time, Upper (South) and Lower (North) Egypt were two separate and opposed political entities, separated by the branches of the Nile River. The unification of these two entities occurred around 3100 BC, when Pharaoh Narmer invaded Upper Egypt with a superior military force and claimed total sovereignty over all of Egypt. Whether actual armed conflict took place or the invasion was “peaceful” is the subject of heated debate. Nevertheless, it can be safely assumed that before Narmer’s rule, intermittent warfare was commonplace for several generations and the goal was always unification. Today, Pharaoh Narmer is considered the first Egyptian leader to unify Upper and Lower Egypt. Thanks to his victory and supreme power, Narmer was given the titles “The Lord of Two Lands” and “Of Sedge and Bee," which were symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. Narmer's dynasty was the first to rule over, what has come to be known as the ancient Egyptian civilization. The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt is probably the most significant outcome ofall the conflicts in ancient Egyptian history, resulting in 3,000 years of development. During most of this time, Egypt was defined as a kingdom ruled by a pharaoh, and many dynasties came and went. The transition between dynasties was sometimes peaceful, but Palette depicting King Narmer, Public domainoften not, and these stages of rule were frequently separated by periods of instability, war, and conflict. Today, these are known as intermediate periods in Egyptian civilization, After each intermediate period, there was always a new pharaoh and a new period of prosperity. Some of the earliest known inscriptions from the unified Egyptian era are related to conflicts with Nubia. Located to the south, Nubia was one of the earliest documented opponents of ancient Egypt. Today, we can assume from these inscriptions that some of the early pharaohs of the First Dynasty tried to. defeat Nubia. One of these inscriptions is the engraving ona sandstone slab discovered at a small knoll known as Djabal Shaykh Sulayman, some seven miles south of Wadi Halfa on the west bank of the Nile. This engraving documents the third pharaoh of the First Dynasty, King Djer, in battle Battle scene from Great Kadesh reliefs of Ramses II charging against the Nubians. Some scholars refer to this period as the Nubian Campaign, dated to around 3050 BC. The Raiding of Nubian Lands The next period of turmoil in ancient Egypt occurred around the mid 2600's BC, in the time of the Second Dynasty. Many scholars today agree that this period was marked by intense civil war that once again divided the unity between Upper and Lower Egypt. The nature of this civil war seems to have been religious in nature and therefore also political. The clash was centered on the worshippers of Seth and Horus. Not many details are known of this archaic period of ancient Egypt's history. What most scholars maintain is that the civil war ended the reign of the last king of the Second Dynasty, Khasekhemwy. Khasekhemwy returned from Nubia where he had successfully quelled a revolt the Nubians, Public domain sometimes peaceful, but Teme Rt tors Stages of rule wé Tenge ue Poa ROm ce OLIN EURO aL ey and then defeated the previous pharaoh Seth- Peribsen, thus uniting Egypt once more. Khasekhemwy was succeeded by his son, Djoser, the famous first pharaoh of the Third Dynasty. One of the most important military undertakings in the Old Kingdom period of ancient Egypt is attributed to Sneferu, the first pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. Sneferu, meaning "He Who Has Perfected Me,” was an important and powerful ruler who led Egypt into a new age of prosperity. One of his most famous accomplishments was pyramid building. Under his supervision, construction methods for pyramids greatly evolved, and three monumental pyramids the Red, Bent, and Meidum pyramids - are attributed to his reign. It's important to stress that the pyramid building of Sneferu's rule was a complex undertaking requiring many years of labor, extensive resources, and an enormous work force. To solve these problems, Sneferu led a 43The Red Pyramid at the Dahshur necropolis near Cairo, Egypt, is attributed to Sneferu's rule. Its creation relied on war to procure resources. series of conquests into Nubia and Lybia, lands adjacent to Egypt, sometime between 2613 and 2589 BC. Sneferu was victorious in his Nubian campaign, returning home with 7,000 captives, 20,000 heads of cattle, and many riches. It is assumed that the prisoners were the work force necessary to construct the pyramids. Furthermore, his campaign in Lybia provided him with up to 11,000 more captives. To understand the ferocity of these conquests and the might of Egypt compared to its neighbors, itis important to realize that after Sneferu’s conquests many Nubian cultures were permanently displaced and dissolved. As a crowning feature of his military endeavors, Sneferu built a system