IGCSE

HISTORY

Stuart Ratcliffe
Syllabus & Guide
This booklet is designed to help you revise for your IGCSE History exams. It contains material on all the
subjects we have covered in the two year course. While this booklet is a useful revision tool, it should
merely add to your vast collection of notes, worksheets and past papers!

The 20th century: International Relations since 1919

Author’s note: this book is intended
purely for educational purposes, and is not
designed to be reproduced for financial
gains. The material is a mixture of my own
work, resources from colleagues , and
from the excellent www.TES.co.uk. If you
have any questions, you can contact me
via stuartratcliffe1@hotmail.co.uk.
Stuart Ratcliffe, May 2015
The content focuses on the following Key Questions:
• Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair?
• To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
• Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?
• Who was to blame for the Cold War?
• How effectively did the USA contain the spread of Communism?
• How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
• Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970–2000?
In addition, all candidates must also study at least one of the following Depth Studies:
• The First World War, 1914–18
• Germany, 1918–45
• Russia, 1905–41
• The USA, 1919–41
• China, c.1930–c.1990
• South Africa, c.1940–c.1994
• Israelis and Palestinians since 1945
 Examinations for 2015-2017

Cambridge IGCSE History candidates take three components. All candidates take Component 1 and
Component 2, and choose either Component 3 or Component 4.

Components Weighting

All candidates take:

5.4 Grade descriptions
Component 1 2 hours 40% Grade A
To achieve a Grade A, a candidate will be able to:
Written paper
• accurately recall, select and deploy relevant historical knowledge to support a coherent and logical
Candidates answer two questions from Section A (Core Content) and one question
argument
from Section B (Depth Study).
• communicate in a clear and coherent manner using appropriate historical terminology
All questions are in the form of structured essays, split into three parts: (a), (b) and
(c). • demonstrate an understanding of the complexity of historical concepts

60 marks • distinguish clearly between cause and consequence, change and continuity, and similarity and
difference, by selectively deploying accurate and relevant historical evidence
Externally marked
• show an understanding of individuals and societies in the past

Component 2 2 hours 33% • understand the importance of trying to establish motives

Written paper
Candidates answer six questions on one prescribed topic taken from the Core
Content. There is a range of source material relating to each topic.
• interpret and evaluate a wide range of historical sources and their use as evidence
• identify precisely the limitations of particular sources
• compare and contrast a range of sources and draw clear, logical conclusions.

For the examination in 2015, the prescribed topics are:

Grade C
19th century Core Content (Option A): To achieve a Grade C, a candidate will be able to:
• What caused the First World War? (June examination) • recall, select and deploy relevant historical knowledge in support of a logical argument
• How was Germany unified? (November examination) • communicate mostly clearly and coherently, using some appropriate historical terminology
20th century Core Content (Option B): • distinguish between cause and consequence, change and continuity, and similarity and difference, by
• Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? (June examination) the deployment of accurate though limited evidence
• Who was to blame for the Cold War? (November examination) • show an understanding of individuals and societies in the past
50 marks • interpret and evaluate historical sources and their use as evidence
Externally marked • indicate the limitations of particular historical sources
• compare and contrast a range of sources and draw coherent conclusions.
and either: or:
Grade F
Component 3 Component 4 1 hour 27% To achieve a Grade F, a candidate will be able to:
Coursework Written paper – Alternative to • recall a limited amount of accurate and relevant historical knowledge
Coursework • use simple historical terminology and communicate in an understandable form
Candidates produce one piece of Candidates answer one question on a • demonstrate a basic understanding of the historical concepts of causation, change and continuity, and
extended writing based on a Depth Depth Study. similarity and difference
Study from the syllabus or a Depth • display knowledge of the perspectives of other people, based on specific examples of situations and
Study devised by the Centre. events
40 marks 40 marks • interpret and evaluate historical sources and their use as evidence in a limited way
Internally marked/externally Externally marked • make comparisons between pieces of evidence without drawing conclusions.
moderated

ii
Were the treaties of 1919-23
fair?

1
Were the peace treaties of 1919–23 fair?
Focus Points
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– the roles of individuals such as Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George in the peacemaking
process
– the impact of the treaties on the defeated countries
– contemporary opinions about the treaties.
 ‘German army not
Diktat defeated’/ Stab in the back
Germany not
Vengeance Pragmatist invaded Kaiser’s abdication

Clemenceau Lloyd George Circumstances of armistice

Idealist

Wilson

14 points:
Aims of Big Three Treaty of Is it fair?
1. No more secret alliances Versailles Guilt
2. Free navigation of all seas
Article 231 - Germany accepts
3. No economic barriers between Economic
countries responsibility for starting WWI
£6600 million in
4. Reduction of arms instalments.
5. All decisions regarding colonies should
be impartial
Terms League of Nations - 42
6. German army removed from Russia Restrictions: members joined but
7. Belgium to regain independence. • army 100,000 men Germany not allowed. • Yes: • No:
8. France liberated and gets Alsace • no submarines, • June 1918 • Economy
Loraine back. Territory:
• no air force, • Brest Livosk • League of Nations
9. All Italians are allowed to live in Italy. • Alsace-Lorraine to France
• 6 battleships, • Schliefen Plan • Self determination
Borders to recognise nationality. • Rhineland demilitarised
• no conscription • Germany loses empire - L of N mandate • Diktat • Alliance system
10. Self determination for those in Austria- no Anschluss Diktat
• • Danzig made free city •
Hugary.
11. Self determination for Balkan states. • Saarland made L of N mandate (until
12. Turkish people should govern Turkey; 1935)
self determination for old Ottoman • Malmedy to Belgium
empire. • Upper Silesia to Poland , and Polish
13. Independent Poland should have corridor
access to the sea. • Memel to Lithuania
14. League of Nations set up. • North Schleswig to Denmark.

4
 The Paris Peace Conference
Franco-
Prussian
war starts
Schliefen plan
launched-
start of WWI Armistice-
Schliefen
end of
plan made
WWI
Treaty of Treaty of
Versailles Versailles Treaty of
rejected by Sevres
Congress
Germany David Lloyd
rejects 14 George
points (re)elected

1870 1871 1898 1914 1918 1919 1920 1923

March June November December January June October November June August

Prussia wins Treaty of Treaty of St. Treaty of

Franco Brest- Germain Lausanne
Paris Peace
Prussian war- Litovsk conference
Germany begins Treaty of Treaty of Trianon
formed. Neuilly

5
 Section 1

What were the aims Aims of the Big Three

and motives of the Lloyd George- Somewhere in the middle
between Wilson and Clemenceau. Wants
Germany’s navy and colonies- his interests are

big three at in preservation of the British Empire. Britain has

suffered badly in WWI, but also L.G is a
pragmatist- He realises compromise must be

Versailles? found, and still wants Germany as a trading

partner. The most cunning of the big three.

Clemenceau - France has suffered the

heaviest casualties and damage in WWI, and
been invaded by Germany for the second time
in 43 years (1871). Wants Germany crippled by
reparations and their armies and borders
limited, so they cannot threaten France again.
Public opinion in France demands this.

Wilson - wants Germany to be treated leniently.

The U.S.A have suffered very little compared to
Britain and France in WWI, and he believes if
Germany are treated too harshly, they will seek
revenge. Wants his 14 points (see next page)
implemented*
Above: From left to right, Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Wilson meet in
Paris to decide the fate of post war Europe.

6
President Wilson was determined that the Fourteen Points would serve
as a basis for the negotiations and he was determined that the Covenant
(or Constitution) of the League of Nations would be in each of the treaties.
The Fourteen Points were as follows:

1.No more secret alliances

2.Free navigation of all seas
3.No economic barriers between countries
4.Reduction of arms
5.All decisions regarding colonies should be impartial
6.German army removed from Russia
7.Belgium to regain independence.
8.France liberated and gets Alsace Loraine back.
9.All Italians are allowed to live in Italy. Borders to recognise nationality.
10.Self determination for those in Austria-Hugary.
11.Self determination for Balkan states.
12.Turkish people should govern Turkey; self determination for old Otto
man empire.
13.Independent Poland should have access to the sea.
14.League of Nations set up.

However, Britain and France would certainly not like all of Wilson’s points,
as we shall see later. Right: an American cartoon shows the Fourteen
Points as a barrier to Imperialism. Such views would not sit well with Britain,
owner of the world’s largest empire.

7
Section 2

The most important terms of the Treaty

The Treaty of
Versailles
Above: the Treaty of Versailles. It was signed in the palace of
Versailles on June 28th 1919, exactly 5 years to the day since the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
1. Guilt – clause 231: Germany accepted blame ‘for
causing all the loss and damage’ of the war.
2. Army – army: 100,000/ no submarines/ no airplanes/
6 battleships/ Rhineland de-militarised
3. Reparations – £6,600 million – in installments, until
1984).
4. Germany lost land – Alsace-Lorraine to France/
Saar to France (15 years)/ Malmedy to Belgium/
North Schleswig to Denmark/ West Prussia and
Upper Silesia to Poland/ Danzig a ‘free city’/ Memel
to Lithuania/ German colonies became ‘mandates’ of
the League of Nations.
5. League of Nations set up - Germany not invited to
join.
6. Anschluss forbidden - Germany could not unite
with Austria.

8
European territory lost by Germany

9
 How Versailles changed the face of Europe

Above: Europe in 1914 (left) and 1919 (right) post - Versailles. What is noticeable is the huge change, bit tin the size of the central powers, and the num-
ber of new countries. This led to a dangerous situation in post war Europe - a number of new, vulnerable and ethnically mixed states, surrounding the
wounded Germany. By the end of 1939 Poland, Czechoslovakia, Danzig, the Saarland and Austria would be under German control.

10
 Section 3

Why did the victors Woodrow

What is he happy about

w Wilson

What is he unhappy about

not get everything Self determination for

Czechoslovakia, Poland, Austria
Thinks reparations are too big,
and in general the treaty is too
and Hungary. Alsace given back to severe. Disarmament hasn’t

they wanted? the French, Belgium independent.

League of Nations set up.
happened (other than to
Germany).

George Clemenceau

What is he happy about What is he unhappy about

Restrictions on Germany’s armed Reparations - wanted more. Some

forces, Rhineland de-militarised, in France wanted Germany split
Alsace Lorraine given back, Article up into separate states (as had
231. been pre 1870).

Lloyd George

What is he happy about What is he unhappy about

German colonies given to L of N,

(mostly as British mandates). Probably the happiest of the three.
German Navy limited. Probably Possibly still thinks reparations too
made sure reparations were lower high, and some at home would still
than Clemenceau wanted. Article say the treaty was too lenient.
231 pleased him too.
As we can see, no one was completely satisfied. A compromise was in-
Above: The treaty was largely met with euphoria in Europe and America,
evitable. Their aims and motives (page 4) meant everyone went away
but behind the scenes not everyone was happy.
with reason to be discontented.

11
 Congress fails to ratify the treaty

In November 1919, the U.S congress failed to ratify the treaty of Versailles,
worried about entry into the League dragging America into another Euro-
pean conflict. America followed a period of ‘isolationism’, which would last
until 1941 and the attack on Pearl Harbor. Wilson also suffered a stroke in
September 1919, reducing his political influence and power, as he was in-
creasingly incapacitated. Without America recognising the treaty, there
was no America to lead the League of Nations, and the treaty suffered
from a lack of credibility that the Germans would later exploit. Below: The
U.S senate murders the peace treaty, to the horror of humanity ; on the
right the senate saves America from becoming wedded to foreign wars.

12
Section 4

Cartoons about
Versailles

Above: The hypocritical Big Three abolish the militarism of

Germany, but do so with the use of military force; Allied armies stood
poised to invade Germany if the treaty wasn’t signed - it was truly a
diktat.

Right: Another comment on the ‘diktat’ - the Kaiser is forced into

signing. Actually, his abdication soon after the armistice meant he
was not involved in the signing of the treaty.

13
 Cartoons about the Treaty

Left: The big three measure up

Germany for the chop: clearly the
Treaty of Versailles will be the death of
Germany. The use of the guillotine
may imply Clemenceau was to blame
for the treaty being so harsh - the
guillotine was the weapon of choice for
executing nobility in the French
revolution.

Right: Clemenceau the ‘vampire’

sucks the blood out of Germany.
He was seen by many in
Germany as being the driving
force behind the losses the Ger-
mans suffered in the treaty.

Above: Germany tries to wriggle out of its punishment, while Britain

and France act as policeman. Note the absence of the U.S.

14
Left: ‘The Big Three’ are unaware that their actions are condemning
the generation of 1940 to future slaughter: this cartoon is eerily
prophetic. Clemenceau is the ‘tiger’, due to his infamous temper.
Below: ‘Monstrous! Why it’s fully a quarter of what we would of asked
for!’ Britain mocks Germany for its indignation at the treaty, given how
harshly they treated the Russians at Brest -Litovsk. Also, the Germans
planned to wipe out their war debt purely from taking reparations from
losing countries: German tax levels hardly increased during WWI.

15
 Left: Wilson is being naive in his peace
plans - European rivalry and paranoia
means everlasting peace is a pipe dream.

Right: A British cartoon showing Germany

burdened by indemnity (reparations). Even
as the treaty was being signed, some felt
that the reparations were unfair, and poten-
tially catastrophic - John Maynard Keynes
predicted so in his book, The Economic
Consequences of the Peace.

Right: The treaty is shown as the melting pot that it

truly was; the ‘peace soup’ is made up of Wilson’s
‘sweet oil and brotherhood’, but England, France
and Italy are adding liberal doses of national senti-
ment. On top of that, another major ingredient ap-
pears to be militarism, as shown by the weapons
sticking out from the pot. With so many vested inter-
ests in the treaty, it is little surprise that the result
pleased few, and upset many.

16
Section 5

Was the Treaty of

Versailles fair?

Above: German troops are given a hero’s welcome as they return

home from the front. The fact that the German army felt that they had Above: ‘Only when we have paid £6,660 million can I give you some-
not been defeated was a major factor in the indignation at Versailles - thing to eat’; A German cartoon attacks indemnities and the burden it
any treaty would have angered the Germans, as they did not feel placed on a starving Germany.
they had lost the war.

17
 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair? - Analysis

Key Points Explanation

Yes June 1918 Germany rejects Wilson’s 14 points in June 1918, when it looks like they are going to win the war.

The treaty imposed on Russia in March 1918 is far, far harsher . Russia loses 35% of her land. Germany had
Brest-Litovsk also not raised taxes during the war, believing any costs of the war would be financed by making other countries
pay reparations (all assuming Germany would win)

Germany had planned to invade France first before fighting Russia since 1898. This plan also violated Belgium
Schlieffen Plan
neutrality. Germany declares war on France and Russia, only Britain declares war on Germany.

Germany still had a large army and had not been invaded- a Diktat was the winner’s right, and needed to weaken
Diktat
the Germans. The Germans had to accept what was given - they had lost the war!

The German economy was in no state to ever pay back the reparations - it was ravaged by war and civil unrest.
No Economy
What little money the Germans had was needed to rebuild their country.

The alliance system was also to blame for the start of WWI - it was the alliance system that made an
Alliance system
assassination in Sarajevo a world war. To blame the war solely on Germany was unfair.

League of If the League of Nations was meant to promote international peace and co-ordination, why wasn’t Germany
Nations invited to join?

Self-
For the Germans now living in Poland or Czechoslovakia, where was their self-determination?
determination

Diktat The Germans had no choice but to sign, or face invasion.

18
Self-determination leaves a number of newly
Germany is never going to accept the treaty
independent (Poland, Czechoslovakia etc) but
as they cannot understand how they lost the
weak states around Germany but containing
war- hence the popularity of the ‘November
German citizens. This gives some legitimacy to
criminals’ myth.
Hitler’s annexation of these territories later.

‘Revisionism’ - many look back in the

Why does the Treaty of late 1920s and 1930s and think the
Versailles fail? treaty was too harsh and unfair.

Wilson has a stroke and America refuses to

join the League of Nations, meaning it has
lost one of its most powerful members, and
When the depression occurs, Britain and
the driving force behind its creation.
France are too pre-occupied or weak to up-
hold the treaty by use of military force.

19
Section 6

The other peace Treaty

St. Germain
Date

10th October
Between

Austria and the Allies

treaties
1919

Terrms Analysis

Marked the official end of the

Austria lost land
d, which went to
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria
form Czechoslova vakia, Poland and
had now lost most of its
Yugoslavia. Romania and Italy
economic power, and its
also gained lannd. Austria also
population had drastically fallen.
had to pay rep parations and
This made Anschluss seem more
disa
sarm.
appealing.

Treaty Date Between

St. Germain 10th October 1919 Austria and the Allies

Neuilly 27th November 1919 Bulgaria and the Allies

Hungary and the

Trianon 4th June 1920
Allies

10th August 1920 &

Sevres & Lausanne Turkey and the Allies
1923

20
 Treaty Date Between Treaty Date Between

27th November St. Trianon 4th June 1920 Hungary and the Allies
Neuilly Bulgaria and the Allies
1919
Terrms Analysis
Terrms Analysis

Bulgaria lost terri

rritory to Greece, Hungary loost land to Hungary, like Austria, lost most of
Over 1 million Bulgarians were now
Yugoslavia and Romania.
R Bulgaria Czechoslovakia,, Yugoslavia and its economic power (mostly in land
under foreign rule.
had to pay repara
rations and disarm. Romania. Hung gary had to pay to Romania), and its population fell
reparationss and disarm. drastically.

21
 Treaty Date Between Treaty Date Between
10th August 27th November
Sevres Turkey and the Allies Lausanne Bulgaria and the Allies
1920 1919
Terrms Analysis
Terrms Analysis
Turkey loses Eastern
Ea Thrace,
various island and
a Smyrna to Turkey was outraged at this, Bulgaria lost terri
rritory to Greece,
Over 1 million Bulgarians were now
Greece, Rhode es to Italy, Syria especially the territorial loses to Yugoslavia and Romania.
R Bulgaria
under foreign rule.
becomes a Fre rench Mandate, Greece. Turkey protested had to pay repara
rations and disarm.
Palestine and Ira
raq become British vigorously, and led demonstrations.
mand dates. Analysis

While considered less important than the Treaty of

Versailles, there were a few key effects from the treaties of
St. Germain, Neuilly, St. Trianon, Sevres and Lausanne:

• the creation of several new countries, like

Czechoslovakia and Poland meant Germans were now
living in these new countries- this created a future prob-
lem, as Hitler could claim he was expanding into these
countries in the name of self-determination.

• The way that Turkey had been able to ignore the treaty
of Sevres and reverse losses by force showed that the
Allies were not prepared to enforce the Paris Peace
Conference with military action. Germany took note.

22
To what extent was the
League of Nations a success?

2
To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
Focus Points
• How successful was the League in the 1920s?
• How far did weaknesses in the League’s organisation make failure inevitable?
• How far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult?
• How successful was the League in the 1930s?

