LECTURE 7: THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF PAUL (3)

7.1 Introduction

In the last lecture we traced the story of Paul’s life and letters from the beginning of his
second missionary journey up to his Ephesian ministry at the beginning of his third
missionary journey. In this lecture we will follow the story of Paul’s life from the writing of
his letter to the Romans to his death in Rome, and consider the surviving letters he wrote
during this period.

7.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

(i) Trace the development of Paul’s life from his writing the letter to the Romans to
his death;
(ii) Describe the circumstances surrounding the writing of his later letters; and
(iii) Outline the main elements of his theology.

7.3 The Letter to the Romans

Luke tells us very little about what happened between Paul’s departure from Ephesus and his
last visit to Corinth (Acts 20.1-3). It could be, however, that, apart from writing 2 Cor. from
Macedonia, Paul also visited Illyricum (the Roman province on the Adriatic coast to the
N.W. of Macedonia) at this time (cf. Rom. 15.19). We do not know anything more about this
mission, nor about Paul’s final visit to Corinth, but one thing we do know is that before the
end of his three-month stay in Achaia (Acts 20.3) he wrote his letter to the Romans (cf. Rom.
15.23-16.1). The belief that the letter was written from Corinth in particular is supported by
the commendation of Phoebe, who came from Cenchreae, Corinth’s eastern port, in Rom.
16.1, and the greetings of Gaius in Rom. 16.23 (probably the same person as the Gaius of 1
Cor.1.14). The letter was probably written sometime during the period 55-57 AD.
Why did Paul write this letter? Some reasons are clear from the text itself:

(i) He wanted to inform the Roman Christians of his intended visit (Rom. 15.22-25);
(ii) He wanted to ask for their prayers for deliverance from unbelievers in Judea so that he
might arrive safely in Rome (Rom. 15.30-32);
(iii) He wanted to solicit support for his intended mission to Spain (Rom. 15.24).
Other possible reasons are less clear, and are the subject of much scholarly discussion:
(iv) He may have wanted to correct some faults within the Roman church. Rom. 16.17-18
hints at divisions within the church. It seems that there was at least a division between
‘strong’ and ‘weak’ (i.e. probably Gentile and Jewish) Christians over ethical questions (cf.
Rom. 14.1-15.13), but there may also have been deeper divisions over correct understanding
of grace: in Rom. 3.21-4.25 Paul argues against legalism, while in Rom. 6.1-8.17 he argues
against antinomianism. Perhaps, as in Galatians, Paul is opposing two groups at once. The
problem with all such theories is that not all the material in Romans seems to suit the subject
matter of these controversies. So we are led to a final solution to this problem:
(v) Paul may not have written primarily to combat any particular problem, but rather simply
to introduce himself and to set before the Roman church, as an apostle to the Gentiles who
had not yet visited Rome, the full gospel which he had been accustomed to preach to the
Gentiles. Thus in this letter we have the nearest Paul ever gets to writing what we would call
a ‘systematic theology’.

In view of the influence of this letter on some of the greatest Christians of all time, such as
Augustine, Martin Luther, John Wesley the letter to the Romans is probably the most
influential letter ever written. We would therefore do well to grasp its message. Here is a
brief summary:

After the introduction (1.1-17), Paul explains why people need to be saved: all have sinned,
he says, whether they are pagan Gentiles (1.18-32) or Jews (2.1-3.8). All alike are sinners and
accountable to God (3.9-20). This is the human condition. The law provides no solution to the
problem of sin; rather it highlights it. The solution must lie elsewhere.
In 3.21-31 Paul affirms that the solution to the problem of sin lies in the grace of God
revealed in Christ. Christ died as an atoning sacrifice, bearing our sins and thereby freeing us
from their just deserts. Through this act of redemption, we can be justified, i.e. counted right
with God, through faith. Thus God’s righteousness is satisfied, because the penalty for sin has
been paid, while at the same time sinners are put right with him (3.25-26).

