water
Article
Study on Analysis Method and Control Index for Deformation
of Super-High Arch Dam Suffering Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
Heng Cheng 1 , Yan Wang 1, *, Yi Liu 1,2 , Qiujing Zhou 1 , Jing Zhang 3 and Bo Yang 1
Citation: Cheng, H.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.;
Zhou, Q.; Zhang, J.; Yang, B. Study on
Analysis Method and Control Index
for Deformation of Super-High Arch
Dam Suffering Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction. Water 2023, 15, 1399.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071399
Academic Editors: Vittorio Di
Federico, Bommanna Krishnappan
and Giuseppe Pezzinga
Received: 27 February 2023
Revised: 21 March 2023
Accepted: 1 April 2023
Published: 4 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Water 2023, 15, 1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071399
1 China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Simulations and Regulations of Water Cycles in River Basins, Beijing 100038, China
3 POWERCHINA Chengdu Engineering Corporation Limited, Chengdu 610072, China
* Correspondence: wangyan@edu.iwhr.com
Abstract: Alkali-aggregate reaction can not only cause uneven expansion of concrete but also lead to
cracking and even destruction and consequently affect the working behavior and long-term safety of
hydraulic concrete structures. Present researches on alkali-aggregate reaction focus on improving the
composition ratio of concrete materials through experimental study to inhibit the reaction, whereas
there is a lack of quantitative calculation and analysis. In the present study, the problem of alkali-
aggregate reaction in the super-high arch dam of Jinping I Hydropower Station was taken as an
example. The expansion of concrete suffering the alkali-aggregate reaction was simulated by means
of the overall temperature rise in the dam. Similarly, the yield zone, the expansion process, and the
deformation change law with the development of concrete expansive deformation under various
load combinations were analyzed by using the elastic–plastic finite element method. Finally, a control
index of allowable alkali-aggregate expansion of dam concrete under various load combinations was
put forward. The research results demonstrated that the control index was 400~800 µε. Since the arch
dam has a low safety reserve when operating at a low water level, the lowest reservoir level should
be raised as much as possible in dam operation to reduce its drawdown rate, thus restraining the
adverse impact of alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete on the dam.
Keywords: super-high arch dam; alkali-aggregate reaction; elastic–plastic finite element; yield;
control index
1. Introduction
Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) refers to the chemical reaction between alkaline
substances in concrete and active components in the aggregate, which causes uneven
expansion of concrete, cracking, and even destruction and adversely affects the durability
of concrete [1]. In 1940, AAR was first found in the United States [2]. Subsequently, large-
scale concrete project failures caused by AAR were successively reported in Canada, Japan,
Britain, South Africa, Norway, and many other countries [3]. AAR often occurs inside the
concrete and is continuous, which makes the repair and reinforcement of the dam hard.
What’s worse, the reconstruction may be required one day. For more than half a century,
the damage caused by AAR has resulted in great losses around the world. Especially,
hydraulic concrete structures have a humid environment and long service life, which
provides excellent environmental conditions and enough time for AAR to develop; thus, it
is more dangerous when AAR occurs in hydraulic concrete than in ordinary concrete [4].
Based on the survey in Canada, 30% of the 480 dams belonging to the Quebec Water
Conservancy Bureau were damaged by AAR [5]. Fontana Dam and Hiwassee Dam in the
United States, Moxoto Dam in Brazil, Shambon Dam in France, and Beauharnois Dam in
Canada are the typical ones [6]. In China, there are also some projects that have micro or
macro cracks caused by AAR in the concrete on the overflow surface of the dam after a
long-term operation, such as in the Daheiting Reservoir Dam [7].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2023, 15, 1399 2 of 15