Specified Content
• The League of Nations:
– strengths and weaknesses in its structure and organisation: work of the League’s
agencies/humanitarian work
– successes and failures in peacekeeping during the 1920s
– the impact of the World Depression on the work of the League after 1929
– the failures of the League in the 1930s, including Manchuria and Abyssinia.
 The League of Nations
Although it was not his original idea the League of Nations is
often accredited to the US President, Woodrow Wilson. He
certainly made it one of his 14 Points and he was very much
responsible for ensuring that its Covenant (i.e. rules and
regulations) was incorporated into each of the peace treaties.
The two main aims of the League were:
a) to keep the peace by means of collective security
b) to encourage international cooperation.
More precisely the Covenant states:
In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve
peace and security, by the acceptance of obligations not to re-
sort to war, and by the firm observance of international law as
the rule of conduct among governments, and by the mainte-
nance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obliga-
tions, the member states agree to this Covenant of the League
of Nations.
Article 16 – Should any member of the League resort to war in
disregard of its covenants, it shall be deemed to have
committed an act of war against all other members of the
League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the
severance of trade or financial relations…It shall be the duty of
the Council in such case to recommend to the several
governments concerned what effective military, naval or air
force the members of the League shall contribute to the armed
forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League.
Article 23 – Members of the League:
b) will endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane
conditions of labour, both in their own countries and abroad,
and for that purpose will establish international organizations.
c) will endeavour to take steps in matters of international con-
cern for the prevention and control of disease.
How was the League organized? It consisted of five main
bodies:
a) The General Assembly consisted of representatives of
all the member states (42 at the beginning, 55 by 1926) who
met annually to decide on general policy. Decisions had to be
unanimous.
b) The Council consisted of permanent members (Britain,
France, Italy and Japan in 1920) and temporary members
(between 4 and 9) elected for three years. This body met more
frequently – at least three times a year – to discuss specific
political disputes. It could condemn a country for being in the
wrong and in theory it had the power to impose economic
[sanctions or even use military force.
c) The Secretariat was the bureaucracy, the civil service; it
dealt with all the paperwork at the headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland.
24
 d) The Permanent Court of International Justice HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS IN
consisted of fifteen judges and was based at the Hague in THE 1920s?
Holland.
The biggest blow to the League was the decision of the United
e) Commissions and Committees– such as: States not to participate; this clearly undermined its military and
economic capability. Nevertheless, in the aftermath of the Great
a) The International Labour Organization (to improve War, because of war weariness there was a considerable
working conditions) amount of good will for the peaceful resolution of disputes. No
b) The Mandates Commission (to look after the former one could contemplate another war so soon after the last one
colonies of Germany and Turkey) and no one could afford a war so soon after the last one.
Accordingly the League had a number of successes, though
c) The Refugees Committee these principally involved minor powers.

d) The Slavery Commission Successes

e) The Health Committee In 1920 the League stopped Yugoslavia invading Albania and
in the following year it settled a dispute between Sweden and
f) The Disarmament Commission (this made little progress).
Finland over the Aaland Islands in the latter’s favour; Sweden
accepted the judgement

The dispute between Poland and Germany over Upper

Silesia was settled in 1921 after a plebiscite (vote). The
territory was divided (2/3 to Poland, 1/3 to Germany).

A dispute between Iraq and Turkey over the oil-rich area by

Mosul was settled in Iraq’s favour, though the latter was a
British mandate (1925). Finally the League stopped a war
between Bulgaria and Greece, ordering the latter to withdraw
its troops and pay compensation (also 1925).

25
 In addition, the League’s committees and commissions did
much valuable work. The International Labour Organization
(ILO) had some success in reducing working hours and
increasing pay, the Refugee Organization helped thousands of
prisoners-of-war return home, and the Health Organization was
successful in combating a typhus epidemic in Russia.
Many were optimistic
about the difference the
League of Nations could
make , left.
Nevertheless even during this period of its greatest successes
the League suffered a number of failures which served to point
up its inherent weaknesses.
Failures
In 1920, Poland seized Vilna from Lithuania; the League
protested but Poland ignored it – the League did nothing. Later
the Conference of Ambassadors (which had been set up in
Paris to deal with peace treaty problems) overruled the League
and endorsed Poland’s seizure.
Similarly in 1923, the Conference overruled the League’s
position on Corfu. The murder of Italian soldiers sorting out the
border between Greece and Albania led the Italian leader,
Mussolini, to bombard the Greek island of Corfu. The League
condemned Mussolini’s actions. Mussolini initially accepted the
decision but behind the scenes he persuaded the Conference
to overturn it. The Greeks were required to apologise and pay
Italy compensation.
In addition, there were wars between Poland and Russia
(1920) and Greece and Turkey (1920-22) which the League
could do nothing about. So too in 1923 when France invaded
the Ruhr in Germany, the League had no role to play.
So it can be seen that even in its most successful period, the
League suffered a series of failures which did much to illustrate
its weaknesses. These failures were not crises of sufficient im-
portance to generate war. However, the onset of the Great De-
pression and the challenge presented by aggressive major pow-
ers proved to be fatal.
26
Section 1

Manchuria Japan was suffering from economic

problems (depression) and Manchuria
represented an easy way to expand

1931-1933 Why did Japan invade

Manchuria?
and gain raw resources. Trade in
Manchuria was very valuable. Also
Manchuria was in a state of crisis due
to lack of centralised rule in China.

Manchukuo was the puppet state set

up in Manchuria by the Japanese. It
What was Manchukuo?
was claimed as an independent state,
but its orders came from Tokyo.

The Chinese appealed to the league,

and hoped that whey would either
What did the Chinese do?
intervene or stop the Japanese
invasion.

The Lytton enquiry is set up to find

out if Japan’s actions are justified. The
What was the League’s report takes one year (they go by
reaction? boat!) The report lays the blame at
Japan, and says their actions are
unlawful.
Above: Japan militarism tramples the League, yet the Japanese At the league, a vote of 42 to 1 (the 1
are still welcomed in Geneva. Makeup is applied to the League to How did Japan react to the
being Japan) condemn the Japanese
try and keep up the facade that everything is fine. findings of the Lytton
invasion. Japan simply leaves the
inquiry?
League, and continues its invasion.

27
3 reasons why the League fails What does this show about the League of Nations? Who pays at-
Explanation
to act over Manchuria tentions to these failings?

Britain and France, the most Hitler, Mussolini and Japan all realise the league will not act if it is not in
powerful members of the League, their best interests, or a powerful aggressive nation acts against a smaller
1) Depression
are facing economic crisis at or weaker nation. The democratic countries (France, Britain, U.S.A) are
home. War is not affordable. failing to deal with the depression, and this makes them weak and unwill-
Britain has a powerful navy and ing to commit resources and money to enforcing the league’s laws.
territories in Asia, however it doe However, Manchuria is still a very early stage of failure- much worse is to
not want to send its most come over the next few years..
powerful asset around the world
2) Logistics
against a determined and well-
equipped enemy. The potential
cost, in £ Sterling and in men
does not seem worth it.

Both Britain and the U.S.A want

to keep trading with Japan, and
3) Self-interest
see them as a potential future ally
against the U.S.S.R.

Right, Uncle Sam is shown by the problem by a hesitant league,

who look to America to act. Manchuria certainly was in the Amer-
ica’s sphere of influence,

28
Section 2

World Disarmament A series of conferences put forward

by the League of Nations aimed at

Conference What was the World Disarmament

Conference?
reducing the size of armies around
the world. Leaders were keen to
avoid another ‘arms-race’, like the

1933-1934 one which had preceded the First

World War.

Hitler demanded that other League

of Nation countries should reduce
their armed forces to Germany’s
size. Germany argued that as
What did Hitler want? Germany was now a league
member, she should be treated
equally - i.e either everyone
disarms, or Germany is allowed to
re-arm.

France did not want military parity

with Germany - it saw having more
Why did France reject this? armed forces as absolutely
necessary to defend itself against
German aggression.

Hitler walked out of the conferences,

and pulls Germany out of the league
How did Hitler react? of Nations. He begins re-arming,
and publicly announces this in 1935
Above: a cartoon critical of the failure of the World Disarmament
at the Nuremberg rally.
Conference.

29
Explain why the events of the WDC worry France more than any
other members in the League.

France had previous of being invaded by Germany (1871 & 1914), and if
either France reduced their armed forces to Germany’s level, or
Germany was allowed to re-arm, it would leave France open to inva-
sion*. Britain still had the Royal Navy and the English channel to protect
it- there was no possibility it could be invaded. Germany had a
population of 60 million to France’s 40 million - it was therefore essential
France had a bigger army.

*France had already begun building the Maginot line, designed to protect
the French border with Germany from attack. They began building in
1929.

What does this have to do with ‘revisionist’ attitudes with the

Treaty of Versailles?

By the 1930s, many in Europe felt the T of V had been too harsh. The
First World War was still recent, but obviously less so than in the
making of the treaty. After Locarno and Germany’s acceptance into the
L of N, it was felt that Germany was not a threat, and many of the
terms, such as disarmament, reparations and forbidden Anschluss were
unfair. This change in opinions explains why in the 1930s Germany was
able to reverse many of the clauses of Versailles - re-armament,
Rhineland, Anschluss etc without opposition.
Above: Disarmament proved to be a step too far for Europe.

‘Revisionist’ means to look back at something at a later date, and

change opinion.

30
Section 3

Abyssinia Why doesn't the League do anything significant? Explain these

points

1935 - 1936 Wanted Mussolini as an ally - Britain and France hope that they can
make Italy a valuable ally against Germany (remember Italy fought on
the Allied side during WWI.) If they go to war with Italy, they will lose any
chance of an alliance, and push him into an alliance with Hitler. They are
Date Event prepared to put their own needs ahead of the needs, and laws, of the
Italy defeated by Abyssinia at the League of Nations.
1896 battle of Adowa by the
Trade - America (and to a lesser extent Britain) both had lots of money
Abyssinians.
to lose if they stopped supplying oil to the Italians. Economists calculated
the damage could be severe at a time when both countries were still in
Italian army invades Abyssinia -
October 1935 the grip of the depression. Again, personal needs came first.
poison gas and tanks used.
Military logistics - The Italians had a large (although as WWII would
prove not particularly good) navy, and Britain again didn't want to risk
Hitler re-militarises the
March 1936 sending their trump card, their navy, to fight. It would be very expensive
Rhineland.
and with Hitler re-arming Germany, a dangerous move.

Italy conquers the capital Addis
Abada. The Abyssinian Prime
May 1936
Minister, Haile Selassie, flees.
He had appealed to the League.
Italy leaves the League of
1937
Nations.
Timing- the depression and Hitler’s rise to power meant that Britain and
France didn’t want to act, and probably lacked the means to do so. Ger-
many was now beginning to look like a powerful opponent again, and it
was decided it was better to try and keep Italy as a potential counterbal-
ance (remember Mussolini discourages Hitler from Anschluss in 1934)
than risk war, and Germany and Italy uniting.

31
 What was the Hoare - Laval pact?

The British (Hoare) and French (Laval) foreign ministers make a secret
plan to give Mussolini two thirds of Abyssinia, if he calls of the invasion.
This plan is leaked to the press, and there is outcry in both countries.
The league’s integrity has suffered a blow it never recovers from - its two
most powerful nations have been caught secretly trying to divide a weak
country and give it to an aggressor. This is exactly the kind of action the
League is meant to prevent, not encourage. Both ministers are sacked,
but the damage is already done.

Left: Selassie complains to the
league, who are meant to be
the world’s police force. His
pleas fall on deaf ears.
Above, France and Britain give Mussolini a stern warning about Abyssinia. Unfortu-
nately, he does not listen. Below, Mussolini forgets the ethics that the League, and
himself as a member, is meant to stand for. Meanwhile Britain and France are too
busy looking at their Western borders and Germany.

Who else profits from the invasion of Abyssinia?

Hitler! Sensing that the tine was ripe (as Britain and France were busy with
Abyssinia, he marches into the Rhineland in March 1936. This is a gamble,
but he correctly judges no one will oppose him. He sees Britain and France
will try and avoid war at all cost.

32
Section 4

Why does the League of b) Clearly the absence of the USA, the world’s foremost economic power, meant that
economic sanctions could never really be properly applied. In any event history has

Nations fail?
shown that economic sanctions can be bypassed and take a long time to work.

Apart from these explicit failures in the 1930s, it could be argued that the League
was very unlikely to be a success since it had too many inherent weaknesses right
from the start:
c) The League had no army of its own; it therefore had no teeth. In 1923 members
voted to be able to opt out of providing troops and an attempt to make it compulsory to help
– the Geneva Protocol of 1924 – was proposed by one British Prime Minister (MacDonald),
only to be rejected by the next (Baldwin). In effect military action would have to be
undertaken by Britain and France and they were reluctant to act ; they had been very much
weakened by the First World War.

a) First and foremost the absence of the USA and other major powers
(Germany did not join until 1926; Russia not until 1934 when Germany left, Japan
left in 1933; Italy in 1937) meant that this world organisation was really controlled
by only Britain and France. The rejection of both the peace treaties and the
League by the US Congress really undermined the economic and military power of
the League.
Left: No army put
the league in a " "
precarious situation,
as this cartoon of the
1930s shows. The
snake is called " "
‘international strife’
and looks poised to
strike.

33
d) Moreover, Britain and France placed their own self-interest above support of
the League. For instance both democracies refused to take disarmament seriously,
France invaded the Ruhr in 1923, Britain signed a naval agreement with Germany in
1935 in direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles, and as we have seen both
powers did their best to avoid alienating Mussolini over Abyssinia. In addition, very often
the democracies were out of step and could not agree with each other on policy.

e) The League’s decision-making processes were too cumbersome and too

slow. Meetings were infrequent and the need to obtain unanimity (i.e. everyone
agreeing) proved to be difficult.

f) For the vanquished of World War One the League was too closely associated
with the hated peace treaties: they preferred to operate outside the League. Indeed
some of the victors felt that some of the terms of the treaties were harsh and unfair as
well. Accordingly much diplomacy did occur outside the League – even in the 1920s with
the Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg-Brand Pact – but increasingly in the 1930s with
the Stresa Front, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and of course the Munich
Conference in 1938.

CONCLUSION

The League of Nations was a noble idea, but like many ideals it was
unable to work in the real world. Of course none of its weaknesses
necessarily doomed the League to failure, provided all the members were
prepared to refrain from aggression and accept its decisions. The real
explanation for the failure of the League was that aggressive states such as
Japan, Italy and Germany were prepared to openly defy it, while League
members, like Britain and France, were not prepared to risk another war to
support it.

‘Wilsonian Idealism ‘above- some suggested that the League of

Nations, for all its good intentions, could never realistically work.

34
Why had international peace
collapsed by 1939?

3
`Focus Points
•What were the long term consequences of the peace treaties of 1919-23?
•What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930s?
•How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939?
•Was the policy of appeasement justified?
•How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
•Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?

Specified Content
•The collapse of international order in the 1930s
•The increasing militarism of Germany, Italy and Japan
•Hitler’s foreign policy to 1939:
-the Saar
-remilitirsation of the Rhineland
-involvement in the Spanish Civil War
-Anschluss with Austria
-appeasement
-crisis over Czechoslovakia
-the outbreak of war.
 Timeline of the 1930s
1930 The Depression

1931-1933 Japanese conquest of Manchuria Stresa Front: Britain, France Italy.Promises to uphold Treaty of
1933- 1934 World Disarmament Conference
Versailles, and Locarno. Aimed at stopping Germany breaking
1934 German-Polish Non-aggression pact
these treaties. Fails because Italy sees that Britain will act in
their own interest - Naval treaty, and because of the invasion of
January 1935 Plebiscite in Saarland
Abyssinia.
March 1935 Germany announces it is re-arming

April 1935 Stresa Front

May 1935 Franco-Soviet Pact of Mutual assistance.

Franco - Soviet Pact of Mutual Assistance: Designed to
June 1935 Anglo-German Naval Treaty
threaten Germany with encirclement, but is hollow in terms of
October 1935 Italian invasion of Abyssinia
being an actual military commitment
1936-1939 Spanish Civil War

March 1936 German occupation of the Rhineland

October 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis

Rome-Berlin Axis: agreed on the independence of Austria,
November 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact
which had caused tension in 1934 when Hitler first attempted
1937-1945 Japanese invasion of China
Anschluss.
March 1938 Anschluss

September 1938 Sudeten crisis and Munich conference

October 1938 German occupation of the Sudetenland

March 1939 German invasion of Czechoslovakia

March 1939 Britain and France guarantee Polish independence Pact of Steel: Military alliance between Italy and Germany. In
May 1939 Pact of Steel effect until 1943 when fascist government is overthrown.
August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact

1st September 1939 German invasion of Poland

3rd September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany

17th September U.S.S.R invades Poland

36
 Section 1

The aims of the Axis Hitler had three aims:

1. To abolish the Treaty of Versailles

The Germans hated it, especially:
1.What were the aims of Hitler? • Tiny armed forces,
• Rhineland demilitarised,
2.What were the aims of Japan? • Anschluss with Austria forbidden,
• Germans forced to live in Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland) and Po-
3.What were the aims of Italy? land (including Danzig).
The Treaty was a constant reminder to the Germans of their humiliation
in World War I. Hitler did not believe that the German army had lost the
war, and he was determined to make Germany great again.
The League of Nations’ Failures

The League of Nations had 3 disastrous failures in the 1930s:

2. To expand German territory
" 1." Manchuria (1931-33)
The German population was growing. Hitler said that the German nation
" 2." World Disarmament Conference (1933-34) needed more Lebensraum (‘living space’). He was determined to get
Lebensraum by conquering land in eastern Europe.
" 3." Abyssinia (1935-36)

However, a much greater disaster for international stability was:

" 4." The failure to stop Hitler in Europe (1933–39)
In 1935, the historian Hal Fisher wrote that ‘:
a country which is determined to have a war can always have it.‘
3. To defeat Communism
The Nazis were Fascists: the exact opposite of the Communists who
ruled Russia. Hitler was determined to destroy Communism, and this
meant a war with Russia

Hitler was determined to destroy the League of Nations, and it is doubtful if By 1939, how far has Hitler achieved these aims?
anything could have saved it.

37
 Japanese Foreign Policy in the 1930s
The Depression had a big impact on Japanese politics and foreign policy.
Japan lost valuable export markets when world trade fell and trade barriers
were erected. This undermined confidence in the system of government.
There was a shift in power to the military leaders who believed aggressive
expansion would restore the Japanese economy by taking over areas
which offered both a market and raw materials.
In September 1931 the Japanese army ‘set up’ the Chinese by blowing up
part of their own railway, the South Manchuria Railway Co. This is known
as the Mukden Incident. Japan then carried out a full annexation of
Manchuria, which China was too weak to resist.
In 1934 Japan issued the Amau Declaration. This said it had special
rights in East Asia. The region was their ‘sphere of influence’.
In 1936 Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany. Both coun-
tries feared the USSR and agreed to try to contain it. To the western pow-
ers this was a worrying alliance and it became even more alarming in 1937
when Italy signed up too.
In July 1937 Japan launched a full invasion of China and took key centres
of power and trade in the east of China. This was a direct attack on west-
ern trade interests, but again they took no decisive action against Japan.
Britain and France were far more worried about a German threat to peace
in Europe and, with America, tried to be avoid conflict. America was still act-
ing as a neutral country.
In 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbour, USA and the British Empire,
bringing global war.
Italian Foreign Policy in the 1930s
Italy was keen to be regarded as a great power and to enter into European
diplomacy to ensure its interests were served. A key interest in the 1930s
was protection against a rebirth of German military power. . Italy supported
the Dollfuss Government in Austria in 1934 when Austrian Nazis tried to
overthrow the government with secret German help
In March 1935 Germany openly introduced conscription and announced
rearmament. Italy negotiated the Stresa Front with the two democratic
powers, Britain and France.
But when the Anglo-German Naval Treaty in June was signed by Britain,
Italy was furious.
Worse, in October Italy invaded Abyssinia, trying to develop its small Afri-
can Empire, gain prestige and a little extra trade. The League took rela-
tively swift and strong action, but not strong enough to deter Italy.
Therefore Italy believed its security was best served by alliance with Ger-
many. In 1936 an ‘understanding’ between Germany and Italy became
known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. In 1937 Italy joined the Anti-Comintern
Pact signed in 1936 by Germany and Japan to protect each other against
the USSR. In 1938 Italy made no real protest to Germany over the
Anschluss and Mussolini saw himself as a mediator at the Munich Confer-
ence over the Sudetenland.
In April 1939 Italy was so confident of its power and British and French ap-
peasement that it invaded and occupied Albania, posing a threat to its two
enemies of the 1920s, Yugoslavia and Greece. In May 1939 Italy signed
the Pact of Steel with Germany, promising full military support in a war.
38
Section 2

How does Hitler

achieve his aims?
1.How does Hitler achieve his aims?

2.Case study: Spanish Civil War.