In ch.4, Paul supports his doctrine of justification by faith from the Old Testament, and in
particular from the story of Abraham, the forefather of the Jewish nation. In ch.5, Paul begins
to spell out some of the fruits of justification: peace, joy and hope (5.1-11), and freedom from
the consequences of the Fall (5.12-21). In ch.6, Paul denies that his gospel leads to
antinomianism. Paul says that in baptism we die to our old selves and rise again to new life in
him (6.2-10). Moreover at conversion we change masters: we became slaves of righteousness
and are freed from the control of sin (6.17-18).

In ch.7, Paul explains that Christians do not live ‘under law’, in the sense of relying on an
observance of the Jewish law for salvation. Paul shows how that his own encounter with the
law had led him into a consciousness of sin, an experience of temptation, and a state of
spiritual death (7.7-13). Our only hope lies in the grace of God in Christ (7.24-25).

In ch.8, Paul recapitulates the heart of the gospel (8.1-4), and describes life in the Spirit (8.5-
17) and the hope of future glory (8.18-39). Through faith in Christ, Paul says, we are not only
justified, but also sanctified, and destined for final glory.

In chs.9-11 Paul seeks to answer the problem of the faithlessness of the Jewish nation. He
argues that not all Abraham’s offspring inherited the promises made to him even in the Old
Testament period (9.6-10.21), that God’s promises have been fulfilled in the remnant of
believing Jews (11.1-6), and that God will fulfil his promises in the future, so that in the end
‘all Israel will be saved’ (11.26).
From 12.1 Paul unfolds the ethical consequences of faith in Christ, which includes respect for
state authorities (13.1-7) and the paramount law of love (13.8-10). From 14.1 to 15.13 Paul
handles the issues which separated the ‘strong’ brethren (probably Gentile Christians in
Rome) from the ‘weak’ (probably Jewish Christians) over question of food and drink, and the
observance of special days. Paul encourages each group to please the other (15.2-4) and prays
for their unity (15.5-6). God’s purpose, he says, is that both Jews and Gentiles should praise
Him together (15.7-13).

In 15.14-33 Paul begins to conclude his letter with personal information and a request for
prayer. In ch. 16 we find a commendation of Phoebe (16.1-2), a long list of greetings (16.3-
16), a warning about those who cause divisions (16.17-20), a list of those who wish to send
greetings along with Paul’s (16.21-24), and finally a (possibly non-Pauline) doxology (16.25-
27).

7.4 The End of the ‘Third Missionary Journey’

Sometime soon after writing the letter to the Romans Paul began his journey back to
Jerusalem. According to Luke, a Jewish plot against him caused him to travel back via
Macedonia, while some of his companions travelled direct to Troas (Acts 20.3-5). Paul and
Luke joined them there later (Acts 20.6 – note the reappearance of ‘we’).

The church at Troas had perhaps been founded by Paul himself (certainly it had benefited
from his ministry, 2. Cor. 2.12), so we are not surprised to read of the all-night meeting
recorded in Acts 20.7-11. The next day Paul travelled by land to Assos (a distance of about
20 miles), while his companions travelled by sea. Paul may have travelled separately
because he needed more time at Troas, or because he needed more time to be alone with
God.

From Assos the party sailed to Mitylene, Chios, Samos and Miletus, from where Paul
summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus (c.30 miles distant, Acts 20.17). It seems
that he feared losing the ship if he went to Ephesus personally, and he wanted to reach
Jerusalem in time for the day of Pentecost (Acts 20.16). The speech Luke ascribes to Paul
at this point, the only one in Acts in which Paul addresses Christians, contains an account
of his ministry at Ephesus, his future expectations, and his final instructions to the elders
(Acts 20.18-35).

Luke then records the journey back to Palestine. At both Tyre and Ptolemais, Paul met
the local Christians, while at Caesarea we are told that he stayed with Philip the evangelist
and his four daughters. Throughout the journey, Luke records premonitions of trouble
ahead at Jerusalem (cf. Acts 20.22-23, 21.4, 10-14), which accord with Paul's own
apprehensions expressed in Rom. 15.31-32, but Paul firmly believed that his mission
was in God’s will and so pressed on. At Jerusalem, the party stayed with Mnason,
apparently a Jewish Christian of the Diaspora, and one likely to be sympathetic with Paul’s
missionary work.