Fortunately, the serious consequences caused by AAR have been increasingly studied.
In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to the problem of AAR in many
water conservancy projects. In many projects, the alkali activity test for aggregates is carried
out before construction; thus, people can take active measures to prevent it. However, dam
concrete is inevitably contacted with water, so at present, the main suppression measures
reduce the alkali content of concrete, using inactive aggregates and mineral admixtures or
additives [8–12]. The first method is the most direct and effective [13]. At the end of the
20th century, Japan, Britain, New Zealand, and other countries tried to reduce the alkali
content of cement, and the alkali content of cement was reduced to 0.60% when active
aggregates were used [14]. Using inactive aggregate, such as water-quenched slag as fine
aggregate [15] and basaltic pumice aggregate [16], is the safest and most reliable measure
to prevent AAR. Some scholars have even studied the possibility of making artificial
lightweight aggregate from broken clay bricks, fly ash, glass waste, and other materials
to inhibit AAR [17–20]. Adding mineral admixtures to concrete is also an important way
to inhibit AAR. When geopolymers and mineral admixtures are used in an appropriate
percentage, they can not only reduce AAR but also significantly improve the mechanical
properties of concrete [21]. Commonly used mineral admixtures include fly ash [22–24],
slag [25–27], volcanic ash [28–30], and flint powder [31]. Moreover, the use of chemical
additives (lithium salt, calcium salt, etc.) is also effective [32–35]. Studies have shown that
adding fiber materials into concrete materials can effectively delay concrete cracking and
inhibit the expansive deformation caused by AAR [36–40].
Previous research concentrated on the composition ratio of concrete materials and
achieved the inhabitation of AAR through engineering measures, which only verified the
safety of concrete specimens in a short time under the test environment, but the long-
term effectiveness of actual projects needs to be demonstrated. An advanced numerical
simulation model is an important means to analyze the influence of AAR on a concrete dam
structure [41]. The classical model widely used worldwide is the Charlwood model [42], but
it is an empirical model with inaccurate deformation history. Starting from the governing
micromechanisms of ASR expansion, Franz-Josef et al. developed a chemoelastic model that
accounts for ASR kinetics and the swelling pressure exerted by the ASR reaction products
on the skeleton [43]. Fairbairn et al. presented an alkali–silica reaction (ASR) thermo–
chemo–mechanical expansion model, which considers the influence of temperature and
humidity in the development of ASR [44]. Saouma et al. presented a new constitutive model
for alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) expansion. This thermo–chemo–mechanical model is
rooted in the chemistry, physics, and mechanics of concrete, and the major premises of the
model are the assumption of a volumetric expansion of the gel and redistribution on the
basis of weights related to the stress tensor [45]. Comi et al. proposed a chemo–thermo-
damage model to simulate the swelling and the deterioration of local stiffness and strength
in concrete due to the alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) [46]. AAR model for the long-term
operation of concrete dams constructed by Pan et al. considers the coupling effect of alkali-
aggregate chemical reaction and mechanics, and the influence of temperature, uneven
distribution of relative humidity, and stress state is considered in alkali-aggregate chemical
reaction kinetics. The mechanical behavior of concrete includes elastic–plastic damage
and long-term creep effect [47]. However, these models are mainly used to simulate the
alkali-aggregate expansion of concrete members, and there are few studies on numerical
simulation of the alkali-aggregate expansion process in arch dams and its influence.
Jinping I Hydropower Station is located in Yanyuan County and Muli County, Liang-
shan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province. It is a controlled reservoir on a cascade
hydropower station in the lower reaches of the Yalong River. The arch dam has a crest
elevation of 1885 m, a dam bottom elevation of 1580 m, and a maximum height of 305 m.
The dam concrete usually has a large construction quantity. Limited by environmental
and economic factors, the sand and gravel materials used in engineering construction
can only be obtained from local materials, and marble and Silicarenite aggregates in the
nearby stock ground are used. Silicarenite is a kind of alkali-active rock, which may lead
 operating for about a decade. For this project, measures, such as using combine
gate and 35% Grade I fly ash and controlling the total alkali content of concrete t
than 1.5 kg/m3, were taken to inhibit AAR. Therefore, it is urgent to make a scient
uation of the long-term inhibition effectiveness of AAR in dam concrete. Dong et
Water 2023, 15, 1399 3 of 15
ied the long-term effectiveness of the measures to inhibit the alkali activity of th
gate by means of petrographic analysis, micro-morphology, product analysis, acc
curing,
to AAR inand damelastic
concrete wavewithtest for thethreat.
a potential dam concrete core samples
Jinping I Hydropower that has
Station havebeenbeen in o
for 10 years
operating [48].a decade.
for about However, it isproject,
For this difficult to evaluate
measures, such as the
usinglong-term safety of dam
combined aggregate
and 35% Grade I fly ash and controlling the total alkali
because the experimental conditions and theoretical assumptions adoptedcontent of concrete to be less than by diff
1.5 kg/m3 , were taken to inhibit AAR. Therefore, it is urgent to make a scientific evaluation
searchers are quite different from the actual situation of dam concrete.
of the long-term inhibition effectiveness of AAR in dam concrete. Dong et al. studied the
Theeffectiveness
long-term present paper of theaims to solve
measures the problem
to inhibit of AARofin
the alkali activity thethe super-high
aggregate by arch
Jinping
means I Hydropower
of petrographic Station.
analysis, The possible product
micro-morphology, expansion value
analysis, equivalent
accelerated to the corr
curing,
ing elastic
and temperature
wave testrise was
for the dam predicted to simulate
concrete core samples that thehave
expansive deformation
been in operation for of ar
10 years [48]. However, it is difficult to evaluate the long-term
concrete by means of the overall temperature rise of the dam. All load combinati safety of dam concrete
because the experimental conditions and theoretical assumptions adopted by different
can be encountered were considered. By adopting the elastic–plastic finite
researchers are quite different from the actual situation of dam concrete.
method, not only
The present paper wasaimsthe working
to solve behavior
the problem of the
of AAR arch
in the dam suffering
super-high arch dam AARof unde
ent load
Jinping combinations
I Hydropower Station.calculated
The possible but also the
expansion expansion
value equivalentprocess of the arch da
to the correspond-
ing
zonetemperature rise was law
and the change predicted
of theto arch
simulate
dam thedeformation
expansive deformation
with further of arch dam
expansion un
concrete by means of the overall temperature rise of the dam. All load combinations that
ferent load combinations were analyzed. The breakthrough of the yield zone and
can be encountered were considered. By adopting the elastic–plastic finite element method,
flection
not only waspoint
the of the relationship
working behavior of the curve
archbetween
dam suffering displacement
AAR underand expansive
different load defo
were taken calculated
combinations as the judging but alsocriteria. Then process
the expansion we obtained a control
of the arch dam yield index
zoneforandallowabl
aggregate expansion in dam concrete, which provided a basis for the long-term
the change law of the arch dam deformation with further expansion under different load
combinations
eration andwere controlanalyzed.
of theThe breakthrough of the yield zone and the inflection point
structure.
of the relationship curve between displacement and expansive deformation were taken
as the judging criteria. Then we obtained a control index for allowable alkali-aggregate
2. Calculation
expansion in dam Model
concrete,and Load
which Calculation
provided a basis for the long-term safe operation and
control of the structure.
2.1. Computational Model
A three-dimensional
2. Calculation Model and Load finite element model of arch dam-foundation was est
Calculation
according
2.1. to the
Computational actual shape, joints, detailed structure, material partition, and e
Model
ing A
geological conditions
three-dimensional finiteof Jinping
element level
model ofIarch
super high concrete
dam-foundation wasarch dam. In the fi
established
according to the actual shape, joints, detailed structure, material partition,
ment model, X-axis is the direction perpendicular to the river direction, pointinand engineering
geological conditions of Jinping level I super high concrete arch dam. In the finite element
right bank; Y-axis is the direction along the river, pointing downstream; Z-axis is
model, X-axis is the direction perpendicular to the river direction, pointing to the right
tical direction,
bank; Y-axis is thepointing upward.
direction along There
the river, are 724,195
pointing elements
downstream; and
Z-axis is 733,235 nodes in
the vertical
including
direction, 139,860
pointing dam units
upward. Thereand 152,581elements
are 724,195 nodes. and
The733,235
units are generally
nodes hexahedr
in the grid,
including
and some 139,860
parts dam units
use and 152,581
pyramid, nodes.and
prism, The tetrahedron
units are generally hexahedral
units. units, finite
The overall
and some parts use pyramid, prism, and tetrahedron units. The overall finite element
model of the dam body foundation is shown in Figure 1 and the finite element m
model of the dam body foundation is shown in Figure 1 and the finite element model of
thearch
the archdamdam is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 2. 2.

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Overall
Overall finite
finite element
element model
model of of dam
dam body body foundation.
foundation.
Water 2023,15,
Water2023, 15,1399
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of 15
16

Figure2.2.Finite
Figure Finiteelement
elementmodel
modelof
ofdam
dambody.
body.