Above: A British cartoon of 1938 shows Germany crushing Austria. Next in

line is Czechoslovakia. At the back, Britain says to France: ‘Why should we
take a stand about someone pushing someone else when it’s all so far
away’.

It is a total defeat. Czechoslovakia will be swallowed up by

the Nazis. And do not suppose that this is the end. This is
only the beginning.

Churchill, speaking about the Munich Agreement in 1938.

Above: A British cartoon of 1936. Hitler goose-steps across the" "
These are some contemporary views of appeasement and the growing
‘spineless leaders of democracy’. The first three steps are labelled
power and menace of Hitler’s Germany. But how does he achieve his
‘ Rearmament’, ‘Rhineland’ and ‘Danzig’.
aims without war??

39
 Event Key Dates Main events What do Britain and France do? Why?

France does nothing, British sign Anglo -German naval treaty

Conscription/ 1933 End of WDC. Begins re-arming in secret. (1935) limiting German Navy to 35% of British. This breaks
Re-armament 1935 Nuremberg Rally, proclaiming freedom to re-arm. TOV, but Britain’s concern is if Germany must re-arm, Britain
will still have strongest navy. French can do nothing alone.

As agreed by TOV, Saarland is allowed a plebiscite after 15 years, on

Saar Plebiscite 1935 Nothing - legal according to TOV
whether to return to Germany. Vote is 99% to return.

Hitler marches troops into the Rhineland to re-militarise it. This is breaking
Nothing - preoccupied over Abyssinia , Both in depression,
Rhineland March 1936 the TOV. Hitler orders this troops to retreat at the first sign of resistance.
France will not act alone, Britain still does not see the threat.
None comes.

Nothing - not their place to interfere. Some left-wing radicals

Germany supplies weapons to Fascist side, Soviets to Communist side.
(such as George Orwell) join the communist forces. Both
Spanish Civil War 1936-1939 Testing ground for new weapons. Guernica (1937) shows power of Luftwaffe
Britain and France are intimidated by the power of the
(German air-force) Fascists eventually win, under General Franco.
Luftwaffe after Guernica.

Hitler first tries Anschluss in 1934, but is blocked by Mussolini. With the threat
of Italian opposition, he backs down. Nothing- both believe that the TOV is too harsh with regard to
1934 In 1938 he tries again, and the Nazi party in Austria stir up trouble. Anschluss, and feel what Hitler is doing is justified. Mussolini
Anschluss
March1938 Schushnigg, the prime-minister, offers to call a plebiscite (thinking this will won’t stop it, as he is firmly in Germany’s camp now, after
save Austria.) Hitler does not want to take the risk, so sends in troops to Abyssinia.
monitor the vote. 99% vote for Anschluss.

Sudeten Nazi Party start riots, call for Unification with Germany. Hitler
threatens force. Chamberlain intervenes, Meets at Munich conference (Sep
1938), with Italy and France. Agrees to give Sudetenland to Germany.
Sudetenland August - September 1938
Doesn’t consult Benes (Czech PM). When Benes protests (Czechs are ready
to fight) tells them they will do so without Anglo-French support. Sudetenland
given to Germany.
Stop a war between Czechoslovakia and Germany, even
though Czechs are well armed. Chamberlain is convinced he
has secured ‘peace in our time’. Logistics of supporting
Sudetenland are hard, and both Britain and France need to re-
arm. Both start re-armament, though Chamberlain thinks he
can deal with Hitler.

Prepare - both realise Hitler cannot be trusted, and both step

Germany invades the rest of Czechoslovakia . Czechs offer no resistance-
Czechoslovakia March 1939 up re-armament. Britain signs treaty with Poland, offering
their defences were in the Sudetenland.
assistance if they are attacked.

Hitler and Stalin shock the world by signing a non-aggression pact, promising
The British have tried to make an alliance with Stalin, but have
not to attack each other. They also agree to divide up Poland. This leaves
Nazi-Soviet Pact August 1939 been too slow and arrogant. Chamberlain still thinks
Hitler free to commence a war with the West after, without the fear of a war
Communism is a major threat. Both are shocked.
on two fronts.

After claiming people in the Danzig are being mis-treated, Hitler invades
Declare war against the Germans, as Poland is invaded. They
Poland on 1st September 1939. Britain says if Germany do not pull out by
Poland September 1939 are in a better position to fight than they were in 1938, but still
3rd of September, they will declare war. Germany doesn’t: World War II
go tot war with a sense of dread.
begins.

Nazism snuffs out the light of
Czech independence, (above),
while the Munich Pact is the
only thing stopping Europe from
drowning in the chaos of war,
right.
Right: Mussolini congratulates
Hitler on bagging Austria with-
out firing a shot. He is the game-
keeper, and meant to be
protecting Austrian integrity.
However, unlike 1934, this time
he didn’t act.
Right: A soviet cartoon shows
the West feeding
Czechoslovakia to a ravenous
Germany. America watches in
the background..
41
 Case Study: Spanish Civil War Foreign involvement

Side Republican (Commu

mmunist) Nationalist (Fasci
scist)
Spanish Civil War
February The Popular Front (A left-wing coalition) narrowly win the Spanish Support U.S.S.R International Germany Italy
from Brigade
1936 national election.
March Street riots and general anarchy in Spain as right wing supporters Why do they In support of In support of To support To support
protest again the new government and election results get Communism, Communism Fascism and Fascism and fight
involved? and to fight (which was fight Communism.
May Fearing an uprising, the government place the main part of the Fascism. Their popular Communism. To Hitler asked
Spanish Army to the Canary islands, with their right wing general, involvement is amongst many test weapons. Mussolini to
Franco not made public liberals in the For economic commit
however. 1930s) and to gains - trading troops,and Italy
July Despite the governments previous efforts, the military begin an fight against ore.To keep committed more
uprising in mainland Spain. Those involved in the rebellion are Fascism, which Italy involved, as relations with
called Nationalists, the government is called the Republicans. they saw as the thus straining the West
Hitler and Mussolini agree to support the Nationalists, Stalin agrees enemy of French - Italian worsened
to support the Republicans. German and Italian planes airlift liberty. relationships. (Abyssinia).
Franco and his army to mainland Spain. The German planes
involved are called the Condor Legion.
August First International Brigade volunteers arrive in Spain. These are How The U.S.S.R Limited. In total The Condor While providing
liberals around Europe who volunteer to fight fascism. Notable effective is supplies tanks, about 35,000 Legion was manpower, the
members include George Orwell, Ernest Hemingway and Willy the support? planes and volunteers fight essential in Italian troops
Brandt. weapons. Also during the war, airlifting Franco suffer some
the NKVD but they often and his army to embarrassing
November Germany and Italy recognise Franco as head of Spain’s (Secret police) , have little effect Spain, and defeats, and this
government. killed overall, other bombing involvement
communists than useful for Guernica. further drives a
April 1937 Guernica is destroyed by the Condor Legion of the Luftwaffe
that didn’t propaganda. German tanks wedge between
(German Air Force).
support Stalin. Many become and planes are the West and
July 1938 Start of the collapse of the Republican army, after successive Their ships disillusioned superior to the Italy.
defeats. carrying about republicans.
supplies take a Communism - However the
October The International Brigade leave Spain. long time to Orwell wrote Germans
arrive, and their Animal Farm provide few
February Britain and France recognise Franco as the legitimate leader of planes are not based on the troops.
1939 Spain. as good as the Republican
Germans. Communists.
April 1939 All remaining Republicans surrender to Franco- the Nationalists
have won the civil war and Franco will remain in power as a fascist
dictator until 1975. Spain is neutral in WWII.

42
 Those who remain neu
utral
Britain France League of Nations
While many liberals Leans more towards The Spanish Government
support the the Republican side, (Republicans) asks the
Republicans, and as it fears being League for help- there is
some even go to surrounded by Fascist little the League can do
Spain to fight, the countries (Germany, though. The League did
Government did not Italy & Spain). officially ban foreign
want to get involved However fears getting volunteers in 1937, but it
formally. officially involved, as was a symbolic act.
is worried that it will
spark war. Makes the
Non-Intervention
agreement, banning
any exporting of war
materials to Spain. All
countries sign, but
U.S.S.R, Italy and
Germany continue to
supply troops and
weapons to Spain.

Top Right: A British cartoon criticising the lack of action by the League
of Nations, and Britain and France. The car in the middle contains the
League’s politicians, who are too busy procrastinating to notice all the
arms on the way to Spain.

Right: Franco walking in the ruins of Guernica, commenting ironically

on the destruction that he has bought his country.

43
 Section 3

" " " " "

Appeasement Czechoslovakia had been formed in 1919 at the Treaty of St. Germain.
But as we can see, the problem of Wilson’s 14 points were that self-
1. Case study: Munich determination could be claimed by many ethnic groups. The ethnic
"makeup
" of Czechoslovakia
" " " was over 25% German, mostly living in the
2. Why do Britain and France choose appeasement? Sudetenland. The German Sudeten Party was created in 1931, with the
aims of the Sudetenland becoming part of Germany.
3. Is appeasement a failure?
Ethnic breakdown of Czech
choslovakia in 1938

Czechs 7,450,000

Germans 3,200,000

Slovaks 720,000

Magyars 560,000

Poles 100,000

Left: Czechoslovakia
was in a dangerous
position, surrounded by
unfriendly states. Also, it
was far away from
France and Britain,
meaning it was isolated
from any potential
military support. The
U.S.S.R could potentially
be an ally, but only if
they were included in the
conversation.

44
7th September German Sudeten Party
Pa demands union w with Germany. German newsreels
1938 show ‘evidence’ of atrocities against Sude
eten Germans.
Hitler threatens to support
su the Sudeten G
Germans with military force.

Date Venue Hitler’s demands Chamberlain’s actions

15th September Berchtesgaden Sudetenland be Decides Hitler is a ‘man who can

given to Germany. be trusted.’ Agrees that any area of
Promises this was the Sudetenland with more that
the ‘last problem to has a population more than 50%
be solved.’ German should be given to
Germany. Doesn’t tell France or
Czechoslovakia before saying yes,
and has to persuade them to
agree.

It seems like Chamb

mberlain has averted d a crisis, and he agree
es to meet Hitler 7 days later to
formalise the detaiils of the deal at Berch
rchtesgaden…

22nd Bad Godesberg Hitler now wants Chamberlain is taken by surprise

September German troops to at these new demands; he thinks
occupy the the he is meeting with Hitler to finalise
Sudetenland, and the deal made at Berchtesgaden.
for areas with a Along with the French,
majority of Chamberlain rejects these new Should Britain and France hav
ve fought over the Sudetenland?
Magyars and demands, and prepare for war.
Poles to be given Yes No
to Hungary and
Poland. •France had an alliance with •Czechoslovakia was far away, and
While it seems all negotiations have bro
roken down, Mussolinii suggests a four power conference Czechoslovakia hard to support logistically
at Munich between n Britain, France, Ge
ermany and Italy. Czech
choslovakia are not invited, neither •The Czech army was strong and •Guernica had shown the
are the U.S.S.R. Both
Bo are furious.
modern, and with help could of destruction the Luftwaffe could
29th September Munich Sudetenland to Chamberlain and France tell stood up to Germany cause - that could easily be Paris or
given to Germany Czechoslovakia that if they choose
•Czechoslovakia was created in London
immediately. to resist, they will have to do it on
their own, without help from Britain the Paris peace conference- to •Hitler had a point about self-
or France (despite the French- change that would be violating determination - 3 million Germans in
Czech alliance). those treaties. Czechoslovakia
Chamberlain return rns to Britain as a heero, with a peace of papper which guaranteed ‘peace in our •Hitler could demand more •If Hitler got what he wanted now,
time’. Hitler later ca
calls this a ‘scrap of paper.’
p Benes feels like
ke he has been betrayed by the territory after the Sudetenland if he maybe he would stop
West, and given on n a plate to Germany ny.
though the West was weak
October 1st Czech guards standd down, and German ttroops occupy the Sudetenland.
1938 Hungarian and Poliish troops take areas w
which contain Poles and Magyars.

15 March 1939 Germany invades the rest of Czechoslova

vakia. Appeasement has failed.

45
 Left: ‘Four’s company’ as Brit-
ain, France, Italy and Ger-
many meet at Munich and
toast to self-sacrifice. The pic-
ture on the wall is of Benes,
the Czech prime minister who
was not invited. Below: The
human cost of appeasement-
Above - Hitler and Chamberlain meet at Munich, 1938. Chamberlain was
Czech civilians welcome their
confident he could trust Hitler, and had the measure of him. Below,
German conquerors.
Chamberlain is receives a hero’s welcome back in England. The paper in
his hand guarantees ‘peace in our time.’ The public in England supported
appeasement, and only with the outbreak of WWII was the policy
criticised by the majority.

46
 7 reasons why the British and French choose appeasement.

The Depression hits both Britain and France extremely hard. Mass Is appeaseme
ent a failure?
unemployment and stuttering economies mean both have to
Depression
prioritise domestic issues. Even if they want to fight, can they
afford it?
YES NO
Many also think the TOV is too hard- with regards to Anschluss,
self determination (Sudetenland) and re-armament. The Anglo- •Germany is allowed to break the •Some of the TOV is unfair - it is
Revisionism German naval agreement (1935) shows this; Britain doesn’t mind TOV normal Germany will want to
Germany having a navy, as long as it can’t threaten the Royal
reverse it
Navy.
•Germany is allowed to grow
Sometimes, the problem is what to do? When Germany re-
stronger to the point it can threaten •It buys time for re-armament -
militarises the Rhineland, what can the French do? Like the Ruhr,
Logistics if the French occupy it using force, they must stay there long peace in Europe again Britain and France are in no
term .Czechoslovakia is far from the West, and could be position to fight in 1938 (Hitler later
conquered before help arrives.
•The world sees that Britain and admits he should have gone to war
Chamberlain seems to think he can trust Hitler’s word- that he is a France are weak and will not stop in 1938, not 1939). Ultimately the
gentleman, and will not break his word. Stalin also appears to
aggression Allies win WWII. Many of the
Hitler believe this (Nazi-Soviet Pact). Both are shocked when he breaks
his word, and shows that treaties and promises do not mean planes built between 1938-1939
anything to him. •If Britain or France act tough in prove crucial in the Battle of
Especially after 1938, both Britain and France start re-arming. 1936 when Germany is still weak, Britain in 1940.
France has been building the Maginot line since 1929, suggesting they can stop WWII
Buy time they are already planning for another war. Many of the planes built •It shows the world, and the public
by the British between 1938-9 prove crucial in the Battle of Britain
in 1940.
back home the true colours of
Hitler. Very few people in 1939
Remember both are democratic countries, and public support is
needed for war. Until March 1939, public support is against war.
doubt that the cause of Britain and
Chamberlain is greeted as a hero when he returns from Munich in France is righteous.
Public opinion
1938. This is a generation that have witnessed the horror of WWI,
and Guernica (1937) has shown how terrible the next war would
be.

As late as 1939, both countries still feel a strong Germany can be

used as a buffer against the U.S.S.R. They fear a Communist
Fear of Communism
revolution or invasion of Europe. Britain and the U.S.S.R are
begrudging allies in WWII.

47
 Differing views on appeasement; Chamberlain desperately
The view from the East; Britain and France point Hitler towards the struggles to avoid war (above), while Hitler snatches up the
U.S.S.R (above) , while Stalin questions ‘no chair for me?’ after being children of Europe (below)
left out of the Munich conference (below).

48
Section 4

The Nazi-Soviet Pact 23rd August 1939: Ribbentrop (German foreign minister) and
Molotov (Soviet foreign minister) announce to the world a non-
aggression pact between Germany and the U.S.S.R. This is sometimes
Key Questions
called the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, but is more commonly known as
the Nazi-Soviet Pact.
1. What was the Nazi Soviet pact?
The pact agrees:
2. Why is this pact signed?
1.neither country will attack each other
3. Who’s to blame?

4. Does this guarantee the start of WWII? 2.to divide up Poland between the two countries (this is kept secret)

In August 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed a non-aggression pact that shocked
Why was the Nazi-So
-Soviet Pact signed?
the world. Why did Hitler, the public enemy of Communism, do this? Why did
Stalin distance himself from the West and sign a treaty with someone who Hitler’s perspective
wrote about finding lebensraum in the East in Mein Kampf?
Wants to avoid a war on two fronts- this
enables him to attack the west, without
worrying about Soviet intervention. Also
weakens the Anglo-French position-
Hitler is convinced they won’t fight over
Poland without Soviet support.
Conveniently forgets his hatred of
Communism (see Hitler’s aims, page
32). This pact makes Hitler think he can
invade Poland without causing war,
allowing him to prepare for an attack on
the West, with his Eastern border
secure.
‘How long will the honeymoon last?’ "
Above: a British cartoon commenting on an
unlikely marriage between Hitler and Stalin.
The answer is less than 2 years.
Stalin’s perspective
The U.S.S.R is isolated in 1939 and
needs an ally- Britain and France are
non-committal. Also he sees that the
West will not stand up to Germany, so
better to join the stronger side. Stalin
probably knows the U.S.S.R will be
involved in a war in the future, but in
1939 it seems just as likely that it will be
against Britain and France- Stalin has
not forgotten the White intervention
(1919) or Locarno (1925). He is also
not consulted at the Munich conference
(1938) and (fairly accurately) feels that
the West are trying to make Hitler
expand East, and not West. Stalin
believes that Hitler will keep his word.
49
 Is this Britain and France’s fault?

Both fail to make an alliance with Stalin as they still want a strong
Germany as a buffer against the U.S.S.R. The U.S.S.R had deliberately
been isolated from European politics (Locarno, Munich etc). The
French sign the Franco-Soviet pact of Mutual assistance, but this
does not promise a concrete commitment, and is intended to scare Hitler.

‘Stalin had become increasingly angry with the policy of appeasement as this had al-
lowed Hitler to strengthen. However, even after the Munich agreement he hoped to se-
cure an anti-fascists alliance with Britain. The British were aloof and did not consider
this idea worthy of their full attention- they sent a minor official, but slow boat (Lytton
report) to meet Stalin. Stalin was offended by the reluctance of Britain to take an alli-
ance seriously, and sent a letter to Hitler suggesting a non-aggression pact. Hitler re-
plied straight away, and sent Ribbentrop immediately to sign a deal.

The Great Purges 1936- 1939 The West reacts to the Pact. Above - Hitler and Stalin go for a walk to-
gether, but the friendship is only superficial. Below- Poland lies dead as
From 1936- 1940 Stalin starts his great purges of the U.S.S.R.Anyone
considered as potential opposition was imprisoned or killed.Show-trials of Hitler and Stalin swap insults, in the guise of friendship.
famous prisoners are publicly broadcast. Defendants often confess (after
severe torture) to crimes that are hard to believe.Amongst the millions
killed in these years (exact figure are unknown) the Armed forces suffered
greatly: 3/5 Marshals, 8/9 Admirals, 13/15 Army Commanders,50/57 Army
Corps Commanders are all killed or imprisoned.

What do the purges tell...

Germany Britain/France

The U.S.S.R’s army is now weak. Sign

an alliance, isolating Britain and
France, then attack them. The U.S.S.R
are too weak to attack you, so you can
defeat the West then come back and
attack the Soviet.s
The purges make the U.S.S.R’s
military weak, and the U.S.S.R
undemocratic. Better to try and side
with Germany.
50
 Does this make WWII inevitable? Left - Poland
had no answer
1) Germany can now look to a war with the West without worrying about a war on two
to an
fronts
onslaught
2) Germany and the U.S.S.R agree to carve up Poland from both the
3) Hitler feels that Britain and France will not defend Poland (as they say they will in Nazis and So-
March 1939) without support from the U.S.S.R viets. This
4) The U.S.S.R has now broken any potential ties with the West, meaning Britain and plan was
France have one less ally against German aggression agreed in the
“ What, no chair for me? ”
“ What, no chair for me? ”
Also, this pact has a significant impact on the Cold War. The West feels this pact guar- pact.
antees WWII - if the pact is not signed, Germany will not invade Poland. The U.S.S.R
feels that it has no choice but to sign this pact, as the West has isolated it. It blames
the West for the subsequent German invasion in June 1941.
Right - Operation
August 23rd 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact signed Barbarossa : The""
German invasion of the
Germany invades Poland. Britain gives it an ultimatum
1st September 1939 Soviet Union, June
to withdraw or face war.
1941. Stalin was taken
3rd September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany.
completely by surprise.
17th September 1939 The U.S.S.R invades Poland from the east.