of defensive walls and fortifications along his eastern borders. When Order Comes Crashing Down Ancient Egyptian wars were often civil wars as opposed to conquests. One of the most famous of these conflicts is known as the First Intermediate Period, spanning 125 years of strife, violence, and political chaos, and finally ending with the so-called Middle Kingdom period. The turbulent First Intermediate Period resulted from the fall of the Old Kingdom, for reasons that are still being debated today. Many scholars point to a problematic line of succession, after the extremely long rule of Pharaoh Pepi Il, the last ruler of the Sixth Dynasty. When succession becomes an issue, disorganization and dissolution generally follow. Famine could have also contributed to the eS ome Cet ae build Pneeeer eon tod Boom nd undertaking requii Dae ICD extensive eee Til Erte Rae nae To solve these problem: PSC ee ote Pec eeO NC SeE Tt ea eM EME teat to Egypt, sometime renee EET 2589 BC. accelerated decline of the Old Kingdom period and the Sixth Dynasty. The key conflict of this period was between two major ancient Egyptian cities, Heracleopolis and Thebes (Waset). The civil wars between these two major centers produced numerous petty rulers and short-lived dynasties, as well as th destruction and vandalizing of many temples, statues, and monuments. Eventuall Nebheptere Menthuhotep Il (circa 2061 to 2010 BC) who emerged as the victor. In what is known as the 40-year-long Wars of Reunification of Egypt, which began under his father Intet Ill, Nebheptere Menthuhotep I led his armies into Lower Egypt and emerged victorious.He managed to unify Upper and Lower Egypt once more, ruling as the sixth pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty, which marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period. During his rule, Nebheptere Menthuhotep Il led successful military campaigns into Nubia and Canaan. The Hyksos Invasion The next major war to terrorize ancient Egypt took place sometime around 1650 BC when invaders from West Asia, heqa khasut (Rulers of Foreign Lands) and hekw shasu (Shepherd Kings), known today as the Hyksos, waged battle on Egypt. This massive invasion was preceded by an influx of Canaanite immigrants, who settled a region of the Nile delta, gaining partial autonomy and thus usurping the ruling Egyptian dynasties. Once a substantial power vacuum appeared in Egypt, the Hyksos invaded. They sacked the capital city Memphis and overthrew the ruling pharaohs, collapsing the Egyptian government and established their own rulers as the new Fifteenth Dynasty. A large part of the Egyptian populace managed to flee south into Thebes, from where they eventually began opposing the invaders. The Hyksos rule lasted roughly a century, from 1650 to 1550 BC. It was a period of significant change for the Egyptians, particularly in the military sphere. The Hyksos brought many things to Egypt - new bronze working techniques, new domestic animals, the horse, new pottery making technology, and many new tools of war which the Egyptians successfully adopted. In particular, horse- drawn war chariots, the composite bow, and the improved battle axe all came from the Hyksos. The uprising against the Hyksos oppressors began sometime around 1558 BC, when the Theban ruler Seqenenre Tao began “fighting” the invaders. This likely began with active and serious diplomacy, but later escalated into armed skirmishes. One of these apparently claimed Seqenenre Tao's life. His mummified body bears vicious head wounds earned on the field of battle. His own son and successor, Wadjkheperre Kamose, continued his father's struggle and launched another campaign against the Hyksos, but he also fel in battle. The struggle for liberation was eventually continued by his brother Ahmose |, who drove the Hyksos from Egypt. Ahmose | thus became the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, which marked the beginning of the New Kingdom period. A New Enemy from the Sea The new combat technologies and weaponry acquired from the Hyksos were instrumental some 200 years later, when Egypt and the whole of the Near East was faced with a new and dangerous threat from the so-called Sea Peoples. The Sea Peoples were a confederation of tribes that excelled at seafaring and the plunder of the coasts of Near East. Their identity is unknown today and many theories exist as to who they could have been. Some theories state that their identity could have been Nuragic, Greek, Minoan, Philistine, or Anatolian. The Sea Peoples invaded from the eastern Mediterranean Sea and were met in battle by the pharaoh Ramesses Ill, who intended to stop their entry into Egypt. This was the Battle of Djahy, around 1178 BC, in which the Egyptians won a decisive victory. Important inscriptions remain that mention this conflict, including one by Ramesses Ill himself, in which he mentions the invasion and his victory. The inscription reads: “Those who reached my boundary, their seed is not; their