2.2.
2.2. Calculating
Calculating Loads
Loads
The
The alkali-aggregatereaction
alkali-aggregate reactioncan
cancause
causethetheexpansive
expansivedeformation
deformationof ofconcrete,
concrete,which
which
isis equivalent
equivalent to the expansion caused by the overall temperature rise in the
to the expansion caused by the overall temperature rise in the arch
arch dam.
dam.
Therefore,
Therefore,the thelatter
latterwas
wasused
usedin insimulating
simulatingthe theAAR
AARexpansion
expansionof ofarch
archdam
damconcrete,
concrete,and
and
the
thepossible
possibleexpansion
expansion of of concrete
concrete was
was equivalent
equivalent to to the
the corresponding
corresponding temperature
temperature rise,
rise,
which
whichwas wasapplied
appliedto tothe
thearch
archdam
damininthe
theform
formof oftemperature
temperatureload,load,andandthen
thenthe
theworking
working
behavior
behavior of arch dam under the influence of AAR under different load combinationswas
of arch dam under the influence of AAR under different load combinations was
calculated.
calculated.
The
Theconcrete
concreteproportioning
proportioningof ofthe
the Jinping
Jinping II Dam
Dam is is shown
shown inin Table
Table 1.
1. The
The thermody-
thermody-
namic parameter experiment results of dam concrete are
namic parameter experiment results of dam concrete are shown in Table 2.shown in Table 2.

Table1.1.Concrete
Table Concreteproportions
proportionsofofeach
eachdam
damarea
area[49].
[49].

Dam Water-to-
Strength Water-to-Binder Sand- Concrete
ConcreteMaterial Consumption/(kg·m−3−3) )
Material Consumption/(kg·m Air
Strength Sand-Ag-
Aggregate/%
Slumps/c Air Con-
Slumps/cm
Dam AreaGrade
Area Binder
Ratio Water Cement Fly Ash Sand Stone Content/%
Grade gregate/% Water Cement Fly Ash Sand Stone m tent/%
A C180 40 Ratio
0.39 22 82 136.7 73.6 477 1718 3.5 3.8
A C18040 0.39 22 82 136.7 73.6 477 1718 3.5 3.8
B C180 35 0.43 23 82 124.0 66.7 503 1710 3.5 4.0
B C18035 0.43 23 82 124.0 66.7 503 1710 3.5 4.0
C C180 30 0.47 24 81 112.0 60.3 530 1703 3.2 4.2
C C18030 0.47 24 81 112.0 60.3 530 1703 3.2 4.2

Table2.2.Experiment
Table Experimentresults
resultsof
ofthermodynamic
thermodynamicparameters
parametersofofdam
damconcrete
concrete[50–52].
[50–52].

Dam Area Dam Area A Dam Area B Dam Area C

Dam Area Dam Area A Dam Area B Dam Area C
thermal diffusivity (m2 /h) 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033
heatthermal diffusivity
(kJ/m·(m
2/h) 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033
conductivity h·◦ C) 8.41 8.68 8.59
heat conductivity (kJ/m·h·°C) 8.41 8.68 8.59
specific heat (kJ/kg·◦ C) 1.012 1.05 1.04
specific heat (kJ/kg·°C) 1.012 1.05 1.04
unit weight (kg/m3 ) 3 2475 2475 2475
unit weight (kg/m ) 2475 2475 2475
Poisson’s
Poisson’sratio
ratio 0.170.17 0.17
0.17 0.17
0.17
linear
linearexpansion
expansioncoefficient (10−(10
coefficient
6 /◦−6
C)/°C) 8.508.50 8.50
8.50 8.50
8.50

Thepossible
The possibleexpansion
expansionvalue valuecausedcausedby byAARAAR in in the
the arch
arch dam
dam concrete
concrete was
was predicted,
predicted,
and
andthe valuesε v1ε,v1ε,v2ε,v.2.,
thevalues . , ε ,viε, . .,
vi
. , ε,vnε were converted into the corresponding temperature
vn were converted into the corresponding tempera-
rise parameters ∆T1 , ∆T2 , . . . , ∆Ti , . . . , ∆Tn ; the possible expansion of concrete divided by
turelinear
the rise parameters ΔT1, ΔT2,
expansion coefficient ΔTi ,, Δwhich
of,concrete, Tn ; thecanpossible expansion
be expressed as of concrete divided
by the linear expansion coefficient of concrete, which can be expressed as
ε
∆Ti = viε, i = 1, 2, . . . , n (1)
Δ T i =α v i , i = 1, 2 ,  , n (1)
α
where α
where α is the linear expansion coefficient of concrete.
is the linear expansion coefficient of concrete.
The linear expansion coefficient of arch dam concrete in Jinping I Hydropower Station
The linear expansion coefficient of arch dam concrete in Jinping I Hydropower Sta-
was 8.5 × 10−6 /◦ C−6 [51,52], and the temperature load increment corresponding to the possi-
tion was 8.5 × 10 /°C [51,52], and the temperature load increment corresponding to the
Water 2023, 15, 1399 5 of 15

ble expansion value caused by AAR in concrete was calculated according to Equation (1),
and the calculation results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Temperature load increment corresponding to different expansion values.

Expansion Value (×10−6 ) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 800
Temperature load increase (◦ C) 0 5.9 11.8 17.6 23.5 29.4 35.3 41.2 47.1 94.1

The load combinations that may be encountered during the operation of arch dams
are the following:
1. Basic combination I: normal upstream water level + corresponding downstream
water level + sediment pressure + dam self-weight + temperature drop + possible
alkali-aggregate expansion;
2. Basic combination II: upstream dead water level + corresponding downstream water
level + sediment pressure + dam self-weight + temperature drop + possible alkali-
aggregate expansion;
3. Basic combination III: normal upstream water level + corresponding downstream
water level + sediment pressure + dam self-weight + temperature rise + possible
alkali-aggregate expansion;
4. Basic combination IV: upstream dead water level + corresponding downstream water
level + sediment pressure + dam self-weight + temperature rise + possible alkali-
aggregate expansion;
5. Accidental combination V: upstream exceptional flood level + corresponding down-
stream water level + sediment pressure + dam self-weight + temperature rise +
possible alkali-aggregate expansion.