June 22nd 1941 Germany invades the U.S.S.R

7 : the lowest should be Hitler’s closest ally with the highest being Hitler’s most hated enemy or o
7 : the lowest should be Hitler’s closest ally with the highest being Hitler’s most hated enemy or o

‘Everything that I undertake is against ‘I will be asked how it is possi-

the Russians. If the West is too stupid ble the Soviet Union signed a
“Everything
and blindthat
to Iunderstand
undertake is against
this, the
then I will “I will be asked how it is possible the Soviet
“Everything that I undertake is against the “I will benon-aggression pactthe
asked how it is possible with so
Soviet
be forced to reach an understanding deceitful a nation with crimi-
with the Russians, smash the West nals such as Hitler and Left - Western propaganda had to quickly
then turn my attention to the Soviet ” Un- which enabled us to make military preparations”
Ribbentrop.
which enabled us to make We secured
military preparations”
ion.’
”
peace for 18 months which
change about the Soviets once they joined
Hitler, 1935 enabled us to make military the fight against Hitler. This forced friend-
preparations.’
ship would not last long.
AAunexpected
unexpectedturn
turnofofevents….
events….? ?
Stalin, 1942

How far do we believe these sources? Remember the U.S.S.R was taken completely by
surprise by the German invasion in June 1941. Stalin was so shocked he had a mental’s
break-down
response was slow. Heand
was couldn’t believe
not enthusiastic aboutwhat waswith
an alliance the Soviet Union. Instead, Chamberlain’s policy was’sto allo
happening.
response was slow. He was not enthusiastic about an alliance with the Soviet Union. Instead, Chamberlain’s policy was to allo 51
profound distrust of Russia…..I distrust her motives, which seem to me to have little connection with our ideas of liberty”.
profound distrust of Russia…..I distrust her motives, which seem to me to have little connection with our ideas of liberty”.
Section 5

The Second World

War - 1939- 1945

‘Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Forces:

You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have
striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes
and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. ‘

General Eisenhower, 5th June 1944

Above: Eisenhower briefs the
Allied troops ahead of D-Day.
While Stalin felt the invasion
came too late, the Allies did
not have the strength to
Above: Churchill celebrates victory in 1945, but for much of the Sec-
launch such an ambitious
ond World War the outlook for Britain looked bleak. Churchill showed
assault until 1944. Right:
himself to be an excellent war leader, showcasing his rhetorical skills
French citizens look on as
during the dark days of 1940. On standing alone against Hitler, he
German troops march through
remarked ‘if the British empire should last a thousand years, men will
France as conquerors.
say, this, was their finest hour.’

52
 Left: A German tank rolls
into Poland using "
Blitzkrieg tactics. Heavily
mobile armoured units ""
attacked quickly and " "
decisively, isolating and
overwhelming defences.
This tactic was very suc-
cessful and lead to quick
victory over Poland. Below
left: A Ju- 87 of the " "
Luftwaffe bombs Polish "
targets. Warsaw was
bombed heavily.

1939 - The Outbreak

1st Germany Above: British
September invades civilians queue
1939 Poland wearing gas-masks.
The government were
Britain and worried about the use
3rd
France of chemical weapons,
September
declare war although none were
1939
on Germany. used during WWII.
The U.S.S.R Right: Unlike in 1914,
17th there was little joy at
invades
September the declaration of war
Poland from
1939 in Europe.
the East.

53
 Above: St. Paul’s cathedral in London burns during the Blitz. The bombing of British cities would kill 60,000 British
civilians during the war. Despite this, British spirit was not broken. Above Right: Spitfires of the R.A.F. Churchill
praised the pilots of the R.A.F (below right.) Radar was also crucial in the British victory in the Battle of Britain.

Above: German troops march through the 1940 - Survival

Champs Elysees after capturing Paris.
Despite the Maginot line, France "" " Germany invades France,
surrendered within 6 weeks to the German May 1940 Luxembourg, Norway, Belgium and
blitzkrieg. Below: Hitler enjoys the view from the Netherlands.
Paris. In under a year he had conquered
Western Europe has fallen to Nazi
much of Europe. June 1940
Germany.

The Battle of Britain - The Luftwaffe

tries to destroy the Royal Air Force,
August 1940
in preparation for the invasion of
Britain. The R.A.F wins the battle.

The Blitz - British cities are bombed

October 1940
nightly by the Luftwaffe.

54

1941 - World War
Hitler breaks the Nazi-Soviet
June 1941 pact as Germany invades the
U.S.S.R.
Japan attacks Pearl Harbor
December and other American and
1941 British territories. Hitler
declares war on America.
Left: American warships burn, caught by
complete surprise by the Japanese. America
was outraged by the attack, but had now
been "provoked into war.
Top left: German armour moves into the
Soviet Union. The Germans were stunningly "
successful at first, and advanced all the way
to the gates of Moscow (above), before
stopping due the Russian winter.
55
Above: A german tank surrenders at El-Alamein.
Below: A Japanese aircraft carrier burns after Midway.
1942 - The tide turns
The defeat meant the end of Japanese expansion, and Germans decide on the
slowly the Allied forces took back their lost territory, February 1942
Final Solution.
using island hopping tactics.
The Battle of Midway: The
June 1942 U.S Navy defeats the
Japanese navy decisively.
The Battle of El- Alamein :
British forces defeat the
October 1942 Germans in North Africa and
start to push them out of the
continent.
Above: German prisoners after
Stalingrad. Hitler refused to let his
generals retreat, and as a result,
600,000 were captured. Many
German soldiers were not equipped
for the Russian winter, and froze or
starved to death. Meanwhile the
Soviets had recovered from the
shock of the previous year, and were
beginning to produce tanks, planes
and equipment in huge quantities.

The Battle of Stalingrad:

October 1942 Soviet forces encircle and
destroy a German army.
56
 Above: A Soviet tank rides past the wreckage of a
German tank at Kursk. The biggest tank battle in
1943 - The beginning history, it was a devastating defeat for Germany.
Above: Allied tanks Below: A British destroyer escorts a convoy across
roll through Italy, on of the end the Atlantic. Slowly, the British countered the
the road to Rome. Pro- U-boat menace that threatened British survival.
The British win the Battle of
gress was slow, but May 1943
the Atlantic.
gradually the Germans
were pushed back. June 1943 Allied forces invade Italy.
Left: Once it became
The Battle of Kursk: Soviet
clear the Allies would
July 1943 forces decisively defeat the
liberate Italy, Mussolini
Germans.
was killed, and hung in
public. Italy surrenders to the Allies,
September
changes sides and declares
1943
war on Germany.

57
 Above: Soviet artillery pound German positions in the Ukraine. By now the
Soviet momentum was unstoppable, and the Red Army pushed the Germans
Above: Allied troops land in Normandy on D-Day. It was the biggest
onto their own soil. German forces retreated non-stop for nearly 2 years.
amphibious invasion in history, with 156,000 men landing in France on
the first day.
1944 - Liberation
Left: American troops defend their position
D-Day: Allied forces land in
June 1944 against the German attacks during the battle of
Nazi-occupied France
the bulge. The German attack was a surprise,
August The U.S.S.R push into the and was Hitler’s last desperate gamble to stop
1944 Ukraine. the impending invasion of Germany by the Allies
The Battle of the Bulge: from the West and Soviets from the East. De-
December German forces launch an spite initial surprise, the Allies soon dug in and
1944 offensive in Belgium. It is repulsed the German attacks.
eventually stopped.

58
 Right: Hiroshima before and after the
atomic bomb. Many of the scientists
who worked on the Manhattan project
wrote an open letter to President " "
Truman begging him not to use this
weapon on civilian targets. Many felt the
U.S decision to drop the bomb on popu-
lated areas was a political statement to
warn the Russians of the power of the
West; even by 1945 relations were
strained.

Below: The Japanese surrender to Allied

Above: Soviet troops raise the hammer and sickle over 1945 - End Game forces onboard the U.S.S. Missouri. The use
the Reichstag in Berlin. Victory in Europe had been se-
of atomic weapons had spared the Allies hav-
cured at great cost. Below: crowds in Britain celebrate Dresden in Germany is
ing to implement Operation Olympic Torch -
Victory in Europe day (V.E day). After 6 years of fight- February bombed by the R.A.F and
the invasion of Japan. In 1945 many asian
ing, the emotion for many was simply relief. 1945 U.S.A.F. 135,000 civilians
countries began to proclaim independence
killed.
from their Western colonisers, such as
Hitler commits suicide to Indonesia and Indochina.
April 30th
avoid capture by Soviet
1945
troops.
Germany surrenders as
May 1945 Berlin is captured by the
Soviets.
Japan surrenders after the
August
U.S drop bombs on
1945
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

59
 Casualties 6,000,000 Oil Pro
oduction in tonnes
Soldiers Civilians The number of Jews, (million)

Germany 5,500,000 6,000,000 homosexuals, gypsies and Year Germany U.S.A

mentally disabled people killed by 1939 8 N/A
Japan 2,500,000 1,000,000
the Nazis in the Final Solution.
U.S.S.R 10,000,000 15,000,000 1940 6.7 N/A

British 1941 7.3 N/A

450,000 500,000
Empire 1942 7.7 184
1943 8.9 200
U.S.A 500,000 10,000
WWII in 1944 6.4 223

numbers 1945 3.7 248

Peak streng
gth of armed
G.D.P* billions off dollars forc
ces
80% Germany 10,000,000
Year U.S.A U.S.S.R Germany Britain
80% of German casualties Japan 6,000,000
were suffered on the Eastern U.S.S.R 12,500,000
1939 800 366 411 684
front, fighting the U.S.S.R British
4,500,000
Empire
1945 1,474 353 322 731
U.S.A. 12,000,000
60
Who was to blame for the Cold
War?

4
Who was to blame for the Cold War?
Focus Points
• Why did the USA–USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?
• How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?
• How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?
• What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
• Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War: the USA or the USSR?

Specified Content
• The origins of the Cold War:
– the 1945 summit conferences and the breakdown of the USA–USSR alliance in 1945–46
– Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe to 1948, and American reactions to it
– the occupation of Germany and the Berlin Blockade
– NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
 Cold War Warriors
Trum
man Eisenh
hower J.F.K
J.F L.B.J Nixon Ford Carrter Reagan

1945-1
-1953 1953-1
-1961 1961-- 1963 19
963- 19
969 1969-- 1974 1974-1
-1977 1977-1
-1981 1981-- 1989

1945 1947 1949 1951 1953 1955 1957 1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989

Stalin
Sta Khrushchev Brezhn
nev * Gorbachev

1924-1
-1953 1953
3- 1964 1964- 19
982 19
985- 199
91

* Yuri Andropov 1982-1984

** Konstantin Chernenko 1984-1985
Actions by
the West
Timeline - Who was to blame for the Cold War?
Greek civil
war- America Marshall
Fulton helps Plan. N.A.T.O
D-Day Speech. Royalists. formed.
Western
involvement in
the Russian Truman
civil war, Doctrine

Yalta Potsdam

1918 1939 1941 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

June February May July August March February March June October June May

Germany Japan
surrenders, surrenders.

Nazi- Germany
Soviet invades Berlin Berlin
pact U.S.S.R Blockade Blockade
Cominform. starts. ends.

Albania Bulgaria
becomes Hungary
becomes becomes
Communist. Poland Czechoslovakia
Communist. Communist. becomes becomes
Communist. Comecon.
Communist.
Romania
becomes
Actions by Communist.
the East Warsaw
Pact (1955)

63
Section 1

Why did the U.S.A-

When we think about the causes of the Cold War, we have to understand
the difference between LONG TERM and SHORT TERM factors.

U.S.S.R alliance begin " Russian Civil War 1918-21

After the Bolsheviks take power in the second Russian
revolution of 1917, they sign an armistice with Germany,
as they see the war as an imperialist mistake. A civil war
Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939
As mentioned before, the West (especially Britain)
see the Nazi-Soviet Pact ) as guaranteeing WWII.
The U.S.S.R blames the West for not giving them

to break down in 1945? in Russia then starts, between the Reds (Bolsheviks)
and the Whites (Loyalists). Britain, France and the
U.S.A send troops into Russia to help the loyalists, as
they are worried about Russia being Communist. The
an alternative, therefore the invasion of Russia by
Germany in 1941 was due to a reluctance by Brit-
ain and France to ally with Stalin,

Bolsheviks win the civil war by 1921, and never forget

the Allied intervention. Stalin witnesses first hand the
West trying to have a say in Russia.

Long Term
Factors

Ideological Differences

Capitalism Communism

Communist party is only party.

Democracy Democratic elections every 4 years. Elections (if any) give only
Communist candidates

Free-market- people can choose what State controls property, and controls
Economics
they buy, sell , and the cost what is produced, and its price.

No Welfare - big gaps between poor Free healthcare, school etc- but
Welfare
and rich quality poor

Freedom of heavy state censorship of anything

freedom of speech (at least in theory)
Above: American (left) and Soviet (right) troops meet on the Elbe river in Speech that could be harmful to the party.

Germany, April 1945. Within months, a new conflict between the East and atheist (no religion) although Stalin
West looked likely. Why did this alliance break down so quickly? Religion Freedom of religion did tolerate religion, as long as it did
not interfere.

64
 Post-War Europe- different visions " " " " " " "
The U.S.S.R and Western Allies had very different visions for how Europe should be run after WWII. Stalin felt the
U.S.S.R should be allowed a buffer zone of ‘satellite’ countries, friendly or allied to the U.S.S.R, around Russia to
prevent a future invasion. In reality, this meant setting up Communist governments in Poland, Czechoslovakia and
Hungary. Stalin also wanted Germany to pay reparations. The West felt forcing Germany to pay severe reparations
would be a mistake (Versailles!) and that countries in Eastern Europe should have democratic elections. Remem-
ber that Britain had gone to war to protect Poland from a dictator - they were not prepared to now let it be taken
over by another.

Manhattan Project
The American project to build the first atomic bomb,
started in 1942. This is meant to be top-secret, although
Soviet spies do infiltrate the project. In August 1945, the
U.S drop two atomic bombs on Japan, ending WWII.
Many have argued the U.S drop the bombs to intimidate
the Soviets.At Potsdam, Truman reveals to Stalin that the
Short Term causes
U.S have developed this new super-weapon: Stalin al-
ready knows (through spies), but the Soviets are still in-
timidated by American atomic capability. Until the So-
viets develop their own atomic bomb in 1949, the"
Americans have the most powerful weapon in the world
all to themselves.
" " " Personality Issues (Yalta, Potsdam )" " "
Stalin was paranoid and didn’t trust the West. He felt they did not
appreciate the sacrifice the Soviets had made during WWII.
F.D.R was relatively easy-going - he understood some of Stalin’s con-
cerns, but also wanted to ensure democracy. Dies before the end of
WWII, and is one of the most popular American presidents of all time.
Truman replaces F.D.R and takes a more anti-Soviet stance. Wants to
intimidate Stalin with the news of the American atomic bomb. Stalin and
Truman’s relationship is far colder than Stalin and F.D.R’s.
Churchill didn’t get on well with Stalin. Churchill felt that Britain was still
a super-power, and was the only country to have fought Germany for
the whole war. Churchill wanted Britain to be treated as equals- but the
conferences were clearly a showdown between the U.S.S.R and the
U.S.A

Clement Atlee replaces Churchill halfway through Potsdam, as Attlee

" D-Day "" " " "
The U.S.S.R has fought Germany in Europe almost on their
own from 1941, and had suffered enormously. Stalin felt
that the U.S.A and Britain had deliberately waited before lib-
erating Western Europe, so that “the Germans and Soviets
could bleed each other dry’. In June 1944, the Western Al-
lies launched D-Day, the liberation of Nazi-occupied
France. Stalin felt this invasion could of come a year earlier,
though in reality it was only by 1944 that the Allies were
ready to launch such as attack.
wins the British election. Out of his depth, he has little input, further rele-
gating Britain as a superpower,
" " " " Rise of U.S.S.R as a Superpower" " " " " " "
The U.S.S.R goes into WWII as a potential superpower with a weak economy, an army that
has been purged, and millions living in poverty. By 1945 it is undeniably a super-power. It has
the largest army in the world, and has taken on the might of Germany (largely alone) and
won. It now threatens to expand not just into Eastern Europe, but possibly further. In terms of
manpower, if the U.S.S.R attacks Western Europe, no one can stop them. The West is hugely
worried by the immense war machine that the U.S.S.R has become.
Left: Atomic weapons meant a new age of mis-trust between the Superpowers. Now,
America had the power to wipe out Soviet cities, like they did with Hiroshima (above).

Below left: for every attack (we suffer), our valorous Red Army will answer three times
more powerful’. It was the Red army that defeated 80% of Germany’s armed forces, and
they knew it. Below right: Allied troops land in Normandy on D-Day. Stalin felt this
invasion could of happened years earlier, and saved millions of Soviet lives.
Section 2

Yalta When

Who
February 1945

Churchill, Stalin, F.D.R

1.U.S.S.R will join the U.N

2.Germany will be divided into 4 zones- Britain,
America, U.S.S.R, France.
3.Poland will have democratic elections
What did they
4.Nazi-criminals will be brought to trial
agree on?
5.Eastern Europe will have democratic elections- this
is called the Declaration of Liberated Europe.
6.U.S.S.R will join the war in the pacific against
Japan.

1.Stalin wanted to take some Polish territory - and let

Poland take German territory. F.D.R and Churchill
What did they
agree to this (although Poland must still have
disagree on?
democracy,) as long as Stalin doesn’t interfere with
Why?
Greece, where there is a civil war, involving
Communists.

Important
WWII is clearly going to be won by the Allies, but the
historical
Above: The ‘big three’: Churchill, F.D.R and Stalin at Yalta, February end (at least in the pacific) is still some way off.
context
1945. This was largely a successful conference.

Largely a successful conference. Many things are

agreed on, although later Churchill messages F.D.R
Summary
and warns ‘The U.S.S.R has become a danger to the
world.’

67
Section 3

Potsdam When

Who
July 1945

Churchill, Attlee, Truman, Stalin

What did they agree Nazi party is banned, and any remaining Nazi
on? war criminals will be put on trial.

After the German surrender, Stalin had

occupied much of Eastern Europe with his
troops, and Poland had not been given free
What did they disagree elections - Communist government set up.
on? why? The size of reparations to be taken from Nazi
Germany causes trouble- Stalin wants a huge
sum, the West don’t want a repeat of
Versailles.

Germany had surrendered in May 1945, the

Americans had the Atomic bomb, The
Important historical
encirclement of Japan is complete. The anti-
Above: Clement Attlee, Harry Truman and Josef Stalin at Potsdam, July context
Communist Truman takes power , and does
1945 .Churchill started the conference but was voted out of office half-
not get on well with Stalin.
way through, being replaced by the Labour leader, Clement Attlee.

Truman gleefully reveals to Stalin that

America has a new super-weapon (the
atomic bomb). Tensions are mainly due to
Summary
Poland becoming Communist, and the new
leaders. F.D.R and Stalin got on well, Truman
and Stalin don’t.