The next day they met James (the brother of the Lord) and all the elders of the Jerusalem
church (Acts 21.18-19). In the light of Rom. 15.31b, Paul will have been pleased with
the warm reception he received (Acts 21.20a) and presumably handed over the collected
money at this moment (though Luke mentions this aspect of the visit only at Acts 24.17).
He will have been more concerned to hear, however, of the many Christians in Jerusalem
who were ‘zealous for the law’ (Acts 21.20b). In order to allay their suspicions of
his own laxity in this regard, he agreed to pay the expenses of some members of the
church who had taken a Nazirite vow (Acts 21.21-26).

7.5 Paul in Roman Custody

As he did so, some ‘Jews from Asia’ stirred up the crowd against him. They accused
him of undermining Judaism by his teaching and (probably falsely) of having taken the
Gentile Trophimus into the part of the Temple which was reserved exclusively for Jews. A
riot ensued, from which Paul was rescued by a contingent of Roman soldiers (Acts 21.27-36).
Given an opportunity to address the crowd, Paul tried to defend himself, but at the
mention of his mission to the Gentiles the crowd clamoured once again for his death
(Acts 21.37-22.22). From this point on Paul was taken into Roman custody.

To begin with, the Roman commander wanted to interrogate Paul under torture, but Paul
successfully appealed against this plan on the grounds of his Roman citizenship (which
guaranteed immunity from such degrading treatment – Acts 22.23-29). So the commander
took him the next day to the Sanhedrin (Acts 22.30). At the meeting, no reference was
made to the original charges against Paul (which perhaps could not be substantiated). Instead,
Paul took the initiative by mentioning his teaching about the resurrection, knowing that the
Sadducees rejected this doctrine, while the Pharisees accepted it. As expected, the Sanhedrin
was divided and descended into chaos. Paul was taken back to the barracks (Acts 23.1-10).

Having lost all hope of mounting a legal case against Paul, his enemies now tried to organize
a plot to kill him (Acts 23.12-15). However, Paul’s nephew, who seems to have been a
resident of Jerusalem, heard of the plot and informed Paul in advance (Acts 23.16).
Paul sent him to the commander (Acts 23.17). When the commander heard of the plot,
he decided to send Paul to the provincial Governor (Acts 23.18-30). He could no longer
guarantee Paul’s security. So Paul was taken to Caesarea, where he spent the next two years
in prison (Acts 23.31-24.27).

The Governor, Felix, heard Paul’s accusers when they came to Caesarea (Acts 24.19), but
Paul successfully defended himself against their charges (Acts 24.10-21), and Felix
adjourned the case pending a visit from the garrison commander in Jerusalem (Acts 24.22).
What came of this visit we are not told. Felix clearly did not regard Paul as guilty of any
crime, and even showed an interest in listening to Paul speak about faith in Jesus Christ
(Acts 24.24-25). Nevertheless he kept him in prison in the hope of receiving a bribe for his
release, and, when the time of his departure came, in order to placate the Jews, he left Paul in
prison (Acts 24.26-27).

Felix’s successor as Governor, Porcius Festus (c.60-62 AD), received a deputation from the
Sanhedrin at Caesarea and proposed that Paul should stand trial in Jerusalem (Acts 25.1-9).
At this point Paul, fearing for his safety, exercised his right as a Roman citizen by appealing
to Caesar (the emperor Nero – Acts 25.10-11). Perhaps he hoped not only for acquittal in
Rome, but also for an opportunity to preach the gospel before the emperor himself.
Whatever his motives, Festus respected his request and, having compiled a report with
the help of King Agrippa II, who interviewed Paul in the process, sent him off to Rome (Acts
25.12-26.32).
Paul’s journey to Rome is described in the last two chapters of Acts. Entrusted to a centurion
called Julius, and in the company of Luke and Aristarchus of Thessalonica, Paul was taken
in a ship to Italy (Acts 27.1-6). It was as they were sailing along the coast of Crete that a
violent storm arose, and drove the ship far out to sea (Acts 27.7-17). The sailors began to
lighten the ship to save it from sinking, but finally they gave up all hope of being saved
(Acts 27.18-20). Luke’s portrays Paul as man who is in touch with God, and who gives hope,
encouragement and practical advice to his fellow travelers (Acts 27.21-38), even after they
had ignored his earlier warnings (Acts 27.9-12). In the end, the ship reached the island of
Malta, and broke up on the rocks, but not before everyone on board had escaped onto the land
(Acts 27.39-44).