heart and soul are finished forever and ever.” However, the Sea Peoples were not completely defeated After his victory, Ramesses rushed back to Egypt to face another Sea People naval force. This resulted in the famous Battle of the Delta, which took place around the mouth of the Nile River. Egyptian forces were well prepared for the conflict and many of the invaders fell under arain of arrows, while others were defeated in hand-to-hand combat. Ramesses Ill once more defeated the invaders, but ultimately was not able to stop their entrance into Egypt. In the following decades, these 45aples settled in the eastern reaches of Egypt. The conflicts and battles with the Sea Peoples took a heavy toll on the empi treasury and it never fully recovered, The fate of all great ancient civilizations was endless conflict. Greater prosperity, wealth, and power were always the goals of empires and Egypt had them all, In the later centuries of the Egyptian civilization, Egypt was invaded by many powerful opponents, such as the Assyrians and the famed Alexander the Great. One enemy they could never defeat, however, were the Romans. In 31. BC, the rule of the pharaohs came to an end and Egypt became one of the provinces of the Roman Empire. Thus ended centuries upon centuries upon centuries of tt civilization and empire. But the legacy and culture of the Egyptians inspires and captivates us even today. Great empires and civilizations, whose mere existence is synonymous with wealth and power always have enemies. They prowl on the doorstep, ircling and biting like hyenas at a sleeping lion. In the end, the lion can’t always win. Especially not against the perpetually turning wheel of time.w > Ancient Egyptian eapons: THE EVOLUTION OF WARFARE aa aoe Ra the most terrifying fighting ea MN aed Pee eae se Ten een Were ee lag is ultimately all about its Ni BUR anal PME Lescol en 2613 BC) were as simple as Crate Wee Suen Re cs Cee ee res tee eae Ree old ota eke a ey exes an ae Tenis me at Ree he en ecu eee ce oem iY Cot ence eDaily Cosa oe) NR Rec) Ratece eet ae aed ne sme ee Minted aya Cea ed ea eames Rearend Pac pa Soldiers were now armed with improved weapons, including Peg eared a Peete rae Scat oe area nea x N . Cetus Desa) Pen De ae Roe) ae) (ai during the end of the Middle Peg ee TE Meech cata loa Pree cane Cems escl ee Pema Ree eee tenes eee enna) eee em ee ea aR Hittite and Syrian armies who used reinforced leather jerkins adept for repelling Alene enn Parkes ey Poteet eta k or ay ce em RUT eee eee a reece ul ced tsi casting technology, learned Rn ceo a eon aCe n a) ate ecceyMAGAZINE NTS EI Caer Puusents a Special Collector's Ldition PT preeteito7 eats soe COS Re eer tees Crue eee es {geologist who challenged conventional Senn ee Crees proving that pre-flood civilization existed thousands of years earlier than Cons coc orcs 21 chapters personally researched and Ren ey Pence ana | ee) Geo eeiee ce Pee coy Dr. Schoch and hs wife , published eee Seed eS) Tess OMUO Noe Me MU eae ay Me VEE ao = sath. OeYAMCHUN HE gt Beat Rene te Tae Re ei ee aera Le aati) emt elincsy Oat WYER Aa) ema Neo Recenter iy the third century (otk Pea Ce cee uss Geen ea mountainside was Pees hiun is) Beene Pee Pe eer Sue eee Pere ne tag Relea Peach is ern Resa Pee AOA bores ETure ee (Okoee) cee Ey Ey eee) Cees Pe neu Ras neatomh RAQOHS 5 WOMEN WHO RULED ANCIENT EGYPT PNG ng ec ae ene Say tC Cees Sage TRO eos Eee surrounding the king (pharaoh) were referred to by their relationship OA UES GR aC decree enn et this list with the titles of king's daughter, mother, or wife. This was Peon TT RCo ey ret mae Daa cette royal titles emphasized the individuals relationship to the powerful Sie sateen ee Chant a cnn) Eno etree RI Etter sara es oestrone) Yentlen Nena ern52 ale kings usually inherited the throne, and their consorts were often members of the royal family who were raised to perform their regal roles. Therefore, we find many instances of brother-sister or half-brother-half-sister unions in ancient Egypt royalty. While these incestuous marriages are such a shock today, ancient Egyptians believed & it made perfect sense to ensure that the king’s wives (they had several in the harem with different levels of status), were trained for their responsibilities, were loyal to the husband and children, and it restricted the number of legal claimants to the throne. All the women included on this list were king's wives or daughters before attaining their own kingship. Once they took the throne, they referred to themselves as kings of Egypt and used the full king's titulary, often to distance themselves from their previous royal positions. Read on to discover a their fascinating stories MERTTNELTH A Royal Woman with a Remarkable Tomb Reign: circa 3000 BC, Dynasty 1 Throne Name? Titles: Foremost of Women, King’s Mother Meritneith (meaning beloved of Neith) was laid to rest in a rather remarkable way for women in the Early Dynastic Period (3100- 2650 BC); her burial place was among