68
Section 4
Salami tactics
Communism would be isolated, intimidated, and if necessary, removed.
• How has the U.S.S.R gained control of Eastern
Europe by 1948?
• What are Salami tactics?
• Why does the West allow Stalin to do this?
• Why does Yugoslavia remain independent?
What are ‘Salami’ tactics?
Salami tactics are defeating an opponent ‘slice by slice.’ Opponents of
Pro-Communists would be supported with money and weapons.
The formation of the Eastern Bloc
Albania (1945) – the Communists took power after the war without
opposition
Bulgaria (1945) – the Communists executed the leaders of all the
other parties.
Poland (1947) (see next page)
Hungary (1947) – Russian troops stayed after WWII.Stalin allowed
elections but the non-communists won a big majority. Stalin ignored
the results of the election. The Hungarian Communists were led by
the pro-Russian Rakosi. Rakosi demanded that groups which op-
posed him should be banned.He got control of the police, and ar-
rested his opponents. He set up a secret police unit, the AVH.
Romania (1945–1947) – the Communists gradually took over control.
Czechoslovakia (1948) (see next page)
East Germany (1949) – Russians turned their zone into German
Democratic Republic.
69
 Poland
Date Event
The Red army are approaching Warsaw, controlled
by the Nazis. The Polish organise an uprising,
thinking the Soviets will support them. These Poles
August 1944
are backed by the Polish Government in exile in
London. They do not want any Soviet influence in
Poland after WWII, they want independence.
Stalin orders the Red Army to halt, and 200,000
September 1944 Polish are killed by the Nazis. The failure of the
uprising makes the Polish Government unpopular.
After Poland is liberated, Stalin’s backed
Provisional Government of Poland wins support,
and become the majority of the new Government of
March 1945 Poland. They sign the Treaty of Friendship and
Postwar Co-operation with Stalin, much to the
disgust of the London based Poles, and the West.
Elections were not held for 2 years.
In the elections the Communists won 80% of the
January 1947
votes, which the West thought was rigged.
Poland caused big tension at Potsdam, and was a
source of great resentment. Britain had gone to war
How did the West
over Poland in 1939. But there was little they could
react?
do, aside from military intervention. Poland was
firmly in U.S.S.R territory.
Czechoslovakia
Date Event
The Prime Minister, Benes, is stabbed in the back
1938 by Britain and France and the Munich conference.
He does not forget this.
Benes approaches Stalin and says that he would
favour Communists after the war, if Stalin helped
1945 him to deport the 2 million Germans living in
Czechoslovakia. Stalin agreed, and this was
included in the Potsdam conference.
The Communist party receive 38% of the vote, and
with the Social Democrats, form a Pro-U.S.S.R
May 1946
government, with Benes the President, Gottwald
as Prime Minister.
A dispute arises over Marshall aid- should
Czechoslovakia accept? Benes wanted to accept,
as the money was badly needed. Stalin was
1947 angered, and led by Gottwald, there was coup de
tat, and Benes was forced to resign. The only
remaining non-communist minister, Jan Masaryk,
is found dead in suspicious circumstances.
In the 1948 elections there is only one type of
1948
candidate: Communist.
How did the West The West looks on in horror, but like Poland, there
react? is little they can do.
70
 Yugoslavia - the one that got away
Why didn’t Stalin use force against Yugoslavia?

Background
1. Yugoslavia was not liberated by the U.S.S.R - so there were not
In May 1945, Yugoslavia was ruled by Josip Broz Tito. He had ‘liberating’ troops already stationed there, as had been the case in much
commanded the Yugoslav Partisan resistance against the occupying of Eastern Europe.
Germans in WWII, and had done so so successfully that he was 2. Tito was a national hero, and could not be replaced easily (not that
officially recognised as the Prime Minister of Yugoslavia in 1944. The Stalin didn’t try - see below!)
Allies gave him supplies during the war to fight the Nazis, and he was
3. Tito had a well trained army, which excelled at guerrilla warfare - many
seen as a Yugoslav hero and patriot. Tito’s Communist party won the
of the other Eastern European countries had their armed forces largely
1945 election with the clear majority of the votes. Unlike other Eastern
destroyed during WWII.
European countries, Yugoslavia had largely liberated themselves from
the Nazis, without support from the U.S.S.R. 4. Geography- Yugoslavia was not in the immediate sphere of influence
and could easily be supplied by sea- the U.S and Britain still had far
Post 1945 superior navies to the U.S.S.R
Despite the support of the Western Allies during WWII, Yugoslavia grew
hostile towards the West in the years after. He supported the
Stop sending people to kill me.
Communist Greeks in their civil war, despite Stalin warning him not to
We've already captured five of
provoke the West. them, one of them with a bomb and
another with a rifle (...) If you don't
Expelled from COMINFORM
stop sending killers, I'll send one to
Tito wanted Yugoslavia to develop its own independent economy, Moscow, and I won't have to send a
without interference from Moscow. This infuriated Stalin, who kicked second.
Yugoslavia out of COMINFORM in 1949. Tito then began to receive aid
Tito in an open letter to Stalin,
from America, although he never allied himself with either the East or above. Left, the Soviet view of Tito.
West. Soviet-Yugoslav relations began to improve after Stalin’s death in
1953.However, Yugoslavia never joined the Warsaw Pact.

71
 Section 5

The Fulton Speech

The ‘Iron Curtain’, the In March 1946, Winston Churchill was giving a speech, at Fulton, Missouri,
USA. He said that
Truman Doctrine and “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has de-
scended across the continent”.
Marshall Aid. Furthermore, he claimed that the Russians were intent on
“indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines”.
His speech shocked both the West and the East - Truman initially refused to
comment on it. The U.S.S.R thought the speech was ‘virtually a declaration of
war.’
The Cold war had undeniably begun.

Key Questions

1. Why was the Fulton speech so important?

2. What was the Truman Doctrine?

3. What was Marshall Aid?

4. How did the U.S.S.R respond to the above?

72
 The Truman Doctrine
In 1947, Truman made public the ‘Truman Doctrine’. This was seen as
being in reaction to the Fulton Speech, the formation of the Eastern
Bloc, and the growing anti-communist feeling in the U.S. Truman was
also determined that the USA would not live in isolation, as it had done
before WWII.
The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain Communism, but not push it
back - this is Containment. Offered assistance to "all free peoples" re-
sisting "attempted subjugation" - any country facing a Communist threat
would be aided.
Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was deter-
mined to take action.
Greece had been involved in a civil war since 1945. Previously, Britain
had supported the Royalist forces against the Communists. But in 1947,
due to economic problems, they stopped their support. Truman realised
there was a danger of Greece becoming communist, so he offered
arms, supplies and money to Greece. Eventually by 1949 the Royalists
had won the civil war, and Communism had been contained.
One of the key parts of Truman’s doctrine was Marshall Aid, sometimes
called the O.E.C.D (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel-
opment, or E.R.P (European Recovery Program.)
Marshall Aid
Money, goods and equipment given to Europe to help it
What was it? recover from WWII. $17 billion was proposed to be given over
5 years.
•America needed a strong European economy to trade with
Why did America offer
•America was worried a weak Europe would be more likely to
this?
fall to Communism
The Americans decided to offer it to all European countries, so
Who could receive it? not to promote a divide. The Eastern Bloc and U.S.S.R were
invited to take part.
16 countries- the main ones Britain, France, Italy and West
Germany. Czechoslovakia and Poland were interested, but
Who did receive it? under intense pressure from Stalin, did not accept. Some in
the U.S.S.R, like Molotov, were also interested, but Stalin
ultimately thought it was a ‘capitalist trap’.
Above: A Soviet cartoon commenting on the U.S.A’s involvement in Greece.
73
 How did the U.S.S.R respond COMIN
NFORM
When September 1947
to all this? An organisation to co-ordinate the
Communist governments of the
What Eastern Bloc and make sure they
The simple answer is with great suspicion. Stalin thought America was
followed the same ideology as
simply re-financing Europe to fight the Soviets. In particular, the fact that Moscow.
America was giving money to West Germany was met with disbelief. In the
cartoon below, the leaders of Europe grovel at the feet of the American Stalin wanted uniformity amongst the
Why Communist countries, and this was a
dollar.
good way to keep control.

Yugoslavia was quickly denounced for

not following Moscow’s orders,was
How successful was it?
quite effective at achieving a united
Communist front.

COMEC
MECON
When January 1949

Council for Mutual Economic

What
Assistance

A response to the Marshall plan, to try

Why
and strengthen the Soviet block.

It did work - Eastern Europe slowly

recovered, but no-where near as fast
How successful was it? as the West- the U.S.S.R used it to
extract money from other Eastern
Bloc countries, to their advantage.

74
 Section 6

Berlin had been divided since the end of WWII, but was deep inside
The Berlin Airlift and the Soviet Zone. Berlin became a flashpoint for the East-West divide.

division of Germany

A crowd gathers to see a U.S plane coming into to land with supplies
in Berlin, 1949. A few years before, it was dropping bombs, not food.

• Why did Stalin blockade Berlin?

In March 1948, the British, Americans and French combined their three
• What choices did the West have? zones into one, called Trizonia. In June 1948, as part of Marshall Aid the
West announced a new German currency, the Deutschmark . This scared
• Who was successful? Stalin, who was concerned of a revitalised Germany, especially Berlin, as it
would be an area of prosperity deep in the Soviet zone, showing capitalism’s
• How was Germany divided by 1949? superiority.

75
 Stalin reacts
On June 25th, 1948, the West begins airlifting supplies into Berlin. Soviet
June 19th U.S.S.R introduces the Ostmark, its own currency. fighters fly close to the supply planes, but do not shoot them down. Over
the next 11 months, the West lands 270,000 flights in Berlin. Stalin
U.S.S.R closes all roads, canals and train-lines into
realises the tactic will not work, and abandons the blockade in May 1949
June 24th West Berlin, effectively cutting Berlin off from the
outside world.
What options do the West have?

Advantages Disadvantages

Could start WWIII - if

Soviet forces did not let
1. Use force - send Would be seen as tough,
the tanks and supplies
tanks and force and would show Stalin that
through, there would be
your way through the West would not abandon
war. The Soviets had far
blockade Berlin.
more men around Berlin
than the West did.

Would be seen as very,

Would save the hassle of
2.Abandon Berlin- very weak. Stalin would Above left and right: Western
having to deal with Berlin -
allow the U.S.S.R think he could get reactions to the blockade.
deep in the Soviet sphere.
to take over the whatever concessions he
Would reduce risk of future
whole of Berlin wanted from the West.
war.
Similar to appeasement.
Who is the
e ‘winner’?
3.Use diplomacy - Could take a long time - in
Would gain the moral high-
pressure the the meanwhile West Berlin
ground, and reduce the risk West East
U.S.S.R to lift the starves. Also seen as
of war.
blockade weak, and may not work. • The West have resisted Stalin’s
•Stalin has shown how vulnerable
Expensive, and cannot be attempts and held onto West
the West’s position in Berlin is,
done long term. Soviet Berlin
4. Airlift - supply Shows Stalin that the West and how easy it is to cut them off.
fighters could shoot the • They have gained international
Berlin by air. will not abandon Berlin. He can launch another blockade
supply planes down, support and the gratitude of
at any time
causing war. West-Berliners 76
The Division of Germany Federal Republic of
Germany (West)
German Democratic
Republic (East)

Flag

Set up May 1949 October 1949

None (despite name!), but

August 1949 - Christian
Elections the Communist party
Democrats win majority
dominated until 1990

leader Konrad Ardenour Walter Ubricht

Strong- Marshall Aid and

Weak - the U.S.S.R gave
trading with Europe
Economy little to the G.D.R, and took
made the F.R.G
much.
prosperous.

Currency Deutschmark Ostmark

Left: West Germany play

East Germany at the 1974
World Cup. Sport often be-
came a focal point of Cold
As we know, Germany been split into 4 sectors. By 1948, the United War tensions, such as the
States, Great Britain and France had combined their sectors into Olympics
Trizonia. This lead to the split into two countries.

77
Section 7

NATO and the North Atlantic Treaty

Organisation
Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact Founded 1949

United States, Britain,

1955

France, Belgium, Canada,

U.S.S.R, Albania, Bulgaria,
Founding Denmark, Iceland, Italy,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
members Luxembourg, The
Poland, Romania,
Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal

D.R.G (1956).
Greece (1952), Turkey
Albania left in 1961 (as they
Other (1952) , F.R.G (1955), Spain
felt the U.S.S.R was
members (1982), Czech Republic
becoming too soft! ) Hungary
(year joined) (1999), Hungary (1999),
tried to leave in 1956 but
Poland (1999)
wasn’t allowed.

By 1949 the threat in

Western Europe no longer Mostly in response to the
came from Germany, but formation of N.A.T.O, as the
from the U.S.S.R. The West Soviets were worried about
Why was it had been shocked by the Europe uniting against them.
founded? takeover of Czechoslovakia. After 1968, being in the
The Soviets had far more Warsaw Pact was
1. Why was NATO set up? troops that the West, so the compulsory for Eastern Bloc
West needed to unite to countries.
2. What was the U.S.S.R’s reaction? prevent any invasion.

78
 Left: Stalin reaps what
he has sown in Europe:
by planting fear and "
suspicion, he has " "
inadvertently grown
NATO.

Different views of
NATO; The West
waits for Stalin’s Below: The view from both the U.S.S.R and the U.S.A - both think
response, above the other-side is intent on world domination. The Truman Doctrine,
right, and a Soviet Eastern Bloc, Nato and Warsaw Pact all ensure this paranoia from
cartoon shows both East and West.
NATO as a way for
the U.S.A to place
missiles in Europe,
below left.

79
 Section 8

Nuclear Timeline

Mutually Assured 1939

1942
First nuclear reaction occurs in America

The Manhattan Project begins

Destruction - M.A.D July 1945

The Trinity tests- America successfully detonates the
world’s first Atomic bomb

America drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and

August 1945
Nagasaki

With the aid of material stolen from the Manhattan

1949
project, the U.S.S.R tests its first atomic bomb.

The U.S build and test the first Hydrogen bomb. Britain
1952
develops its first atomic bomb.

1955 The U.S.S.R build and develop the Hydrogen bomb.

Britain tests its first hydrogen bomb.The U.S.S.R

1957
successfully test an ICBM.

America builds its first ICBM, and France detonates their

1960
first atomic bomb.

The People’s Republic of China detonate their first

1964
atomic bomb

‘I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but the Fourth World
War will be fought with sticks and stones.’
Albert Einstein
“Restraint? Why are you so concerned with saving their lives? The whole
idea is to kill the bastards. At the end of the war if there are two Americans
and one Russian left alive, we win!”
General Powers, Strategic Arm Command, U.S military
A bomb harnessing the power of splitting atoms. A typical
Atomic bomb
Atomic bomb had a yield of about 20 kilotons
A more powerful bomb made from Hydrogen. A typical yield
Hydrogen bomb
would be 15 megatons
Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile - a missile capable of hitting
ICBM targets thousands of miles away. Without the need for
bombers, it makes it harder to intercept.

80
 What was Mutually Assured Destruction?

Mutually Assured Destruction (M.A.D) was the idea that because both
the U.S and Soviets had enough nuclear weapons to destroy each other
many times over. Even with a surprise attack, both would face decimation.
As the yield increased with the development of the Hydrogen bomb, there
was a real possibility that the radioactive fallout from any nuclear war would
mean the end of human life on earth. Therefore, paradoxically, the more
both sides stockpiled weapons, the less either side could use them.

Above: both sides shoot arrows at each other to avoid using their nuclear weapons.
The sign says ‘On no account to be used- because the enemy might retaliate.’
Below: life in a in a nuclear fallout shelter. Despite government propaganda encourag-
ing civilians to build these, the reality was they would offer little protection in the event
of nuclear war.

Above: By the mid- 1970s, the two super-powers had over 50,000 nuclear
weapons between them, more than enough to exterminate all life on earth.

81
 The Doomsday Clock

The Doomsday Clock is a clock run by scientists, measuring how close humanity is to extinction. The closer the time is to midnight, the more peril
human civilisation is in. The closest the clock has ever been to midnight was in 1953, when the time was 11.58. The U.S and U.S.S.R were both building
Hydrogen bombs and the Korean war meant the chance of nuclear escalation remained a possibility. In 1984, the time reached 11.57, as a breakdown
in S.A.L.T talks (an agreement to limit the amount of nuclear weapons) an the fallout from Operation Able Archer, a NATO war-game that the Soviets
thought was a real attack on the U.S.S.R. Curiously, 1962 and the Cuban Missile Crisis - generally acknowledged to be the closest the cold war came
to a nuclear armageddon, only warranted a time of 11.53, due to the fact few outside of the Whitehouse or Kremlin realised how close nuclear war
was. Since 1991 and the collapse of the U.S.S.R, climate change has seen the clock inch closer to midnight. It is currently at 11.55.
82

Above: an American document showing the
casualty projections for an attack on the
U.S.S.R in 1961. Initial deaths, not including
fallout over time, are 108 million (54 % of the
population.) While harder to predict, casualties
of fallout and radiation were generally consid-
ered to be around the same as initial deaths.
Right: An American B-52 bomber
refuels in flight. Strategic Arm
Command kept at least 24 B-52’s
fully armed and in the air at all
times. This way, even a surprise
Soviet attack could not stop the
United States from launching re-
taliatory strikes. S.A.C were often
seen as being ‘hawks’, advising
bombing the U.S.S.R. Their
commander, Curtis Le May
advocated bombing Cuba during
the Cuban Missile Crisis - he called
the diplomatic outcome ‘America’s
greatest defeat.’ He is also quoted
as saying that S.A.C should bomb
the North Vietnamese back to ‘the
stone age.’
Right: Doctor Strangelove, a black
comedy about M.A.D. In the film, a
U.S general goes mad and sends
his planes to attack the U.S.S.R.
The president faces a horrific race
against time, to either stop these
planes before they hit their targets
in Russia, or launch a full nuclear
attack.
83
How effectively did the U.S.A
contain the spread of
Communism?

5
Focus Points
This Key Question will be explored through case studies of the following:
• America and events in Korea, 1950–53
• America and events in Cuba, 1959–62
• American involvement in Vietnam.

Specified Content
• Events of the Cold War
• Case studies of:
– American reactions to the Cuban revolution, including the missile crisis and its aftermath
– American involvement in the Vietnam War, e.g. reasons for involvement, tactics/strategy,
reasons for withdrawal
– American reactions to North Korea’s invasion of South Korea, involvement of the UN, course of
the war to 1953.
 How effectively did America contain the spread of Communism?

Kim Il Sung Korean Bay of Pigs.

K invades war ends
South Korea at 38th
O - U.N parallel.
R responds. C Batista
Cuban Missile Crisis.
E Chinese U overthrown
by Fidel
A forces
B Castro.
intervene
in Korea. A

1950 1953 1955 1961 1964 1967 1969

1975
1945
1949 1951 1954 1959 1962 1965 1968 1973

Geneva Peace Gulf of

conference Tonkin
Search & Vietnamisation
ignored- Diem incident.
begins.
V made leader of America Destroy
America starts to South Vietnam starts missions begin.
I give money to the
French defeated sending Peace between
at Dien Bien Phu. North and
E French in their ‘combat Gulf of Tonkin
South Vietnam.
advisors’ to resolution,
T fight against
Ho Chi Minh. Vietnam. Marines in
Tet Offensive,
My Lai
N Geneva Vietnam and
massacre. South Vietnam
Peace Rolling
A conference. Thunder,
falls to the
Communists.
M Napalm and
Agent Orange.

Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L.B.J Nixon Ford

85
Section 1

Korea Containment

Containment’ had
NSC 68

NSC stands for

Background
Communist China

From 1947 onwards,

Red scare/ McCarthy

Senator McCarthy

1950-1953
been American foreign
policy since 1945. This
meant containing
communism from
spreading - i.e Greece
in 1947. Any country
that was in danger of
becoming Communist
was given priority, and
aid could be financially,
politically, or militarily.
National Security there was civil war in proclaimed he knew of
Council , and NSC 68 China. Eventually, in ’57 Communists’ in the
was report 68, outlining 1949, Mao Se Tung U.S government. In the
how America needed to leads the Communists Early 1950s, America
take a more aggressive to victory. China is the was gripped with ‘Red-
stance on foreign second biggest country Scare.’ Anyone who
policy. ‘Containment’ in the world. was thought to have
was to be replaced with Communist China is Communist links or
‘roll-back’ - actively perilously close to sympathy (like
intervening in countries Japan, and now Oppenheimer and
that were already threatens America’s Chaplin) were
communist in order to sphere of influence. investigated. Truman
restore capitalist or pro- could not be seen as
western governments. being weak on
NSC was inspired by Communism.
the formation of
Communist China and
Soviet nuclear parity.