3. Calculation Principles and Methods

In this paper, the elastic–plastic finite element method was used to calculate and
analyze the yield zone of the arch dam and the expansion process and deformation change
law with the development of expansive deformation under various load combinations. The
material nonlinearity of dam concrete and foundation rock mass was simulated by the DP
yield criterion in the calculation and analysis.
The elastic–plastic constitutive relation can be written as [53]
 
{σ} = Dep {ε} (2)
 
where {σ } and {ε} are the stress and strain arrays of materials, respectively; Dep is the
elastic–plastic matrix.
The iterative formula of the finite element equilibrium equation is

 [ 0 ]{ 1 } { } { }R ( h ) h

 K δ = F + R i=1 i
[K0 ]{∆δi } = { F } − ∑ ve B] T Dep i−1 ({ε i } − {ε 0 }) (3)
 e
[δi ] = {δi−1 } + {∆δi } (i = 2, 3, 4, . . .)


where { R} is an unbalanced force.

In the Drucker–Prager yield criterion with maximum tensile stress, when the material
is damaged by tension, the maximum tensile stress criterion is adopted, namely,

F = σ1 − Rt = 0 (4)

When shear failure occurs, Drucker–Prager yield criterion is adopted, namely, [54]
p
F = αI1 + J2 − k = 0 (5)
Water 2023, 15, 1399 6 of 15

In Equation (5), I1 is the first invariant of stress tensor; J2 is the second invariant
of deviatoric stress tensor; α and k are the material parameters, which are related to the
Water2023,
Water 2023,15,
15,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEER REVIEW
frictionREVIEW
angle ϕ and cohesion c of the material. The values of α and k were determined 6
according to the following formula so that the Drucker–Prager yield surface is close to the
Mohr–Coulomb yield surface.
2sin𝜑
2sin𝜑 6𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝛼𝛼＝
2 sin ϕ＝ ϕ，
6ccos ， 𝑘 ＝ 6𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝑘＝
α= √ √, 3(3
k= √−3𝑠𝑖𝑛
3(3 − sin ϕ√)3(3 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜑)
− sin ϕ) √√
(3 𝜑)
3(3−−𝑠𝑖𝑛
3(3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑)
𝜑) (6)
Theyield
The yieldcondition
conditionofofthe theMohr–Coulomb
Mohr–Coulombyield yieldcriterion
criterionisis
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜃 −−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛
The yield condition of the Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion is1
𝐽 𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠  √3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝜑 ++ 𝐼 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝜑−−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝜑==00

sin θσ √13 3
whereJ𝐼2𝐼 is − ccos 𝐽ϕ =is0the second invariant
p
θσ − √invariant
3 1 tensor; 𝐽 is the second invariant of devi
where cos
isthe
the first
first sin ϕ of
invariant +ofstress
I sin ϕtensor;
stress (7) of dev
3
stress tensor; 𝜃 is the Lode angle of stress; 𝑐
stress tensor; 𝜃 is the Lode angle of stress; 𝑐 and 𝜑 are the cohesion and
and 𝜑 are the cohesion andinterna
intern
where I1 is the tion
first
tion angle, respectively.
invariant
angle, of stress tensor; J2 is the second invariant of deviatoric
respectively.
stress tensor; θσ is the Lode angle of stress; c and ϕ are the cohesion and internal friction
4.4.Influence
angle, respectively.InfluenceLaw LawofofAlkali-Aggregate
Alkali-AggregateReaction Reactionon onArch
ArchDamDamStress
Stress
Thealkali-aggregate
The alkali-aggregatereaction reactioncan canmake
makethe thedamdamexpand
expandand anddeform,
deform,whichwhichfu
4. Influence Law of Alkali-Aggregate
affects the dam’s stress. Reaction
As shown oninArch Dam3 Stress
Figures and 4 (In the figures, the blue arro
affects the dam’s stress. As shown in Figures 3 and 4 (In the figures, the blue arrow
The alkali-aggregate
cates the reaction
tensile can
stress make
increment,the dam
and expand
the red and
arrow deform,
indicates
cates the tensile stress increment, and the red arrow indicates the compressive stre which
the further
compressive st
affects the dam’s stress. As
crement.), the shown
tensile in Figures
stress 3 andwas
increment 4 (Ingenerated
the figures, at thecheeks
the blue arrow
at the middle
crement.), the tensile stress increment was generated at the cheeks at the middle-u
indicates the tensile
partofofstress increment,
theupstream
upstream and the
surface and red arrow
onboth indicates
bothsides
sides thethe compressive stressof the arc
part the surface and on ofofthe downstream
downstream surface
surface of the arch
increment.), theand
tensile stress
compressive increment
stress was
incrementgenerated
was at the
generated cheeks
at at
the the
arch middle-upper
end of the upstream
and compressive stress increment was generated at the arch end of the upstream su
part of the upstream
andthe surface
the and on both
lower-middle partsides of the downstream surface of the archdam;
dam,the stress
and lower-middle part ofofthe
the downstream
downstream surface
surface ofofthe
the arch
arch dam; the stress
and compressive stress
mentofofmost increment
mostparts was
partscaused generated
causedby at
byexpansive the arch
expansivedeformation end of
deformationcan the upstream
canoffset
offsetthe surface
thewater
waterpressure
pressu
ment
and the lower-middle part of the downstream
thecompressive
compressive stressincrement
incrementsurface of
thethe arch dam; thepart stress increment
the stress atatthe lower-middle
lower-middle part ofofthethedownstream
downstreamsu
of most parts caused
causedby by expansive
byexpansion
expansioncan deformation
canbebesuperimposedcan offset
superimposedwith the
withthe water
thewater pressure,
waterpressure and
pressureload. the Under t
load.
caused Under th
compressive stress increment
dition of low at
waterthe lower-middle
level, large part
expansive of the downstream
deformation surface
occurred iscaused
the most unfav
dition of low water level, large expansive deformation occurred is the most unfavo
by expansion can to be
the superimposed
dam. with the water pressure load. Under the condition of
to the dam.
low water level, large expansive deformation occurred is the most unfavorable to the dam.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure3.3.Vector
Figure 3. VectorFigure
diagram ofVector diagram
diagram
tensile oftensile
stress of tensilestress
increment stressincrement
under increment underarch
arch damunder archdam
expansion. dam
(a) expansion.
expansion.
Upstream (a)Upstream
(a)
face. Upstrea
(b) Downstream surface.
(b) Downstream(b) Downstream surface.
surface.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure4.4.Vector
Figure 4. VectorFigure
diagram ofVector diagramstress
compressive
diagram ofofcompressive
compressive stressincrement
incrementstress
under increment
arch underarch
damunder archdam
expansion. dam
(a) expansion.(a)
Upstream
expansion. (a)Ups
Up
face.
face. (b) Downstream (b) Downstream
surface. surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Water 2023, 15, 1399 7 of 15