On Malta, Paul was delivered from a snake bite (Acts 28.1-6) and engaged in a healing
ministry among the islanders (Acts 28.7-10). As the weather improved with the arrival of
spring, the party continued their journey to Italy. At Puteoli Paul disembarked and travelled
on by land to Rome (Acts 28.14). Paul received a warm welcome from some local Christians
there who went out to meet him on the road (Acts 28.15), but Luke records a much less
enthusiastic reception from the local Jewish community (Acts 28.17-28). The Acts of
the Apostles closes with the picture of Paul living in hired accommodation for the next two
years, guarded by a soldier, but free to preach the gospel to all who visited him (Acts 28.16,
30-31).

What happened next cannot be known for sure. Did Paul write his ‘captivity letters’ (Eph.,
Phil., Col., Phm.) from Rome at this time? Were all these letters written by Paul anyway?
Was Paul released after his case was heard, or was he condemned and executed? If
he was released, did he travel to Spain (as 1 Clement, written c.96, suggests when it says
that Paul ‘reached the limit of the west’)? Did he revisit the eastern Mediterranean
(as the ‘Pastoral Letters’ 1 and 2 Tim., and Tit. suggest)? Were the ‘P astoral Letters’
written by Paul? There are no agreed answers to these questions. There is, however, a fairly
widespread acceptance of the early tradition that Paul died as a martyr by being beheaded
in Rome in the persecution initiated by Nero c. 65-68 AD.

In closing this account of Paul’s life and letters, we will now take a look at the letters which
are attributed him but which have not so far been mentioned.
7.6 The Letter to the Philippians

The Letter to the Philippians has traditionally been assigned to the period of Paul’s (first)
Roman imprisonment, i.e. c.60-62, and this view still receives wide support today. Paul is
clearly in prison (1.7, 13-14). He hopes for an early release, but, if the verdict goes against
him, his likely fate is death (1.19-26). He is in a place where there are many Christians, some
of whom are not sympathetic with Paul’s ministry (1.14-18). Meanwhile the gospel has
reached ‘the whole palace guard’ (1.13), and Paul sends greetings from believers who
‘belong to Caesar’s household’ (4.22), both expressions probably referring to the emperor’s
own staff in Rome.

The main objections to a Roman provenance for the letter are: (i) that Paul announces his
intention to visit the Philippians soon (Phil. 2.24), whereas his former plan was to visit
Spain after his stay in Rome (Rom. 15.28); and (ii) that the letter presupposes frequent
journeys taking place between the place of writing and Philippi (cf. Phil. 2.19, 2.25-26),
which makes Rome – over 600 miles distant from Philippi - an unlikely place of origin.
However, we need to remember that Paul could change his plans if necessary (cf. 2 Cor. 1.12-
2.4), and that a journey between Philippi and Rome may not have needed more than a few
weeks in each direction.

Paul wrote the letter on the occasion of Epaphroditus’ return to Philippi (2.25). He had
evidently brought gifts from the church (cf. 4.18), and Paul wanted to send him back with a
note of appreciation for their concern (4.10-14). In addition, Paul takes this opportunity to
inform the Philippians of his present circumstances (1.12-26), of Timothy’s
impending visit and of his own hope to see them again soon (2.19-24), and to offer them
advice, encouragement and warning for their own spiritual welfare.