Key Figures

Mao Se Tung MacArthur Kim Il Sung Syngam Rhee

Who are they? Leader of General of U.N Leader of North Leader of South
Communist China forces Korea Korea

What were their Intervened in An American Had been wanting Despised by

actions during the January 1951 WWII hero, to attack South South Koreans for
Korean War? when he felt that MacArthur Korea since 1945, his corrupt
1) America’s reaction to North Korea’s invasion of U.N forces were
threatening China.
threatened China
with nuclear war if
but Stalin would
not support him.
leadership,
(Batista, Diem)
South Korea Given Soviet they intervened - By 1950, with he was taken by
equipment to fight relieved of duty nuclear parity and surprise by the
with. after this. Communist China North Korean
2) Involvement of U.N established, Stalin attack. In 1953 he
gave him the go did not want an
ahead. armistice- he
3) Course of the war wanted to push on
into North Korea.

86
September 1950 - N.Korea launches
surprise attack- push S.Koreans back to
Pusan.
October 1950 - U.N forces land at
Inchon and push back the N.Koreans,
past the 38th parallel and into North
Korea.
January 1951 - Chinese forces
invade across the Yalu river and
push the U.N forces back. The
U.S.S.R starts supplying aerial cover
(indirectly)
July 1953 - gradually the U.N forces
push the Chinese back to the 38th
Parallel, and an armistice (but not
peace treaty) is signed. S.Korea want
to continue the war.
 U.N China U.S.S.R

Do they get They agree to launch They feel threatened They do not want to get
involved? an immediate by the U.N’s directly involved, as despite
Why/ why not? defense of South advance, and want to nuclear power, Stalin fears
Korea, under U.S flex their muscles as war with America. Stalin
pressure. Their initial a new found power in does not think America will
aims are to restore the world. react in Korea, and is
Korea to its pre war surprised when they do. He
38th parallel border. supplies North Korea with
weapons and planes- pilots
are Soviet.

Do they achieve Their aims are Their aims are hard North Korea fails to conquer
their aims? achieved within to define, but they South Korea, Stalin has seen
months- but then, stop North Korea that the U.S will take an
under MacArthur, from falling to active stance against
they end up pushing Capitalism. Communism.
on into North Korea.
By 1953 they have
stopped South Korea
becoming
Communist- so have
achieved their aims.

Why is the U.S happy for the U.N to be involved?

It gives legitimacy to their cause, and makes it seem like it this is not a
U.S foreign policy aim, but they are acting on behalf of the U.N. Also, the
U.N adds troops and equipment, although 85% of the troops in Korea are
American, under the command of the American MacArthur.

Why do the U.N become involved in Korea?

U.S pressure the U.N intensely, and in post war Europe (and fearing the Did the U.S really ride to the rescue of the U.N? (above)
spread of Communism) many agree. The U.S.S.R is boycotting the U.N
because the U.N will not acknowledge Communist China. Without the
U.S.S.R, there is no one to veto the security council’s vote on Korea.

88
 Below - A U.S tank crew rest during a lull in the fighting. While the U.N
forces were multi-national, the vast majority of troops and equipment
came from America.

Hero of WWII, General Douglas MacArthur (above) . MacArthur nearly

starts WWIII by threatening China with nuclear weapons if they intervene.
He is swiftly removed from his post. Below, the USS Missouri, the venue for
the Japanese surrender, blast away at targets in North Korea.

89
Section 2
America and Cuba
1959 - 1962
Left: Khrushchev and J.F.K wrestle with deadly consequences. Above:
Cuba’s close proximity to the mainland meant it was of huge concern to
America to have a hostile Communist neighbour.
Cuba in the 1950s was governed by a corrupt dictatorship under Batista. Most Cubans
lived in poverty, working as labourers in the sugar and tobacco plantations. Many of
these were owned by American companies. The capital, Havana, was a playground for
American tourists: casinos and prostitution provided earnings for many. The government
did nothing for the majority and treated opponents brutally.
Fidel Castro and a surprisingly small army of revolutionaries fought the government and
defeated it in 1959, using guerrilla warfare. he Cuban revolutionaries were popular
because they promised land reform. That means, land will be taken from rich
landowners and divided up between the labourers who have no land. Castro was a
socialist. The Americans did not like Batista much, but soon they would hate Castro far
more.
The new government began to take over businesses in Cuba, such as plantations and
factories. The USA was the main market for Cuban sugar, but the American government
opposed Castro by banning trade with Cuba. So Cuba took over even more American
businesses and property. It turned to the USSR and its allies for help. The Soviets were
quick to make a deal with Castro, seeing a chance to gain an ally close to the USA. They
The Bay of Pigs
When April 1961
What was the plan? An American backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles.
The 1500 exiles had been trained and equipped by the
CIA, although America was not officially ‘involved’. The
plan was to land unopposed, and capture key airfields
and towns. The people of Cuba would then rise up and
overthrow Castro, restoring the Batista government.
What happened? The landings were a disaster - 200 men lost, the rest
captured. J.F.K denies any U.S involvement.
Why did it fail? • The CIA badly underestimated the strength of the
Cuban Army (supplied with U.S.S.R equipment).
• J.F.K decides at the last minute not too give the exiles
U.S. air support, as international opinion will be
negative (not to mention the U.S.S.R’s opinion)
• The people do not rise up to support the exiles- they
love Castro
90
nd has failed spectacularly)

s
 The Cuban Missile Crisis
After the Bay of Pigs invasion attempt more Soviet arms were provided to Cuba, making it
the best equipped army in Latin America by July 1962. The USA reluctantly accepted the
arms build-up as long as nuclear weapons were not included.
J.F.K warns the U.S.S.R that he would use any means
necessary to prevent Soviet missiles being sited in
September 11
Cuba. The U.S.S.R promises it will not place nuclear
missiles in Cuba.
American U2 spy-planes take photographs showing
October 14 evidence of nuclear missile sites being built. The sites
would soon be ready to use.
Above: The famous photograph which launched an international crisis.
Cuban missile sites were being prepared, and the U.S feared could be
operational in weeks.
Why did the Soviets put nuclear missiles on Cuba?
• Khrushchev wanted the missiles as a bargaining counter to extract concessions from the
Americans.
• The missiles were designed to test the will of the USA and of Kennedy in particular, the
young president who had seemed so weak over the Bay of Pigs. If he had backed down
the Soviets might have taken advantage elsewhere in the world.
• Khrushchev was so concerned about the American advantage in nuclear weapons, he
would try anything to close the gap.
Khrushchev’s position in the Soviet was under threat. He needed a bold success to raise
•
his prestige.
• The missiles were genuinely meant to defend Cuba. This was certainly the reason Khrush-
chev gave in his memoirs (Khrushchev Remembers, 1971). However, most memoirs
serve as a justification of the writer’s career. In Khrushchev’s case there is even doubt
they are genuine! (They were published when he died).
• They were a trap. Khrushchev wanted the Americans to be drawn into war.
What options did J.F.K have?
1) Do nothing - USA had more nuclear missiles than the USSR and threat of retaliation
against USSR would prevent Soviet missiles ever being fired from Cuba. Overreacting
would endanger world peace. But, this option looked weak, the Soviets had altered the bal-
ance of power and lied about their intentions.
2) Air strike - Destroy the missiles. Cuba an easy target. U2 reconnaissance was detailed.
But, could not guarantee destruction of every missile, so retaliation against American cities
possible. It would be more just to warn the other side first. Soviets on Cuba might be killed -
could start war with USSR.
3) Diplomatic pressure - Avoid war. Work through UN. Keep the moral high ground. But,
might fail to make progress and look weak. Khrushchev already believed Kennedy was weak
because of the Bay of Pigs failure. The Soviets would have assumed they could get away
with anything.
4) Invasion of Cuba - Destroy Castro government as well as missiles. Would have ap-
peared really tough. But, dangerous, as with air strike. Soviets might have tried to defend
Cuba by threatening USA or Western Europe. Could have escalated to full war with USSR.
5) Blockade - Tough, but not outright aggression. Would buy time and make Soviets choose
the next move. But, missiles already on Cuba could have been used soon. A naval
confrontation could escalate to war.
92
 8 DAYS THAT SHOOK THE WORLD
Consequences
October 20 Kennedy decided to blockade Cuba.
U.S.A U.S.S.R
October 22 Kennedy announced blockade to the world, calling on Khrushchev to
bring the world back from the brink of war. What is •U.S.A will not invade Cuba. •U.S.S.R will remove all missiles
agreed? •U.S.A will (secretly) remove from Cuba.
October 23 missile from Turkey.
Khrushchev letter to Kennedy. Soviets would ignore blockade. Still did
not admit to missiles. War now seemed more likely.
Are they J.F.K looks tough yet a Khrushchev claims victory, says he
happy? peacemaker. Does his has acted as a peacemaker. But
October 24 Blockade began. Soviet ships headed directly for Cuba, missiles clearly reputation much good. He some in the U.S.S.R see him as
visible on board some. At 10.32 am the Soviet ships closest to the acts cooly, ignoring the Hawks weak (see below).
blockade stopped. in his war room. But Cuba
remains Communist.
October 26 Khrushchev letter to Kennedy. Admitted to missiles. Claimed they were Conclusion Both sides realise that they were
re on the brink of M.A.D, and never
to defend Cuba. Suggested he would remove them if USA promised not come as close as this to nuclear war. Agree in 1963 a nuclear test
to attack Cuba and lifted the blockade. ban. Some in the U.S.S.R use KhKhrushchev's backdown against him
when he is removed from power in 1964.
October 27 Khrushchev sent another letter to Kennedy, before receiving a reply to
the previous. Khrushchev demanded US not to attack Cuba, lift
blockade and remove missiles from Turkey. Kennedy was not willing to
accept the deal as he would have appeared to give in to Soviet
pressure and do as they asked.
On the same day a U2 was shot down over Cuba and the pilot killed.
Kennedy was advised to launch an immediate attack on Cuba. This
was the causus belli (reason for war) that the US needed. Kennedy
delayed the decision. He opens secret negotiations with the U.S.S.R
through his brother, and is determined to resist the pressure of the
‘Hawks’ in his cabinet.
He replied to Khrushchev with an offer to accept the terms of the letter
of October 26. He ignored the second letter in his reply. He added a
threat to attack Cuba if no reply was received by October 29.

October 28 Khrushchev replied, effectively agreeing to Kennedy’s terms. Later, the

missiles were removed under UN supervision.
Above: ‘We’re eyeball to eyeball and the other fella just blinked’ - the world
holds its breath as the Soviet ships reach the blockade line and turn back.

93
Above: U.S propaganda showing how close Cuban missiles where to American cities.
Right: A Western cartoon showing J.F.K and Khrushchev struggling to keep a lid on
nuclear war.

It was a perfectly beautiful night, as fall nights are in Washington. I

walked out of the president’s Oval Office, and as I walked out, I
thought I might never live to see another Saturday night.

Robert McNamara, U.S Secretary of State, October 24th, 1962

94
Section 3

American involvement in the Vietnam war

Vietnam 1) Reasons for involvement

2) Tactics/strategy

1954-1975 3) Reasons for withdrawal

Background

Vietnam had been a French colony since 1862; the French had exploited
the Vietnamese and had not been popular rulers. Vietnam was invaded by
the Japanese during WWII. The USA and the USSR both gave weapons
and training to a guerrilla force that fought against the Japanese and aimed
to remove them from Vietnam. The Guerrilla force was called the Vietminh
and was led by Ho Chi Minh. When the Japanese were forced out of the
war the Vietnamese proclaimed a democratic Republic of Vietnam. The
victorious allies (USA, USSR, GB and France) decided that Vietnam should
be returned to the French. The Vietnamese did not like this and fighting
broke out between the Vietnamese and the French. By 1953 the people of
France opposed the war due to its costs: they had lost 90,000 men and
was placing a huge financial strain on the French economy. In 1954 the
French were decisively defeated at Dien Bien Phu. This defeat made up
the mind of French politicians: the French should leave Vietnam. On the 8th
May 1954 the France announced that they were pulling out of Vietnam.

Lee Harvey Oswalt assassinated J.F.K: feelings over Vietnam were that
strong, above.
95
 The Geneva Peace Conference

In April 1954 the foreign ministers of the USA, USSR, GB and France had
begun meetings in Geneva to see if they could bring about a peaceful "
solution to the conflicts in Vietnam.
After much negotiation they agreed that:
• Vietnam would be divided at the 17th parallel.
• North Vietnam would be governed by the Vietminh and Ho Chi Minh.
• The South would be governed by Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong opponent of
communism.
• The Vietminh would withdraw to the North.
• Anyone could choose to live in either the North or the South.
• A general election was to be held in 1956 to decide the fate of the Above: Thich Quang Duc sets himself on fire in protest at the treatment of
entire country. Vietnamese Buddhists by the South Vietnamese government.

National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh accepted these terms, because he was convinced that he (VIETCONG)
would win the elections. America predicted if they held free elections, the Set up December 1960
Communist Ho Chi Minh would get 80% of the vote. Remember America
had criticised Stalin for not holding free elections in Poland. But America
felt that holding elections would be too risky, so they never did. Made up from South Vietnamese opponents of the Government & North
Vietnamese Communists (taking orders from Ho Chi Minh)
Diem was proclaimed the head of the Republic of South Vietnam in 1955.
Diem was corrupt and showed little respect towards Buddhists, He was
deeply unpopular (Batista) but the U,S secretary of state said ‘we knew of The Vietcong starts a guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese
no one better.’ Diem was overthrown by the army in 1963, but America con- government.
tinued to support the new government, as they were also anti-communist.

These tactics are so successful that J.F.K starts sending ‘military

advisers’ to fight the Vietcong in 1962.

96
 Americ
can involvement in Vietnam

Date President Action

1949-1954 Truman/ U.S.A gives $500 million to the French to help them
Eisenhower fight Ho Chi Minh, worried about the newly founded
Communist China helping the North Vietnamese
1955 Eisenhower U.S.A ignores geneva peace conference and sets up
Republic of South Vietnam with Ngo Dinh Diem as
the leader.
1962 J.F.K U.S.A starts sending ‘military advisers’ to fight the
Vietcong. 11,500 sent by end of 1962
August 1964 L.B.J Gulf of Tonkin incident - U.S government pass the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
1964 L.B.J 23,000 ‘military advisers’ now in Vietnam
February 1965 L.B.J Americans start Operation Rolling Thunder
March 1965 L.B.J 3500 Marines land in Vietnam. Intervention now
official.
1965 L.B.J Americans start using Napalm and Agent Orange
Why did th
the U.S.A get involved in
n Vietnam?
1967 L.B.J Americans start Search and Destroy, under the new
strategy by General Westmorland. Containment Gulf of Tonkin Incident Public image

January 1968 L.B.J Tet offensive- surprise Vietcong offensive belittles The incident itself is
American claims the war is being won. America was worried Eisenhower sent
controversial, but there
1968 L.B.J Over 500,000 U.S troops now in Vietnam - the peak
about the ‘Domino money- J.FK sent
is no doubt that the
of American involvement. effect’ - that one advisors, L.B.J sent
U.S public would allow
communist country troops. Each one could
March 1968 L.B.J My Lai Massacre a Communist attack on
would quickly turn not be seen as being
1969 Nixon America looks to end involvement in Vietnam U.S forces without
through diplomacy and ‘Vietnamisation’. others around it soft on Communism,
response. Why the
communist too.China and only by Nixon’s
January 1973 Nixon Peace agreement signed between North and South U.S.S Maddox was
Vietnam. and the U.S.S.R reign had public
there in the first place
March 1973 Nixon Last American troops leave Vietnam. supplied weapons to support turned against
is a harder question to
the Vietcong. the war.
answer.
97
 Gulf of Tonkin ‘incident’
When August 1964
Vietcong patrol boats ‘attack’ the U.S.S Maddox.
Exact events are still debated today, and some
What happened? have argued that the American ships were not
attacked, but the episode was staged. Regardless
of the event itself, the consequences were clear.
LBJ is furious, and passes the Tonkin Gulf
Resolution - gave him power to ‘take all necessary
Consequences measures to prevent further aggression and
achieve peace and security.’ In effect, it was a free
pass to officially send the military into Vietnam.
Above: The U.S.S Maddox
Ma before the ‘attack’. L.B.J is supposedly said to
have remarked ‘our na
avy might well been shooting at whales for all I know.’
Tet Offensive
When January 1968
A huge surprise attack by the Vietcong on U.S
positions. Saigon is nearly captured, and the U.S
What happened? embassy has to be evacuated. Eventually the
attacks are defeated and territory is retaken by the
U.S forces.
10,000 Vietcong killed, many of them being the
most experienced and best Vietcong. But it
showed that the Vietcong were not close to
Consequences collapse, as some U.S politicians had said. And
showed the war was not close to ending. It was
hugely embarrassing for the U.S, although the
long-term effects were worse for the Vietcong.
Above: A U.S medic treats
t a casualty in Saigon. The U.S were shocked
by the scale and
d ferocity of the Tet Offensive and were initially
overwhelmed.
98
 My Lai massacre

When March 1968

Charlie Company are on a search and destroy
mission in South Vietnam. Intelligence tells them
What happened? there are 200 Vietcong in the My Lai area. Charlie
Company destroy My Lai village, killing 400. No
Vietcong are amongst the dead.
An investigation a year later into the incident
showed Charlie Company to be guilty, and 10 of
the soldiers were charged with war-crimes. Most
Consequences
served a few years in prison. America was
shocked at the scandal, and 70,000 people joined
the anti-war protests in November 1969

Above: the casualtiees from the My Lai massacre: 400 civilians, not Above: Americans support Lt. Galley, the squad leader involved in
Vietcong fighters. The pictures and subsequent army investigation the My Lai massacre. There is another victim in the ditch, but this
shocked America, and made many question the morality of their actions. time it is not Vietnamese peasants, it is U.S conscience.

99
 Tactic Guerrilla warfare Tactic Ho Chi Minh trail
Ambushes, booby traps, hit and run attacks: the refusal of the Vietcong to meet A huge tunnell complex spanning the whole of Vietnam, and entering
What is it? the U.S in open battle. When the U.S would attack, the Vietcong would retreat. What is it? into Cambodia
a and Laos. Meant the Vietcong could move troops and
When the U.S would withdraw, the Vietcong would attack. sup
pplies safely, and attack the U.S at any point.

How effective is it? Ve

ery effective- despite constant U.S bombing,
Very effective: history has shown it is nearly impossible to defeat a well
How effective is it? resourced guerrilla army (Boer War, Afghanistan). The Americans cannot use
their superior firepower to find and kill the Vietcong.

Vietcong tactics
Tactics Tunnels Tactic Hearts and Minds
Small localised tunnels, whe
ere the Vietcong could hide in after hit and run Winning the supp
port of the local population- being polite and friendly,
What is it? What is it?
attacks. helping with the harvest etc.

How effective is it? Very - booby traps protecte

ed the entrances, and they were well hidden. Very- meanss the Vietnamese are largely united against the
How effective is it? Americans. Howwever, the Vietcong would be ruthless with anyone
who helped tthe U.S : 27,000 civilians killed by the Vietcong .