5. Deformation Control Index Based on Elastic–Plastic Finite Element Method

5. Deformation Control Index Based on Elastic–Plastic Finite Element Method
5.1. Yield State of Arch Dam under Different Alkali-Aggregate Deformation
5.1. Yield State of Arch Dam under Different Alkali-Aggregate Deformation
Figures 5 and 6 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under differ-
Figures 5 and 6 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under different
ent expansion values in basic load combination I (‘0’ means unyielding; ‘1’ represents the
expansion values
tensile yield; ‘2’ is in
thebasic load combination
compression–shear I (‘0’It means
yield). unyielding;
demonstrated ‘1’ represents
that the yield zonesthe
at
tensile yield; ‘2’ is the compression–shear yield). It demonstrated that
the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformationthe yield zones at
of the
the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of
arch dam. When the deformation value reached 200 µε, the downstream dam surface near
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 200 µε, the downstream dam surface
the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further devel-
near the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further
opment of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was partly
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the upstream
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the
and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
upstream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Yield
Yield zone
zone of
of arch
arch dam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 200
200 µε
µε (basic
(basic combination
combination I).
I). (a)
(a) Upstream
Upstream face.
face.
(b) Downstream surface.
(b) Downstream surface.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Yield
Yield zone
zone of
of arch
arch dam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 800
800 µε
µε (basic
(basic combination
combination I).
I). (a)
(a) Upstream
Upstream face.
face.
(b) Downstream surface.
(b) Downstream surface.

Figures 7 andand 88 show

showthethedistribution
distributionofofthe
theyield
yieldzone
zoneofofthe
thearch
arch
damdam under
under differ-
different
ent expansion values in basic load combination II. It demonstrated that the
expansion values in basic load combination II. It demonstrated that the yield zones at the yield zones at
the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with
upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of the the deformation of the
arch dam.
dam.WhenWhenthe thedeformation
deformation value reached
value reached100100µε, µε,
the downstream
the downstream damdamsurface near
surface
the
nearleft
theand
leftright abutments
and right yielded
abutments at the at
yielded upper elevation.
the upper Then, with
elevation. Then,the further
with devel-
the further
opment of expansive
development deformation,
of expansive the yield
deformation, the zone
yieldcontinuously extended
zone continuously and was
extended andpartly
was
partly connected
connected at the
at the high high elevation
elevation of the
of the right right
bank bank foundation
foundation surface
surface along the along
upstreamthe
and downstream
upstream surfaces when
and downstream the when
surfaces deformation value reached
the deformation value800 µε. 800 µε.
reached
Figures 9 and 10 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under different
expansion values in basic load combination III. It demonstrated that the yield zones at
the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 300 µε, the downstream dam surface
near the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the
upstream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
Water
Water 2023,
2023, 15,
15, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 88 of
of 16
16
Water 2023, 15, 1399 8 of 15

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Yield zone of arch dam with expansion of 100 µε (basic combination II). (a) Upstream face.
(b) Downstream surface.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Yield
7. Yield zone
Yield zone of
zone of arch
of arch dam
arch dam with
dam with expansion
with expansion of
expansion of100
of 100µε
100 µε(basic
µε (basiccombination
(basic combinationII).
combination II).(a)
II). (a)Upstream
(a) Upstreamface.
Upstream face.
face.
(b)
(b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.
(b) Downstream surface.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Yield zone of arch dam with expansion of 800 µε (basic combination II). (a) Upstream face.
(b) Downstream surface.

Figures 9 and 10 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under dif-
ferent expansion values in basic load combination III. It demonstrated that the yield zones
at the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 300 µε, the downstream dam surface
near the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further
(a)
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone (b) continuously extended and was
partly 8.
Figure connected atofthe high elevation of theofright bank foundation surface along theface.
up-
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Yield
Yield zone
Yield zone of
zone of arch
arch dam
arch dam with
dam with expansion
with expansion of
expansion of800
800µε
800 µε(basic
µε (basiccombination
(basic combinationII).
combination II).(a)
II). (a)Upstream
(a) Upstream
Upstream face.
face.
stream
(b) and
(b) Downstream downstream
Downstream surface.
surface. surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
(b) Downstream surface.

Figures 9 and 10 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under dif-
ferent expansion values in basic load combination III. It demonstrated that the yield zones
at the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 300 µε, the downstream dam surface
near the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the up-
stream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
(a) (b)
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Yield
Yield zone
zoneofofarch
archdam
damwith
with expansion
expansion of of
300300
µε µε (basic
(basic combination
combination III). III). (a) Upstream
(a) Upstream face.
face. (b) Downstream
(b) Downstream surface. surface.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Yield
Yield zone
zone of
of arch
arch dam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 300
300 µε
µε (basic
(basic combination
combination III).
III). (a)
(a) Upstream
Upstream
face.
face. (b)
(b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Yield
Figure 10. Yield zone
zoneof
ofarch
archdam
damwith
withexpansion
expansion
of of
800800
µε µε (basic
(basic combination
combination III). III). (a) Upstream
(a) Upstream face.
face. (b) Downstream surface.
(b) Downstream surface.

Figures
Figures 11 11 and
and1212show
showthethedistribution
distributionof of
thethe
yield zone
yield of the
zone archarch
of the damdamunder dif-
under
ferent expansion values in basic load combination IV. It demonstrated that
different expansion values in basic load combination IV. It demonstrated that the yield the yield zones
at the upstream
zones and downstream
at the upstream and downstreamarch arch
endsends
gradually expanded
gradually expandedwithwith
the the
deformation
deformationof
the arch
of the dam.
arch dam.When
When thethe
deformation
deformationvalue
valuereached
reached150150µε,
µε,the
thedownstream
downstreamdam dam surface
surface
near
near the
the left
left and right abutments
and right abutments yielded
yielded at
at the
the upper
upper elevation.
elevation. Then,
Then, with
with the
the further
further
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the up-
stream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
 face.
face. (b)
(b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.

Figures 11 and 12 show the distribution of the yield zone of the arch dam under dif-
ferent expansion values in basic load combination IV. It demonstrated that the yield zones
Water 2023, 15, 1399
at the upstream and downstream arch ends gradually expanded with the deformation of
9 of 15
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 150 µε, the downstream dam surface
near the left and right abutments yielded at the upper elevation. Then, with the further
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
development of expansive deformation, the yield zone continuously extended and was
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the up-
partly connected at the high elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the
stream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.
upstream and downstream surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
11. Yield
Figure 11. Yield zone
zone of
of arch
arch dam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 150
150 µε (basic
µε (basic combination
combination IV).
(basic combination IV). (a) Upstream
(a) Upstream
Upstream
Figure Yield zone of arch dam with expansion of 150 µε IV). (a)
face. (b) Downstream surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.