7.7 The Letter to the Colossians

This letter and the letter to Philemon seem to have been sent together (note the reference to
Onesimus in Col. 4.9 cf. Phm. 10, the message to Archippus in Col. 4.17 cf. Phm. 2, and the
same greetings sent in Col. 4.10-14 with Phm. 23-24). Less certain is where they were sent
from. The two main alternatives are Ephesus and Rome. Many favour Ephesus, because of the
factor of distance: it is thought that Ephesus would have provided sufficient cover for
Onesimus, the runaway slave, and that Paul’s request that a guest room be prepared for
him (Phm. 22) is more intelligible if he was writing from Ephesus than from Rome. On
the other hand, it is not certain that Paul was imprisoned in Ephesus, whereas we know that
Paul was imprisoned in Rome and the letter to the Colossians was sent from prison (Col.
4.18). In short, the traditional theory of a Roman provenance may stand, and, if so, the
letters may be dated to c.60-62.
Paul had not been to Colossae (2.1), but had been informed about the church there by
Epaphras (1.7-8). Paul writes to encourage them in their faith and to warn them against false
teaching (which seems to be a mixture of Judaism and proto-Gnosticism of some form). In
particular, Paul greets the church (1.1-2), thanks the Lord for their conversion (1.3-8), prays
for them (1.9-14), emphasizes the supremacy and sufficiency of Christ (1.15-23), speaks of
his own role in God’s purposes (1.24-2.5), warns them against false teaching (2.6-23), and
offers some practical guidance for their Christian lives (3.1-4.6). The letters ends with some
greetings (4.7-18).

7.8 The Letter to Philemon

This letter is closest we have in the Pauline corpus to a piece of purely private
correspondence. In it Paul writes on behalf of the runaway slave Onesimus to his owner
Philemon, who evidently hosted a house church at Colossae. Onesimus had been converted
by Paul while in prison, and Paul asks Philemon to take him back as a ‘brother’, and to
forgive him any outstanding debts. The main value of the letter lies in its attitude towards
slavery. Paul does not seek to abolish the institution itself (an impracticable task anyway in
his day), but by asking Philemon to treat Onesimus as a ‘brother’ he indicated the necessity
of a change of status which would in time require the very institution of slavery itself to wilt
and die.

7.9 The Letter to the Ephesians

Despite its title, the absence of the words ‘in Ephesus’ in Eph. 1.1 in some early manuscripts
suggests that this letter was originally intended as a circular letter, sent not just to Ephesus
but to other churches as well. This theory is supported by the fact that the contents are quite
general and do not address any particular problem affecting a single congregation. Though its
authenticity has been questioned in the modern period, there are still many scholars who
regard it as genuine, and sent by Paul from Rome during his imprisonment there (Eph. 6.20
mentions his ‘chains’).

The first half of the letter (chs.1-3) gives a magnificent summary of the gospel. Paul recounts
some of the spiritual blessings which are ours in Christ (1.3-14), prays for his readers that
they might grow in understanding (1.15-23), and reminds them of the way God has saved
them from sin by grace, through faith, for good works (2.1-10). He rejoices in particular in
the way in which Jews and Gentiles had been brought together in a single fellowship through
a common faith in Christ (2.11-22), speaks of his own call to be an apostle (3.1-13) and prays
again for his readers that they might make progress in their Christian lives (3.14-21).

The second half of the letter (chs.4-6) is more practical. In it Paul exhorts his readers to be
united and grow together in love (4.1-16), and then spells out the ethical consequences of
Christian living (4.17-6.9). The letter ends with a stirring call to fight against all the powers
of evil with the spiritual armour God has provided (6.10-20).

7.10 The ‘Pastoral Letters’

Of all the letters attributed to Paul in the New Testament, the authenticity of the so-called the
‘Pastoral Letters’, i.e. 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, has been the mostly vigorously contested.
The majority of scholars today think that they were written by another person sometime in
the late 1st century or early 2nd century AD. The main reasons for this view are as follows:
(i) There are many events referred to in these letters (e.g. at 1 Tim. 1.3, 2 Tim. 4.13, 16, 20,
Tit. 1.5, 3.12) which cannot be easily fitted in to the information we have about Paul’s
movements from the Acts of the Apostles.
(ii) The picture of church life given in these letters seems to presuppose a stage of
development which had not been reached by the time of Paul’s death (cf. the fixed ‘tradition’
in 1 Tim. 6.20, 2 Tim. 1.12-14, the established orders of elders and deacons in 1 Tim. 3.1-13,
5.17-22, Tit. 1.5-9, the Gnostic ideas to be opposed in 1 Tim. 4.1-5, 6.20).
(iii) Many of Paul’s characteristic doctrines, as known to us from his undisputed letters, are
absent. There is no stress on the Fatherhood of God, or on union with Christ, or on the person
and work of the Holy Spirit. Doctrinal formulations are present, but they have become fixed
and stereotyped (e.g. 1 Tim. 1.15, 2.5-6, 3.16, 2 Tim. 2.11-13, Tit. 3.4-8).
(iv) The style and vocabulary of the ‘Pastoral Letters’ differ from that of the undisputed
Pauline letters. This casts doubt on whether the ‘Pastoral Letters’ could possibly have been
authored by the historical Paul.