100
 Tactics Rolling Thunder
The bombing of North Vietnamese industrial and military targets by the
What is it?
U.S.A.F. Gradually the targets began to include civilians.
Rolling Thunder did slow down the Vietcong war effort, but not critically.
How effective is it? Due to their tunnel system, the Vietcong were largely able to function as
normal. 90,000 civilians are killed, and around 500 pilots.
American tactics
Tactics Napalm
A highly flammable liquid which burns anything in its path.Used to take
What is it?
out bunkers and anywhere the Vietcong were rumored to be.
Controversial weapon, due to the horrific injuries it causes.Often used on
How effective is it? civilians by mistake. The Vietcong were rarely caught in the open so had
little effect on them.
Tactics Agent Orange
A highly toxic weedkiller. The idea was to destroy the jungle where the
What is it?
Vietcong hid. Dropped from planes or pumped into rivers..
ineffective- merely contaminated large areas of forest and poisoned rivers
How effective is it?
plants and civilians. Gave the U.S a bad reputation internationally.
Tactics Search and Destroy
U.S forces fly into enemy territory from heavily protected bases, using
What is it?
helicopters. They would find villages and destroy any Vietcong they find.
ineffective- intelligence was often wrong. U.S forces were often
How effective is it? ambushed, and often innocent villages were burn down. It made the U.S
very unpopular with Vietnamese civilians i.e the My Lai massacre .
101
 What did America think of Vietnam?
Vietnam was on of the first wars in history to be publicly televised,(above
left) with freelance journalists providing up to date, and often critical
views of what was really happening. Images such as the one to the left
were broadcast freely in America, and made the U.S public question the
legitimacy and morality of the war. In the picture, Vietnamese children
run screaming from their village, which has been hit by napalm. Some of
the children are naked because their clothes have been burnt off. Anti-
war protests (Above) were the largest in U.S history, and public opinion
soon swung against the war.. Black Americans did not have equality yet
could fight and die for their country. The Draft (conscription) when intro-
duced caused friction within the class systems, as upper class Americans
were often able to get out of service. Vietnam brought to the service
many problems in American society, and remains a controversial topic.

102
 Above: A U.S soldier snorts cocaine. Drug use soared with soldiers
serving, and was often seen as an escape from the horrors of war. Vet-
erans often returned with drug or alcohol addictions. Many others suf-
fered post traumatic stress disorders as a result of the things they wit-
nessed during the war (top-right and bottom right).

103
 Ending the war

Nixon wanted to pull U.S troops out of Vietnam as soon as he was elected
president, in 1969. The Tet Offensive and My Lai massacre had made
the American public question not just if they could win Vietnam, but if
America’s actions were moral. Vietnamisation was the process of
equipping the South Vietnamese army to take over from the U.S.
Gradually U.S troops withdraw, the last in 1973.

Without U.S support, the North quickly conquered the South. By 1975
Vietnam was a communist country, and still is today.

Why do the U.S fail

fa to contain commun
nism in Vietnam?
Above: Vietcong tanks storm the South Vietnam presidential palace as
Vietcong tactics American mistakes Public opinion people scramble to be evacuated from the U.S embassy in Saigon in 1975
American tactics are The My Lai massacre, (below). America had failed: Vietnam was Communist.
Vietcong tactics make it
often counter-productive Napalm, Agent
almost impossible for
and costly: Operation Orange, Rolling
America to win. The
Rolling Thunder, Agent Thunder: do these
Vietcong are well
Orange and Napalm all seem like the actions of
supplied (from China
kill civilians and give the the defender of
and the U.S.S.R),
Vietcong more recruits. democracy? The
motivated and united.
Search and Destroy American public thinks
They are expert guerrilla
further destroys any Vietnam is a crime, and
fighters, who use their
relationship with demand that the troops
tunnels, the Ho Chi
civilians. For all their are brought home. It
Minh trail and civilian
might, the U.S are stains the presidency of
population to their
unable to win a guerrilla L.B.J, and Nixon
advantage.
war. (amongst other things!)

104
 The Vietnam war in numbers
% of Americans who thought
Vietnam was a mistake in 1965
% of Americans who thought
Vietnam was a mistake in 1973
Estimated number of U.S troops in
Vietnam in 1969
American dead in Vietnam
Estimated number of Vietnamese
deaths in total
Cost of war for the U.S
Number of U.S citizens living in
Canada to avoid the draft
(conscription)
Cost of each Vietcong soldier killed
Tonnes of bombs dropped on
Vietnam
*2,700,000 tonnes of bombs were dropped
on Germany and Japan throughout WWII.
Who lost Vietnam?
24
Left: An American cartoon critcising
the U.S government for failing to
60
take responsibility for Vietnam; ‘Ike’
Eisenhower claims he just sent
500,000
money, ‘Jack’ J.F.K that he just sent
advisors, ‘Lyndon’ L.B.J that he just
58,000 followed J.F.K, ‘Dick’ Nixon that he
just honoured the commitments of
J.F.K and L.B.J. ‘Jerry’ Ford asks
3.1 million
‘what was the question’?’ possibly
implying Gerald Ford was not the
$200 billion brightest president to grace the
Whitehouse. At the bottom Henry
Kissinger, the man responsible for
70,000
much of American foreign policy in
the 1960s and 1970s, blames the
American people for not supporting
US$375,000
their leaders.
7,000,000*
105
Above left: American troops enter Vietcong territory on a search and destroy
mission. While helicopters provided plenty of mobility, they also gave the
Vietcong time to hide and prepare ambushes. Below left: Vietnamese civilians
take shelter during a firefight. Over 3 million Vietnamese civilians were killed
during the war. Above: A South-Vietnamese police officer executes a man
suspected of being a Vietcong spy. Atrocities were frequent on both sides, and
often civilians bore the brunt. In the last years of the war, the C.I.A instigated
Operation Phoenix, in an attempt to neutralise Vietcong activists using any
means necessary. The result was thousands murdered, often with little or no
evidence linking them to the Vietcong.

106
How secure was the U.S.S.R’s
control over Eastern Europe,
1948 - 1989?

6
Focus Points
• Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how
did the USSR react to this opposition?
• How similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia in 1968?
• Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
• What was the significance of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern
Europe?
• How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern
Europe?

Specified Content
• Soviet power in Eastern Europe:
– resistance to Soviet power in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968)
– the Berlin Wall
– ‘Solidarity’ in Poland
– Gorbachev and the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.
 Demands Events
Context

Czechoslovakia, 1968
How similar were events in
Hungary, 1956
Hungary in 1956 and in
Czechoslovakia in 1968?

Soviet
Events resistance reaction

Brain drain

Solidarity, 1980 timing

organisation

Unit 6: How secure was the

USSR’s control over Eastern Why was the
Success Europe, 1948 -c. 1989? Berlin Wall
non-violent
Economy built in 1961?

What was the significance of

‘Solidarity’ in Poland for the Propaganda
decline of Soviet influence J.F.K’s options

Glasnost over Eastern Europe?

How far was Gorbachev
Gorbachev
personally responsible for Effectiveness
the collapse of Soviet control
Perestroika
over Eastern Europe?
Other factors
Red army won’t economy
Afghanistan intervene social problems
bureaucracy

108
 Section 1
Hungary, 1956
1. Why was there Hungarian resistance to Soviet
rule in 1956?
2. How did the U.S.S.R react to this ?
Background
In 1956 Hungary was still ruled by the Communist Rakosi. Many
Hungarians were unhappy for a number of reasons:
• they had lost their freedom of speech
• they lived in fear of the secret police (AVH)
• some areas of Hungary had Russian street signs or names
• Hungary had to pay for the thousands of Soviet troops stationed there.
A group of within the Hungarian Communist
June 1956
party oppose Rakosi publicly. Rakosi asked
Moscow for support - they suggested he retire
for ‘health reasons’.
Massive student demonstration against the new
23 October 1956 leader Erno Gero, who is no more popular than
Rakosi. Statue of Stalin pulled down (see left).
The U.S.S.R let the popular Imre Nagy form a
new government. He promises free elections, to
Late October 1956 leave the Warsaw Pact, and demands the
withdrawal of Soviet troops. Soviet troops begin
to leave Hungary.
Soviet tanks roll into Budapest, and crush the
bitter opposition. In 2 weeks, some 3000
Hungarians and 8000 Soviets are killed. Nagy
November 1956
and his government are arrested and killed.
Janos Kader, a hard-line Communist, is put in
place as new leader
Kader has crushed all resistance, with about
35,000 anti-communists arrested. Kader slowly
January 1957
introduces some minor reforms, but Hungary
remains in the Warsaw Pact
How does the West react?
They protest to the U.S.S.R, but are pre-occupied with the Suez crisis. There is
little they can do practically other than apply diplomatic pressure.
109
Section 2

Czechoslovakia: the Background

After 20 years of Communism, by 1968 most Czechs were beginning to

Prague Spring,1968 ask if anything had improved. Alexander Dubcek became the new
leader of the Czech Communist party and he promised a policy of
socialism with a human face’ : less censorship, more freedom of
speech and less activity by the secret police. This gave people hope
that things were going to change.

The Prague Spring

Dubcek had seen how events had unfolded in Hungary, so assured

Brezhnev that he was not going to leave the Warsaw Pact. Dubcek
was still a committed Communist, he just felt it didn’t have to be so
restrictive.

With censorship eased, Czech intellectuals attacked their Communist

leaders through the press, pointing out their corruption and inefficiency.
Some even had the radical idea that another political party, the Social
Democratic Party, should be set up to rival the Communists.

1. Why was there Czech resistance to Soviet rule in Why was the U.S.S.R desperate to keep Czechoslovakia?

1968? • It had one of the largest economies in COMECON

• It was close to Western Europe
2. How did the U.S.S.R react to this ?
• They were worried others would follow the Czech example
3. How similar was this to the uprising in Hungary?

110
Brezhnev came under pressure from Walter Ulbricht (leader of D.G.R)
and Gomulka (Poland) to not allow reform to happen in Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia Albania
Both are worried their own citizens will start to ask for the same rights.
Czechoslovakia felt a sense Albania left the Warsaw
of despair and betrayal. Pact in 1968, because they
Many writers such as Milan felt that the U.S.S.R had
Kundera wrote novels from been too liberal since
The U.S.S.R tried to slow Dubcek’s reforms down by arguing with him, exile criticizing the U.S.S.R Stalin’s death! Brezhnev let
then staging military exercises on the Czech border. This didn’t work. It them leave, as they weren't
couldn’t impose economic sanctions as it was worried Dubcek would turn considered important.
to the West for help. Consequences

Brezhnev
July 1968 - the U.S.S.R had a summit with Dubcek. He agreed not to Brezhnev made the Brezhnev Doctrine. The essentials of Communism
form the Social Democratic Party, but to most of his other reforms. The were now:
tension seemed to have gone.
• A one-party system
• Being in the Warsaw Pact
The Doctrine also said that the U.S.S.R would intervene anywhere
20th August 1968 - the world is shocked as Soviet tanks move into
where it sensed Communism was in threat.
Czechoslovakia. There is little violent resistance, but many Czechs refuse
to co-operate with the Soviets. Dubcek is removed from power.
Brezhnev is terrified more
will ask for the same
freedom as
Czechoslovakia, Right.
Czech civilians protest, Far
left, but most try to get on
with their lives, left, further
disillusioned with their
Soviet masters.

111
 Why do the U.S.S.R appear more lenient to
Comparison
Czechoslovakia than Hungary?

Hungary 1956 Czechoslovakia 1968

• Czechoslovakia was more important economically and politically than
Hungary, and the Soviets were worried about potential defection to the
West. Albania had been allowed to leave the Warsaw Pact as it was not
Disillusioned locals, deemed important.
Disillusioned locals fed up
particularly intelligencia -
with the secret police, lack • Resistance was non-violent in Czechoslovakia - more violence was
artist, writers etc. unnecessary
Background of freedom and cost to
Spearheaded by Dubcek-
Hungary of Soviet
but not wanting to stop • Khrushchev had to show that he was strong in 1956 after
occupation, ‘de-Stalinisation’ - Brezhnev was in a more stable position in 1968.
Communism.

• lift on censorship
• free elections
•Social Democratic Party to
•Hungary to leave Warsaw
Demands be set up
Pact
• less activity by the secret
• Soviet troops to leave
police

Tanks moved in. Dubcek

Tanks moved in. Nagy demoted and removed from
U.S.S.R reaction
arrested and killed. power, but not killed. He is
later censored from photos.

Fierce - thousands killed,

mostly non-violent - in the
Resistance took several months to
form of exiled writers etc.
quell the unrest. Non-violent resistance by the people of Prague in the face of Soviet
aggression, above.

112
 Section 3

The Berlin Wall,1961 1950 - 1959 - A ‘cooling off’ period

After the tension of the late 1940s, culminating in the Berlin Blockade,
there was a relative period of better relations between the two
superpowers. This was for a number of reasons:

1) Khrushchev- Khrushchev had come into power after the death of

Stalin in 1953. At first he was cautious, consolidating power. Only in
1956 did he launch an attack on Stalin’s legacy, and the ‘cult of
Stalin’. He was too busy focusing on internal politics to worry about
foreign affairs.

2) Atomic parity - in 1949 the Soviets had detonated their first atomic
bomb. Now the U.S.A were no longer the sole country with atomic
capability, it actually made relations more stable. The U.S.S.R now
felt more secure about their security, and less likely to be overly
aggressive to compensate for U.S atomic monopoly. The U.S were
less likely to use atomic weapons to try and intimidate the Soviets, as
Above: Berliners had to peer over the wall to see their neighbours, and
they had in 1949 in Berlin.
sometimes even family.
3) Korea - the U.S.S.R had been surprised that America had taken such
an active role in Korea, and now saw that the U.S would not appease
them as the West had done to Hitler.
1. Why was the Berlin wall built?

2. What was the West’s reaction?

3. How effective was it?

113
 1959 - 1961 - Tensions heat up again
Between 1959 and 1961 the Cold War heats up again.
1959 - Batista is overthrown in Cuba, and Fidel Castro seizes power. The
U.S.S.R gives support to newly Communist Cuba.
1960 - An American U2 spy plane is shot down over the Soviet Union, and
its pilot, Gary Powers, is captured. This is embarrassing for Eisenhower; not
only does he have to admit the U.S.A is spying on the U.S.S.R, one of his
planes has been shot down.
Khrushchev was now established, and had consolidated his power
successfully at home. Now he felt secure at home, he could afford to be
more aggressive in his foreign policy.
1961- J.F.K had just been elected, replacing Eisenhower. J.F.K was young
and politically inexperienced, and Khrushchev said that J.F.K was ‘too
intelligent and too weak’ after meeting for the first time. Khrushchev had
recognised that Eisenhower was a tough negotiator and could not be bul-
lied: he felt differently about J.F.K. The U.S.S.R gives the West an ultima-
tum: leave Berlin in 6 months or Berlin will be handed over to the D.G.R,
and access restricted for the West. The deadline for this ultimatum passes-
the U.S.S.R does nothing.
April 1961- The whole world had seen the Bay of Pigs fiasco - J.F.K had
been indecisive and weak. Now seemed the time for the Soviets to test the
new president.
The Situation of East-Berlin
Berlin was a symbol of the East-West divide- although deep in the Soviet Zone,
Capitalism and Communism lived side by side. The West had pumped money
into West Berlin; the U.S.S.R had not, taking more out than they put in (remem-
ber the U.S.S.R still wanted to take reparations from Germany. East Berliners
had to see the high standard of living of the West Berliners, and discontent
spread.
‘Brain-drain’
This led to a incessant flow of highly skilled labourers and intellectuals from East
Berlin to West Berlin. Factories may have to be closed on a Monday because
half the workers had defected to East Berlin over the weekend. Berlin was also
a gateway to West Germany - People could travel in Berlin, cross the divide into
West Berlin, then fly to West Germany. Some 3.5 million people crossed from
East Berlin to West Berlin from 1945-1961.
Riots
Brain-drain was further damaging the economy - and the Soviet response was
to raise taxes and working hours. (remember, unlike the West, the East took
more money out East Berlin & East Germany than it put it).
June 1953 - 40,000 workers protest about conditions, and around 200 people
were killed, with 5000 arrested.
114
 15th June Ubricht says at an international conference that ‘no wall
1961 is going to be built in Berlin.’

Overnight, Soviet guards start erecting barbed wire

17th August
fences, and over the next few days, a concrete wall: the
1961
Berlin Wall. Ubricht says it is an anti-fascist rampart!

Left - the wall being

built under the
watchful eye of So-
viet guards. Above -
the wall ran all
around West Berlin,
isolating it com-
The first East Berliner is killed trying to cross the wall . pletely. Right- watch-
22nd August
200 hundred will die over the next 38 years trying to towers were quickly
1961
escape. added, along with
barricades,
resembling a prison.

115
 The Options for the Westt The West choose to do nothing - J.F.K said that :

‘it wasn’t worth starting WWIII over a wall.’

Advantages Disadvantages The West did choose to send more men to West Berlin, to show the
Soviets that they would not abandon Berlin. This lead to flash-points
like the one below.
Likely to cause a war.
The West still have
1) Smash down Shows strength, and Standoff at the
far fewer men than
the wall using J.F.K shows that he will Brandenburg gate.
the U.S.S.R in
force. not be bullied over
Germany - nuclear The Brandenburg gate, by
Berlin. Checkpoint Charlie, saw a
weapons will have to
military escalation that threat-
be used.
ened war. In October 1961,
and American diplomat had
No risk of war, and Looks weak, and his papers checked when
2) Do nothing taking action is hard makes the Soviets passing through into East
logistically. think they have won. Berlin. The next day, he
ordered U.S tanks to deploy
by the checkpoint. The
3) Use diplomacy Soviet tanks did the same,
to try and shame Takes moral high- and faced each other, only
May take time, and 100 yards apart. For 12
the U.S.S.R into ground, makes U.S.S.R
may be ineffective. hours, they had a standoff,
taking the wall look bad.
with weapons fully loaded.
down. One slip or miscalculation
could start WWIII. Finally,
Note how these options are very similar to the options America has the lead Soviet tank re-
during the Berlin Blockade. Khrushchev felt: treated 10 yards. The first
‘Berlin was the testicles of the West: I only have to squeeze it and they American tank did the same.
will scream.’ The situation was defused.

116
 J.F.K’s greatest moment?
Is the wall effective?

‘Ich bin ein Berliner.* Around 5000 people are thought to have escaped over (or under) the
wall between 1961 and 1989, with around 200 killed in their attempt.
There are many people in the world who
really don't understand, or say they don't, Is the West happy?
what is the great issue between the free
They win praise for refusing to abandon Berlin. They realise (see below)
world and the Communist world.
Let them come to Berlin.’ that the wall turns out to be a propaganda disaster for the U.S.S.R, so
are probably secretly happy.
J.F.K in June 1963, addressing West Berlin.
Is the U.S.S.R happy?
* I am a Berliner. (although also a popular donut in Berlin, prompting some to say that
The wall largely stops the brain-drain, so it is a success. The economy
J.F.K had claimed he was a jelly donut.)
of East Berlin slowly improves, but is still no-where the level of West
Berlin. However, in terms of propaganda, it was a disaster. Berlin was a
snap-shot of capitalism vs. communism. Yet the Soviets had to build a
wall up to stop the communists leaving! However much they tried to
Left: ‘Look how many are pretend the wall was to keep the capitalists out, the whole world could
staying on our side’ clearly see it was to keep the communists in.
boasts Khrushchev in this
satirical Western cartoon.
Left: An American
Try as they might, the
cartoon showing the
Soviets could do little to
problem that the
persuade the world that
Soviets faced in
East Berliners stayed by
Germany. The Berlin
choice.
wall largely stopped
this problem, but
won the East few
friends.

117
Section 4

Solidarity, 1980 Background

Conditions in Poland in 1980 were bad. The economy was weak, and the
Communist government controlled food prices, working hours and
conditions. Forming trade unions and striking were banned.

Workers in Gdansk at the Lenin Shipyard go on strike.