(a) (b)
Figure 12.
12. Yield
Figure 12.
Figure Yield zone
Yield zone of
zone of arch
of arch dam
arch dam with
dam with expansion
with expansion of
expansion of 800
of 800 µε
800 (basic
µε (basic
µε combination
combination IV).
(basic combination IV). (a)
IV). Upstream
(a) Upstream
(a) Upstream
face.
face. (b)
(b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.

Figures
Figures 13
13 and
and1414show
showthe thedistribution
distribution of of
thethe
yield
yieldzone of the
zone archarch
of the damdamunder dif-
under
ferent expansion
different expansionvalues
valuesin in
accidental
accidentalcombination
combinationI.I.ItItdemonstrated
demonstratedthat thatthe
the yield
yield zones
zones
at
at the
the upstream
upstream and
and downstream
downstream arch ends gradually
arch ends gradually expanded
expanded withwith the
the deformation
deformation of of
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 300 µε, the downstream
the arch dam. When the deformation value reached 300 µε, the downstream dam surface dam surface
near the left and right abutment yielded at the the upper
upper elevation.
elevation. Then,
Then, with the further
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEWdevelopment
development of expansive
expansive deformation,
deformation, thethe yield zone continuously extended and was
was
10 of 16
partly connected
connected atatthe
thehigh
highelevation
elevationofof
thethe
right bank
right bankfoundation
foundationsurface along
surface the up-
along the
stream
upstreamandand
downstream
downstream surfaces when
surfaces whenthethe
deformation
deformation value reached
value reached800800
µε.µε.

(a) (b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Yield
Yield zone
zone of
of arch
arch dam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 300
300 µε
µε (accidental
(accidental combination
combination I).
I). (a)
(a) Upstream
Upstream
face. (b) Downstream surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.

(a) (b)
 (a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Water 2023, 15, 1399 Figure 13.
Figure 13. Yield
Yield zone
zone of
ofarch
archdam
dam with
with expansion
expansion of
of 300
300µε
µε(accidental
(accidentalcombination
combination I).
I).(a) 10 of 15
(a) Upstream
Upstream
face. (b)
face. (b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure14.
Figure
Figure 14. Yield
14. Yield zone
Yield zone of
zone ofarch
of archdam
arch dam with
dam with expansion
with expansion of
expansion of 800
of 800µε
800 µε(accidental
µε (accidentalcombination
(accidental combination I).
combination I).(a)
I). (a) Upstream
(a) Upstream
Upstream
face. (b)
face. (b) Downstream
Downstream surface.
surface.
face. (b) Downstream surface.

5.2. Displacement
5.2. Displacement of
of Arch
Arch Dam
Dam under
under Different
Different Alkali-Aggregate
Different Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
ReactionDeformation
Deformation
Figure 15
Figure 15 shows
shows thethe change
change process
process ofof dam
dam crest
crest displacement
displacement alongalong the
the river
river under
under
different expansion
different
different values
expansion values
valuesin in basic
inbasic combination
combinationI.I.I.Under
basiccombination Under
Under the
thethenormal
normal
normal water
water
water level ++ temper-
level
level temper-
+ tem-
perature
ature riserise
ature rise condition,
condition,
condition, the
the
the deformation
deformation
deformation ofofthe
of thecrown
the crowncantilever
crown cantileveralong
cantilever along the
along the river
river gradually
gradually
changed
changedupstream
changed upstreamwith
upstream with
with further
further
further expansion,
expansion,
expansion, whereas
whereas
whereasthat that
at theat
that atdam
the abutment
the varied varied
dam abutment
dam abutment down-
varied
stream. However,
downstream.
downstream. the deformation
However,
However, the deformation
the did notdid
deformation change
did suddenly,
not change
not change indicating
suddenly,
suddenly, that thethat
indicating
indicating overall
that the
the
dam body
overall
overall dam
dam was in awas
body
body linear
was in aaelastic
in linearstate
linear when
elastic
elastic state
state the expansion
when
when value was
the expansion
the expansion lower
value
value wasthan
was lower
lower 800than
µε,
than
and
800 no
µε,instability
800 µε, and no
and and failure
no instability
instability andoccurred
and on the whole.
failure occurred
failure occurred on the
on the whole.
whole.

Crown
Crown Leftbank
Left bank Rightbank
Right bank
cantilever
cantilever
100
100
50
50
(mm)
Displacement (mm)

00
-50
Displacement

-50
-100
-100
-150
-150
-200
-200
-250
-250
00 100
100 200
200 300 400
300 400 500500 600 600 700
700 800
800
Expansionvalue
Expansion (×10−6−6))
value(×10

Figure15.
Figure
Figure 15.Variation
15. Variation process
Variation process of
process ofdam
of damcrest
dam crestdisplacement
crest displacementalong
displacement alongthe
along theriver
the riverunder
river underdifferent
under differentexpansions
different expansions
expansions
(basic
(basic combination
combination
(basic combination I). I).
I).

Figure 16
Figure 16 shows
shows the the change
change process
process of of dam
dam crest
crest displacement
displacement alongalong the
the river
river under
under
different
different expansion
expansion values
values in
in basic
basic combination
combination II.
II. Under
Under the
the condition
condition
different expansion values in basic combination II. Under the condition of dead of
of dead
dead water
water level
level
+++temperature
temperaturerise,
temperature rise,the
rise, thedeformation
the deformation
deformation of
ofof
the the
thedamdam
dam crest
crest
crest along
along
along the
thethe river
river
river gradually
gradually
gradually changed
changed
changed up-
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16
upstream
upstream
stream with
with
with further
further
further expansion,
expansion,
expansion, andinflection
and and
the the inflection
the inflection point
pointpoint appeared
appeared
appeared when
whenwhen the expansion
the expansion
the expansion value
value reached
value
reached reached 400
400 µε,400 µε, indicating
µε,
indicatingindicating that
that thethat the stiffness
the
overall overall stiffness
overall stiffness of the
of
of the arch the arch
damarch dam
wasdam was obviously
was
obviously obviously
reduced.
reduced.
reduced.
Crown Left bank Right bank
cantilever

100
0
-100
Displacement (mm)

-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Expansion value (×10−6)

Figure16.
Figure 16.Variation
Variation process
process of
ofdam
damcrest
crestdisplacement
displacementalong
alongthe
theriver
riverunder
underdifferent
differentexpansions
expansions
(basiccombination
(basic combinationII).
II).