However, there are also reasons for maintaining a belief in Pauline authorship:
(i) It is possible that after Paul’s imprisonment in Rome, described in Acts 28, he was
released, travelled eastwards back the area around the Aegean Sea, and did the things
mentioned in these letters. A few scholars have even argued that, given the gaps in Luke’s
narrative in Acts, the events referred to could possibly have taken place before Paul’s first
imprisonment in Rome.
(ii) The picture of church life found in the ‘Pastoral Letters’ could be a true description of its
state shortly before Paul’s death. The Paul of 1 Cor. also shows a concern for passing on
‘traditions’ (1 Cor. 11.2, 23-26, 15.3-11, cf. 2 Thess. 2.15, 3.6); elders (= ‘bishops’) and
deacons may already have been recognized as orders of ministry (cf. Acts 14.23, 20.17, Phil.
1.1); and there are possible traces of Gnostic thinking that Paul had to combat elsewhere in
his writings (cf. Rom. 16.18, 1 Cor. 6.12-8.13, 15.1-58, Col. 2.8-23).
(iii) Regarding the absence of typical Pauline doctrinal material in the ‘Pastoral Letters’, we
need to realize that their purpose was different from that of the other letters. Paul is not
writing to churches which contained many immature believers, but to two co-workers,
Timothy and Titus, who already knew Paul’s teaching and needed guidance rather on how to
be good pastors. The ‘absent’ doctrines are absent because they are assumed. They did not
need to be spelt out again.
(iv) The same considerations must be borne in mind when we consider the style and
vocabulary of the ‘Pastoral Letters’. Different subjects require different vocabularies.
Moreover, we must take into account the fact that there are differences of style and
vocabulary between the undisputed letters also, and the possibility both that Paul’s style may
have changed with the passing of time and that he may have used a scribe in composing these
letters who put his own stamp on their style.
(v) Finally, the theory of non-Pauline authorship requires a belief in pseudonymity (or at least
what I.H. Marshall has called ‘allonymity’ – a change of name with no intention to deceive),
but, while such practices are apparent in Jewish Intertestamental and Greco-Roman literature,
there is no sure evidence that they were practised in the Church prior to the mid-2 nd century
AD, and when such works were identified, they were rejected by the mainstream church as
unworthy of canonical status.
On the assumption that they are genuine, the contents of the ‘Pastoral Letters’ reveal Paul’s
concern, towards the end of his life, to make adequate provision for the churches for which he
felt responsible after his death. He therefore gives guidance to his co-workers Timothy and
Titus concerning how they should work for the building up of the churches under their
particular care. They are to set a good example, fulfil their callings, exercise their gifts,
confirm believers in their faith, oppose false teaching, encourage orderly worship, ensure that
elders and deacons of the right qualities are appointed, and generally promote godly living
among God’s people. The letters also contain some personal reminiscences, information
concerning Paul’s recent experiences and future prospects, and the customary greetings and
benedictions.

7.11 Activity

On an atlas, try to trace Paul’s journey from Corinth to Rome, as described in this lecture.
7.12 Conclusion

We have now completed our account of the life and letters of Paul from the writing of his
letter to the Romans to his death in Rome.

7.13 Self-Assessment Questions

You may assess your understanding of the lecture by asking yourself the following questions:
1. To what extent would you agree that the letter to the Romans was the nearest Paul got
to writing a systematic theology and is probably the most influential letter ever
written?
2. How would you summarise the messages of the remaining letters covered by this
lecture?

7.14 Further Reading

1. Brown, chs. 20, 21, 24, 27-31

2. Gundry, chs. 13-15
3. Guthrie, chs. 11, 14-17, 19-20