the otherwise exclusively male royal tombs at Abydos. Her tomb complex has at least 40 subsidiary graves and was almost indistinguishable from the nearby male king's tombs. The archaeological record provides a somewhat confusing story for Meritneith, linking her with the kings Djer, Djet, and Den. Only one known seal from her tomb shows her name written ina serekh (the earliest way that scribes set apart the royal name in ancient Egyptian iconography, predating the later and more famous cartouche). We do not find her name on the King Lists (a roll of rulers provided by New ‘Tomb stela of Merneith from the Umm el-Qa'ab. CCBYSA 40 Kingdom scholars), however it is placed on a broken section of the Palermo Stone which was a Sth Dynasty record of Egypt's earliest kings. This suggests that Meritneith, who may have been the daughter of King Djer, was married to King Djet before he died an untimely death. Following her husband's death, Meritneith likely became regent for her infant son, Den. By ruling Egypt until her son was ready to reign alone, Meritneith could have been one of the first female rulers to demonstrate to the ancient Egyptians that a mother of a young king was a logical choice as a leader - following the already present belief in Egyptian society that wives, instead of brothers or fathers, could take the place of their absent husbands.KHENTKAUS I The Mother of Kings Reig: c 2494 BC, Dynasty 4 Throne Name: ? Titles: King (), Kings Mother Like many of Egypt's female rulers, Khentkaus | has a mysterious backstory that is full of questions and debates. It is evident from her elaborate funerary complex at Giza - so elaborate that some call it the Fourth Pyramid of Giza - that she was a woman of considerable importance during her time, but who exactly was she? Egyptologists believe that Khentkaus I was likely the daughter of King Menkaure and the wife of King Userkaf. According to inscriptions, she was the mother of two Egyptian pharaohs, Sahure and Neferirke of the > Wikimedia / Wi 535th Dynasty. There is some evidence that she may have served as regent on her son's behalf, however, records also suggest she may have ruled independently. The titles carved into the granite doorway leading to the mortuary chapel of her tomb include an ambiguous phrase which can be translated as either ‘Mother of Two Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt’ or as ‘King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt’ Originally, scholars believed the first interpretation, however there is a representation of Khentkaus | on the doorjamb showing her sitting on a throne, wearing a false beard and uraeus, and carrying a scepter. This kingly regalia suggests that at the very least she was a temporary king of Egypt, perhaps serving as a regent for one or both of her sons. Now, the curious inscription is generally interpreted as ‘Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, [holding office as] King of Upper and Lower Egypt! SOBEKNEFERU The Female Crocodile Pharaoh Reign: 1760-c. 1756 BC, Dynasty 12 Throne Name: Sobekkare Titles: King’s Daughter, King. Sobekneferu, also known as Nefersobek and Scemiophris, was the daughter of King Amenemhat Iil and the half-sister and probable wife of Amenemhat IV. She was the first monarch named after the crocodile god Sobek, a symbol of pharaonic strength. Sobekneferu took the five royal names of an Egyptian king however she amended the epithet Son of Ra (the sun god) to Daughter of Ra, Although some women are believed to have held the power of a king during the third millennium BC, Sobeknefru is the first universally accepted female pharaoh. To prove her worthiness to the throne, she associated herself with her powerful father, who she deified as a god of the Faiyum. One of the most interesting aspects of this female king is how she appears in her statuary. She Although some women are ‘ believed to have held the power of a king during the third millennium BC, Sobeknefru is the first universally accepted female pharaoh. was often represented with both ma and female characteristics, such as a shift dress combined with a male kilt and headdress, or fully feminine clothing combined with a masculine pose ~ trampling the enemies of Egypt. Today, Sobekneferu is often forgotten or her reign is dismissed as the last resort of an otherwise male dynasty, however, she was influential on later rulers. For example, some male kings continued the tradition of using ‘Sobek’ in their names, and female pharaohs such as Hatshepsut and Tawosret followed Sobekneferu's lead and also used a combination of female and male elements in their titles and/or statues. Sobekneferu’s reign was short ~ lasting for just under four years. Her major building projects were temples at the sites of Tell Dab'a and Herakleopolis and the completion of her father’s pyramid complex at Hawara. Scholars also believe that she may have had her own pyramid built at Mazghuna near Dahshur, but the location of her tomb remains unknown.