Figure 17 shows the change process of dam crest displacement along the river under
different expansion values in basic combination III. Under the normal water level + tem-
perature rise condition, the deformation of the crown cantilever along the river gradually
changed upstream with further expansion, whereas that at the dam abutment varied
 -600 Expansion value (×10−6)
-700
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Figure 16. VariationExpansion
process valueof
(×10dam
) crest displacement along the river under different expansions
−6

(basic combination II).

Figure 16. Variation process of dam crest displacement along the river under different expansions
Water 2023, 15, 1399 11 of 15
(basicFigure
combination II). the change process of dam crest displacement along the
17 shows river under
different expansion values in basic combination III. Under the normal water level + tem-
Figure
perature rise17condition,
shows thethe change process of
deformation of the
damcrown
crest displacement
cantilever along along
the the river
river under
gradually
Figure
different 17 shows the change process of dam crest displacement along the river under
changed expansion
upstream values
with furtherin basicexpansion,
combination III. Under
whereas that the normal
at the damwater level +varied
abutment tem-
different expansion values in basic combination III. Under the normal water level + tem-
perature
downstream.rise condition,
However, the deformation of the crown cantilever along the river gradually
perature rise condition, the the deformation
deformation of the did
crownnotcantilever
change along
suddenly, indicating
the river graduallythat the
changed
overall damupstream
body with
was in further
a linear expansion,
elastic statewhereas
when that
the at the
expansion
changed upstream with further expansion, whereas that at the dam abutment varied
dam
value abutment
was lower
down-
varied
than
downstream.
800 µε, and
stream. However,
no instability
However, the deformation
and failure
the deformation did not did
occurred
changeonnot change
the whole.
suddenly, suddenly, indicating
indicating that the overall that the
overall
dam bodydam wasbody
in a was
linearinelastic
a linearstateelastic
when state when thevalue
the expansion expansion value
was lower thanwas
800lower
µε, than
800 µε, and no
and no instability instability
Crown and failure and failure
Left bank occurred occurred
on the whole.
Right bank on the whole.
cantilever
100
Crown Left bank Right bank
50 cantilever
(mm)

0
100
-50
50
Displacement

-100
(mm)

0
-150
-50
Displacement

-200
-100
-250
-150
-300
-200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-250 Expansion value (×10−6)
-300
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Figure 17. VariationExpansion
process of(×10
value dam−6)
crest displacement along the river under different expansions
(basic combination III).
Figure 17. Variation
Figure 17. Variationprocess
process
of of
damdam
crestcrest displacement
displacement alongalong theunder
the river river different
under different expansions
expansions
(basic combination
(basicFigure III).
18 shows
combination III). the change process of dam crest displacement along the river under
different expansion values in basic combination IV. Under the condition of dead water
Figure 1818shows
showsthe change process of dam crestcrest
displacement along the river under
levelFigure
+ temperature the
rise, change process
the deformation of dam
of the damdisplacement
crest alongalong the
the riverriver under
gradually
different expansion values in basic combination IV. Under the condition of dead water level
different
changed expansion
upstream values in basic combination IV. inflection
Under thepoint
condition of dead water
+ temperature rise, thewith further
deformation expansion,
of the dam crestandalong
the the river graduallyappeared when
changed up- the
level +
expansion temperature
stream withvalue
rise,
furtherreached
expansion,
the
400anddeformation
µε,the
indicating of
inflection that
the
pointthe
dam crest
overall
appeared
along
stiffness
when
the river
of the arch
the expansion
gradually
dam was
value
changed
obviously upstream
reduced. with further expansion, and the inflection point appeared
reached 400 µε, indicating that the overall stiffness of the arch dam was obviously reduced. when the
expansion value reached 400 µε, indicating that the overall stiffness of the arch dam was
obviously reduced.
Crown Left bank Right bank
cantilever
100
Crown Left bank Right bank
0
cantilever
-100
(mm)

100
-200
0
Displacement

-300
-100
(mm)

-400
-200
-500
Displacement

-300
-600
-400
-700
-500
-800
-600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-700 Expansion value (×10−6)
-800
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Expansionof
value (×10−6)
Figure 18. Variation process dam crest displacement along the river under different expansions
(basic combination IV).

Figure 19 shows the change process of dam crest displacement along the river under
different expansion values in accidental combination I. Under the normal water level
+ temperature rise condition, the deformation of the crown cantilever along the river
gradually changed upstream with further expansion, whereas that at the dam abutment
varied downstream. However, the deformation did not change suddenly, indicating that
the overall dam body was in a linear elastic state when the expansion value was lower than
800 µε, and no instability and failure occurred on the whole.
 Figure 19 shows the change process of dam crest displacement along the river under
different expansion values in accidental combination I. Under the normal water level +
temperature rise condition, the deformation of the crown cantilever along the river grad-
ually changed upstream with further expansion, whereas that at the dam abutment varied
downstream. However, the deformation did not change suddenly, indicating that the
Water 2023, 15, 1399 12 of 15
overall dam body was in a linear elastic state when the expansion value was lower than
800 µε, and no instability and failure occurred on the whole.

Crown Left bank Right bank

cantilever
100
50

Displacement (mm)
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Expansion value (×10−6)

Figure
Figure19.
19. Variation
Variationprocess
processof
ofdam
damcrest
crest displacement
displacementalong
alongthe
the river
riverunder
underdifferent
different expansions
expansions
(accidental
(accidentalcombination
combinationI).
I).

5.3.Control
5.3. ControlofofAlkali
AlkaliActive
ActiveInflation
Inflation
Accordingto
According to the
the degree
degree of of dam
dam damage
damage and
and the
the relationship
relationship curve
curve between
between damdam
deformation and alkali-aggregate reaction expansion deformation,
deformation and alkali-aggregate reaction expansion deformation, the dam safety riskthe dam safety risk
grade under alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete is divided into three
grade under alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete is divided into three levels: levels:
1. Normal:
1. Normal:the thedam
dambodybodyhashasnonoyield
yieldzone,
zone,and
andthe
theslope
slope ofof the
the relationship
relationship curve
curve
between dam deformation and expansive deformation
between dam deformation and expansive deformation is a constant; is a constant;
2.2. Abnormal:
Abnormal:the thedam
dam surface
surface partly
partly yields
yields andand
thethe slope
slope of the
of the relationship
relationship curve
curve be-
between dam deformation and expansive deformation
tween dam deformation and expansive deformation is a constant; is a constant;
3.3. Danger:
Danger:thetheyield
yieldzone
zoneofofthe
thedam
damextends
extendsalong
alongthe
thedam
damthickness
thicknessand andisisconnected,
connected,
and the slope of the relationship curve between dam deformation
and the slope of the relationship curve between dam deformation and expansive and expansive
de-
deformation suddenly
formation suddenly increases.increases.
Accordingto
According tothe
theabove
abovecalculation
calculationand
andanalysis
analysisresults
resultsand
andsafety
safetyrisk
risklevel
levelcriteria,
criteria,
the control threshold of alkali-aggregate expansion at different risk levels under various
the control threshold of alkali-aggregate expansion at different risk levels under various
loadcombinations
load combinationsisisshown
shownin in Table
Table 4.
4.

Table4.
Table Controlthreshold
4.Control threshold of
of alkali-aggregate
alkali-aggregate expansion
expansion in
in dam
dam concrete.
concrete.

Control
Control Threshold ofThreshold of
Alkali-Aggregate
LoadLoad Combinations
Combinations Risk Level
Risk Level Alkali-Aggregate Expansion
Expansion
Basic normalnormal v < 200
εv < ε200 µε µε
Basic abnormal 200 µε ≤ εv < 800 µε
combination I abnormal
danger
200 µε ≤εεv≥< 800
800µεµε
combination I v
danger εv ≥ 800 µε
normal εv < 100 µε
Basic normal
abnormal εv <µε100
100 ≤ εµε
Basic v < 400 µε
combination II abnormal 100 µε ≤εεv v≥< 400
400µεµε
danger
combination II
dangernormal εv ≥ ε400 µε
v < 300 µε
Basic normal εv <µε300
abnormal 300 ≤ εµε
v < 800 µε
Basic
combination III
danger
abnormal ε v ≥ 800
300 µε ≤ εv < 800µε µε
combination III
dangernormal εv ≥ ε800 µε µε
v < 150
Basic
abnormal
normal 150 ≤ εµε
εv <µε150 v < 400 µε
combination IV
danger εv ≥ 400 µε
normal εv < 300 µε
Accidental
abnormal 300 µε ≤ εv < 800 µε
combination I
danger εv ≥ 800 µε

The construction of the Jinping I Arch Dam began in October 2009 and was capped in
December 2013. During the dam pouring construction, continuous monitoring of the alkali
activity of sandstone aggregate was conducted by drilling for the core. The monitoring
results are shown in Table 5.
Water 2023, 15, 1399 13 of 15

Table 5. Monitoring results of expansion rate of core samples [48].

Expansion Rate of Concrete Core at Different Ages/%

Sampling Date
28 d 126 d 182 d 364 d 712 d
2010-01 0.004 0.011 0.012 0.015 0.018
2011-03 0.005 0.008 0.008 0.011 0.015
2012-02 0.007 0.012 0.013 0.012 0.015
2013-01 0.005 0.012 0.012 0.015 0.018
2013-07 0.006 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.015

It can be seen from the table that the actual alkali-aggregate expansion rate of concrete
for Jinping I Arch Dam does not exceed 180 µε after various measures are taken, which is
far less than its control index of 400 µε and will not affect dam safety.

6. Conclusions
In the present study, an analysis method that took into account the influence of concrete
expansion suffering alkali-aggregate reaction on the long-term safety of arch dam was
established to solve the problem of AAR in the concrete of Jinping level I super-high
concrete arch dam. With this method, the possible expansion value equivalent to the
corresponding temperature rise was predicted to simulate the expansive deformation
of arch dam concrete by means of the overall temperature rise of the dam. All load
combinations that can be encountered were considered. By adopting the elastic–plastic
finite element method, the working behavior of the arch dam suffering AAR under different
load combinations was calculated and analyzed, and the conclusions are as follows:
1. Through the analysis of the yield state of the arch dam under different alkali-aggregate
deformation, it is found that the dam surface partly yielded when the deformation
value reached 100~300 µε, and the yield zone was partly connected at the high
elevation of the right bank foundation surface along the upstream and downstream
surfaces when the deformation value reached 800 µε. At this time, the dam is in a
dangerous state, and the risk of dam failure increases;
2. Through the analysis of the displacement of the arch dam under different alkali-
aggregate reaction deformation, it is found that the overall stiffness of the arch dam
was obviously reduced when the expansion value reached 400 µε under certain
load combinations;
3. The expansion process of the arch dam yield zone and the change law of the arch dam
deformation with further expansion under different load combinations were analyzed.
The breakthrough of the yield zone and the inflection point of the relationship curve
between displacement and expansive deformation were taken as the judging criteria,
and the control index for deformation of the arch dam suffering alkali-aggregate
deformation of 400–800 µε was obtained;
4. According to the given control threshold of alkali-aggregate expansion in dam con-
crete, the arch dam has a low safety reserve when operating at a low water level; thus,
the lowest reservoir level should be raised as much as possible in dam operation to
reduce its drawdown rate, thus restraining the adverse impact of alkali-aggregate
reaction in concrete on the dam. The analysis method and control index research
method for deformation of super-high arch dam suffering alkali-aggregate reaction
proposed in this paper has achieved a technical breakthrough in the combination
of the subject of concrete alkali-aggregate reaction and arch dam structural design
and put forward targeted engineering measures that can be taken to restrain concrete
alkali-aggregate reaction in the actual operation of dams. For other arch dams, the
same method can be used for nonlinear analysis based on the shape of arch dams and
the characteristics of dam concrete materials to evaluate the safety status of the dam.
Water 2023, 15, 1399 14 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.C., Y.L. and J.Z.; methodology, Y.L. and J.Z.; software,
Y.W.; validation, H.C., Y.W. and Q.Z.; formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, B.Y.; resources, H.C.; data
curation, B.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, H.C., Y.L., Q.Z.,
J.Z. and B.Y.; visualization, B.Y. and Q.Z.; supervision, H.C.; project administration, Y.W.; funding
acquisition, Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Key Technologies Research and Development
Program(2021YFC3090102) and the China Three Gorges Corporation Research Project (No. 412002002,
XLD/2114).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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