Their leader is Lech Walesa. He gives the government
a list of 21 demands. The key points are:
August 14
1980 •the rights of workers to create their own trade unions
• the right to strike without government interference
•an increase in the pay of workers
•Saturday to be a day off
Walesa meets with Stanislaw Kania, head of the Polish
government to discuss his demands. They agree to find
Lech Walesa and striking workers at the Lenin shipyards, 1980 a peaceful solution. Kania agrees to some of Walesa’s
August
demands, including the right to form trade unions and
1980
go on strike. Walesa tells the workers to call off their
strike. This is called the Gdansk agreement, or social
1. What was ‘Solidarity’? accord.
2. How significant was Solidarity in the decline of Solidarity is established as the first trade union in
September
Soviet control over Eastern Europe? Poland. Over the next 18 months, 10 million people
1980
join!

118

Why does the Polish government agree to Walesa’s demands?
1 - Organisation - Solidarity was highly organised. It had decision making
committees, a chain of command and official spokes-persons. It even had
an official newspaper, Solidarnosc, which was distributed throughout
society.
2 - Demands - Solidarity’s demands were very carefully chosen to only
address economic issues, not political ones. Therefore it was not seen
as a threat to the regime.
3- Membership - Solidarity had massive support and membership, as their
aims were relevant to all of Polish society, not just ship-builders. They were
too large to ignore.
4 - Key industries - Solidarity had control of key industries to the Polish
economy, such as ship building. Further strikes or disruption would
damage the Polish economy further,
5 - Walesa - Walesa was charismatic and seen as trustworthy. He united
the workers and 95% of the Polish people said they believed in him.
6- Non-violence - Walesa was committed to non-violent protest, This
meant that he was seen as less of a threat against the government, and he
attained an almost spiritual like status. The West loved him, further adding
to his popularity.
7- The Pope- Solidarity had support of Pope Jean Paul II. Poland is a
devoutly Catholic country, so any attack on Solidarity could be seen as an
attack on Catholicism itself.
The Empire strikes back
July 1981 - Solidarity announce that they supported workers rights
and the creation of trade unions in all eastern european countries, not
just Poland. Suddenly, they have become a political threat.
October 1981 - Kania is removed from his position after he is caught
on tape making negative remarks about the U.S.S.R. Kania and
Walesa had a good relationship.
Kania is replaced by General Wojciech Jaruzelski, head of the
Polish Army. He is a hard-line Communist.
Solidarity had become fractured. Some groups were extreme and
violent, and were beyond Walesa’s control. Walesa called for unity,
but by this time Solidarity had become to big to control.
The Red Army start training exercises on the Polish border. The mes-
sage is clear - if Jaruzelski doesn’t deal with Solidarity, they will.
Jaruzelski starts negotiations with Solidarity, while secretly preparing
to take action against them
13 December 1981 Jaruzelski says Solidarity are going to overthrow the
government, and acts:
•Solidarity was now a criminal organisation, membership was punishable
by prison
•10,000 Solidarity members, including Walesa, arrested
•Martial law declared- Army patrolled the streets, and anyone could be
arrested, without cause.
119
 Mikhail Gorbachev becomes the new leader of the U.S.S.R. He
realises that he needs to reform the U.S.S.R, as it as become politically
1985 and economically paralysed. He introduces glasnost- which means
political transparency. As a result of this new policy, Jaruzelski releases
Walesa and other members of Solidarity from jail.

Polish economy is in terrible condition ,even worse than in 1980. The

Polish government announce a 40% increase in prices. Walesa
1988
immediately organises a large strike. Negotiations happen for over a
year.

Gorbachev passes another reform: The Red Army will no longer

March 1989
intervene if there are protests by citizens in the Eastern Bloc.

Above: A western cartoon showing the Red Army coming to the Solidarity declared a legal organisation again, and Solidarity decide to
April 1989
‘aid’ of the Polish Government. Many thought that Jaruzelski run in the elections in June.
had made up the allegations that solidarity were planning to
overthrow the Polish government.
Solidarity win a landslide victory over the Communists, becoming the
June 1989
first non-Communist government since 1945.

December
Walesa replaces Jaruzelski as President of Poland.
1990

120
 How significant was Solidarity in the decline of Soviet control over
Eastern Europe?

Solidarity was obviously a hugely significant movement, but Gorbachev’s

reforms like glasnost were more important in the liberation of Eastern
Europe. Without glasnost, Solidarity would not have been released from jail,
and legalised again. However, the sheer size (10 million members), and
their methods (non-violent protests and strikes) meant that it was too large
to be ignored, and Gorbachev saw that the people in Eastern Europe were
no longer going to stand for a second rate quality of life.

Why did Solidarity succeed when Czechoslovakia and Hungary failed?

Organisation - Solidarity was well organised, and had clearly defined aims,
which (to begin with) were not political. By the time the Polish government
realised Solidarity was a threat, it already had 10 million members

Timing - The U.S.S.R in the 1980s was far weaker than in 1956 or 1968,
and so was far more likely to give into the pressure strikes could cause.

Non-violence - Hungary witnessed violent resistance, which made it easier

for the U.S.S.R to crush opposition. In 1968 there was little violent Above: The U.S.S.R tries desperately not to let the other countries in
resistance, and this reflected the leniency given to the leaders. the U.S.S.R see what can be achieved if countries fight for the freedom.

Gorbachev- glasnost made it possible for Solidarity to succeed." "

Khrushchev and Brezhnev were never going to make similar reforms.

121
Section 5

Gorbachev and the end of When Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he realised the U.S.S.R had
several major problems:

Soviet control over Eastern 1. The arms race with the U.S.A could not be afforded

Europe 2. The Soviet system had become corrupt and inefficient

3. Afghanistan had become ‘Russia’s Vietnam’.

4. The Soviet economy was weak and backwards

5. Crime, alcoholism and drugs were becoming a major problem.

6. People were dissatisfied with Soviet censorship

Mikhail Gorbachev: the man often

credited with ending the cold war. The
vanguard of a new class of liberal and
radical soviet, his announcement as
Premier signaled a change for the
U.S.S.R.

" Above :West Berliners tear down the Berlin Wall , 1989
To try and solve the problems, Gorbachev did the following:

1. withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan

1. Why did Soviet control over Eastern Europe
2. opened the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (S.T.A.R.T) with the U.S.A
collapse?
3. allowed perestroika (competition in business- capitalism!)
2. How far was Gorbachev personally responsible
4. allowed glasnost (transparency in politics)
for this?
122
 The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe The end of the Soviet Union

" •"Thousands of East Germans escape through

September By December 1991, all of Eastern Europe had overthrown their communist
Czechoslovakia and Austria into West Germany
1989 governments and had established free, capitalist democracies. All of the
oppressed states in the USSR (e.g. the Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Esto-
" •"Huge protests appear in Berlin and other East German nia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and numerous others.) were also all
cities; East Germany’s leader tells the army to shoot the declared free from the control of communism.
October 1989 protestors, but the army refuses. Again, Gorbachev
publicly reminds Eastern Europeans that the Red Army
will not oppose protestors. On December 25, 1991, Christmas Day, Gorbachev delivered a televised
speech announcing the end of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold
" •"The Berlin Wall is dismantled by citizen protestors. War.
East German guards throw down their rifles and assist the
protestors in smashing down the wall. East and West
November Germany is reunified.
How far was Gorbachev personallly responsible for the the collapse
1989 " •"Huge demonstrations in Czechoslovakia. Czech
government opens its borders with Western Europe of Soviet control ov
ver Eastern Europe
allowing people to leave. Non-communist political parties
are legalized. Elections scheduled.
Gorbachev Other factors
" •"In Romania, there is a revolution. Romania’s
communist dictator, Nicholae Ceausescu is captured
and executed. glasnost - this means
long term economic problems had
movements like Solidarity can
December " •"In Hungary, the Communist Party renames itself the always troubled the U.S.S.R
1989 Socialist Party and schedules free elections with other, legally exist
non-communist parties
perestroika- moves away from
" •"In Bulgaria, huge demonstrations against the U.S.S.R facing social problems
communism, shows eastern bloc
government such as alcoholism and crime
countries an alternative
" •"The revolution spreads INTO the USSR. Latvia leads
the Baltic republics in demanding independence from the long term social factors- people
March 1990 Red Army will no longer be used to
USSR. Georgia and others soon follow and win their wanted the same standard of living
freedom. control civil unrest in Eastern Bloc
as the West.

123
Causes of the collapse of the U.S.S.R : Decades of corruption
and in-efficiency mean the U.S.S.R is no where near as powerful
as the Kremlin would have Soviets believe (above left).
Gorbachev raises a ‘Enfant terrible’ in glasnost. While seeming
a good idea at the time, it caused huge problems across the
Soviet Union as people demanded their liberty (top right).
Gorbachev releases the doves of peace from their cage, buries
the cold war, arms race and soviet dictatorship and plants the
seeds of democracy. Not bad for a day’s work! (left)
Depth Study:
Germany
1918-1945

7
1.Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?

2.Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1933?

3.The Nazi regime

 Specified Content
• The Revolution of 1918 and the establishment of the Republic
Depth Study B: Germany, 1918–45 • The Versailles Settlement and German reactions to it

1 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start? • The Weimar Constitution, the main political divisions, the role of the army
• Political disorder, 1919–23:
Focus Points
– economic crises and hyper-inflation
• How did Germany emerge from defeat at the end of the First World War?
– the occupation of the Ruhr
• What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles on the Republic?
• The Stresemann era
• To what extent did the Republic recover after 1923? • Cultural achievements of the Weimar period
• What were the achievements of the Weimar period? • The early years of the Nazi Party:
– Nazi ideas and methods
2 Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934? – the Munich Putsch
Focus Points – the roles of Hitler and other Nazi leaders
• What did the Nazi Party stand for in the 1920s? • The impact of the Depression on Germany:
• Why did the Nazis have little success before 1930? – political, economic and social crisis of 1930–33
• Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor by 1933? – reasons for the Nazis’ rise to power
• How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933–34? – Hitler takes power
– the Reichstag Fire and the election of 1933
3 The Nazi regime • Nazi rule in Germany:
– the Enabling Act
(a) How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–45?
– the Night of the Long Knives
Focus Points
– the death of Hindenburg
• How much opposition was there to the Nazi regime?
– the removal of opposition
• How effectively did the Nazis deal with their political opponents?
– methods of control and repression
• How did the Nazis use culture and the mass media to control the people?
– use of culture and the mass media
• Why did the Nazis persecute many groups in German society?
• Economic policy including re-armament
• Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?
• Different experiences of Nazi rule:
(b) What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?
– women and young people
Focus Points
– anti-Semitism
• How did young people react to the Nazi regime?
– persecution of minorities
• How successful were Nazi policies towards women and the family?
– opposition to Nazi rule
• Did most people in Germany benefit from Nazi rule?
• Impact of the Second World War on Germany:
• How did the coming of war change life in Nazi Germany?
– the conversion to war economy
– the Final Solution.
Section 1

1.Was the Weimar Republic

doomed to fail from the How did the Weimar Republic work?

start?
President
How does the Weimar Republic come into power?

October 1918 Allies offer terms for an armistice - but Germany must be
more democratic. The Allies are clearly going to win the war, Appoints Appointed Controls
but have not invaded Germany yet. judges
November 1918 Kaiser Wilhelm II refuses to make these changes, and
orders his generals to fight on. Sailors in Kiel mutiny and Armed Forces
uprisings all over Germany soon follow. Courts Chancellor
9th November 1918 The Kaiser realises his situation is useless, and abdicates. He
leaves Germany for the Netherlands. Appointed
11th November 1918 Frederich Ebert becomes the new leader of Germany - the
Weimar Republic. He immediately signs an armistice with the local governments
Allies. WWI is over; Germany is a democracy. Government Ministers

Government must send laws

Weimar Constitution to Reichstag for approval
Elected Elected
Anyone (man or This made it amongst the most progressive country in Europe. every 7
woman) over 20 Women in Britain (under 30), could not vote until 1928. years Reichstag
could vote
Proportional If one party received 20%of the votes, they received 20% of
representation the seats in the Reichstag. This is the fairest way of voting. Elected
Article 48 Emergency powers meaning the President could rule without
consulting the Reichstag.
All people over 20
Freedom of speech Government censorship is lifted. Art and Literature also have
their censorships removed.
freedom of religion Freedom for any religion to be practiced. Important, given the
anti-semitism that becomes Nazi policy later.

127
 Spartacist Uprising

Political Spectrum in Germany, 1919

Left Wing Middle Right

Wing

Communists Social Fascists

Spartacists Democrats Friekorps
Weimar Judges
Republic Army

Problems the WR face immediately

Issue Why is it a problem for the WR?

Article 48
Armed forces/ Judges
Local governments
Proportional representation
November criminals
Opposition
When January 1919
Meant the President could rule as a dictator! Was very vague about
what ‘emergency’ meant: Ebert uses Article 48 126 times!
Who Spartacists (German Communists) led by Rosa Luxembourg &
Both Generals and Judges tended to be Right-wing, as they were left- Karl Liebknech
over from the Kaiser’s government. This meant the WM could not
trust its army or courts -( Kapp’s Putsch and Hitler’s trial.)
Events Spartacists seize power in Bavaria, Communist Worker’s
Local governments have a lot of power, and sometimes do not listen Councils set up all over Germany.
to the WR. Remember Germany has been united for less than 50
years.
How is it put The Friekorps are sent in, and after bloody fighting, it is crushed.
While undoubtably fair, it leads to too many small parties in the
Reichstag, with each one unable to get a majority to rule. There were
down?
28 parties in the Reichstag at the first election! Coalition governments
are slow to act and often indecisive due to individual aims.
Why is it The bloody way in which it is put down creates long-lasting
dangerous for the bitterness between the Communists and the Government. The
The fact that the Weimar Republic had signed the armistice, not WR? fact the Friekorps have to be used shows that the WR is weak.
Hindenburg (or the Army), give rise to the idea that Germany had
been stabbed in the back, and those who signed it were the
‘November criminals.’ When Ebert signs the TOV, it only increases the
Evaluation Well dealt with, if heavy handed. Scared of Germany being
myth.
engulfed in a civil war like Russia, Ebert acted tough. The
The Weimar Constitution was very radical, and the Left Wing and Weimar Republic’s first test was over, but new crises were not
Right Wing both disliked it. The Left wanted a Communist revolution, far away.
like in Russia.The Right wanted a return to the dictatorship of the .
Kaiser.

128
 June 1919 - Treaty of Versailles is signed. Kapp’s Putsch

With the Kaiser gone, who else is there to blame but the Weimar Republic? Ebert’s
opponents used the TOV as an excuse to attack the WR. Ebert did not want to sign
the TOV, as he felt the terms were unfair, but he had little choice: the Allies would of
invaded if he had not signed. It is another huge problem for the WR to deal with.

When March 1920

Who Dr. Wolfgang Kapp and 5000 Friekorps

Events Friekorps move into Berlin, army refuses to fire on

How is it put down?
them. Hindenburg sends the rebels his best wishes,
and neither supports them or resists them. The workers
of Berlin go on strike, meaning there is no power,
electricity or water. Kapp flees Germany.
Strikes by the workers mean the rebels cannot hope to
rule the country- it is clear the people won’t co-operate.

Above: a German cartoon about the Treaty of Versailles, 1919. The
mother is saying to the son ‘when we have paid 100 billion marks
then we can eat.’
Why is it dangerous for the It shows the WR cannot rely on the army. By taking no
WR? action, Hindenburg effectively endorses the rebels.
Evaluation Successfully put down, but is it down to the people
supporting the WR or the people disliking the
Friekorps? (Workers are more likely to be Left-Wing)
.

129
 1923 - A year of Crisis
Germany can’t afford the reparations - no payments are made in 1922

French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr in January 1923

The troops take what was owed to them in the form of raw materials and goods.

Ebert orders the German workers to carry out passive resistance (go on strike)

Left, a women burns money to keep

warm as it was cheaper than wood.
The French troops kill 100 workers who are protesting
Above, children play with bundles
of worthless money. Below, the
exchange rate of Pound Sterling to
Ebert continues to pay the striking workers, and combined with no goods being pro-
duced in the Ruhr, the WR is short on money German Mark,

July 1914 £1=20 marks

The WR prints more money to pay workers , and replace the money being lost by the
strike. January 1919 £1= 35 marks

January 1920 £1= 256 marks

This causes Hyper-inflation - money became worthless. Middle -class families with January 1921 £1= 256 marks
savings lose it all.
January 1922 £1= 764 marks
Hitler sees the chaos, and launches the Munich Putsch , in November 1923 January 1923 £1= 71,688 marks

September 1923 £1= 1,413,648 marks

The Putsch fails, and Hitler is arrested. However, he gets a very lenient sentence (judge October 1923 £1=3,954,408,000,000 marks
is right-wing), and spends his time in prison writing Mein Kampf.
November 1923 £1=1,680,800,000,000,000 marks
130
 Munich Putsch

Weaknesses of Opponents Swift action by Ebert

Neither the Communists or Acts swiftly against

Friekorps attract popular the Spartacists
support (although not using
the army)

Why does the Weimar Republic

When November 1923
survive from 1918-1923?
Who Adolf Hitler, Kahr, Ludendorff, 3000 SA

Events Hitler plots with Kahr to stage an uprising. Former general

Ludendorff is also involved. At the last minute, Kahr changes
his mind. Hitler and his SA find Kahr in a beerhall and force
him to rebel. Kahr, however, warns the army. The next day
the army clash with the SA.. 16 SA are killed, Hitler is Stability Support of the people?
arrested.
While many politicians were The people go on strike
How is it put down? The army acts decisively, and open fire on the SA. Many SA during the Kapp’s
flee. unenthusiastic about the Weimar
Constitution, most people Putsch, and don’t rise up
Why is it dangerous It comes at a time of crisis- hyper-inflation, and there is no
probably wanted a period of in the Munich Putsch.
for the WR? guarantee the army will help. Also Ludendorff is a former war Whether it is because of
hero - he may rouse popular support with the people. stability after WWI, and were
prepared to give the WR a support for the WR or
Evaluation Hitler thinks the people will rise up and support him; he is
chance just a dislike of the right-
clearly wrong. The WR deals with it fairly quickly and wing is harder to decide.
efficiently, but ironically the trial of Hitler makes him infamous
- he gains publicity and spends his time in prison writing
Mein Kampf.
.

131
 Gustav Stresemann saves the Republic?
1924- 1929: Recovery?
The ‘golden’ twenties

Gustav Stresemann is appointed as Chancellor in late 1923. He quickly calls off International stability + foreign loans + loose censorship laws
passive resistance, and issues a new currency, the Rentenmark. Largely, this solves = Berlin the culture capital of Europe
hyper-inflation (though remember those who have lost their savings do not get it
back.)Although he is only Chancellor for less than a year, he goes onto to be the • art : Dadaism - ‘modernist’ movement, Otto Dix
most influential politician of the 1920s, until his death in 1929. Undoubtably his • intellectual: German Universities open to Jewish academics from 1918. 5 of the
biggest triumph was in international affairs: 9 German nobel prize winners during the WR are Jewish
• cinema: Cabaret, Marlene Dietrich the most famous actress in the world
• music: jazz, American influences.
Locarno Treaty 1925 - Germany agrees its new Western borders, such as
1)
Alsace Lorraine. This treaty was seen by many as Germany accepting the
TOV; this gained Stresemann admiration in Europe, but resentment from the
Right-Wing in Germany. The fact the Eastern borders are not mentioned
causes some resentment from Stalin. The success of this pact paves the
way for Germany to join the League of Nations in 1926. Germany is now
out of the international wilderness.

2) Dawes Plan 1924 - German reparations are reduced, and Germany also
gets American loans to help the German economy recover. Germany pays 7
billion gold marks in reparations in this period, yet receives 16 billion in
loans.

Gustav Stresemann, the politician often seen as

being the savior of the Weimar Republic during
the 1920s. He won a nobel peace prize for his
role in the Locarno treaty.

Above- Marlene Dietrich and Dadaist art made Berlin the place to be
in 1920

132
 Moral degradation
While many, especially in Berlin, enjoyed
the ‘golden twenties’, living hedonistic life-
styles. Yet this led to many side effects:
drug addiction; crime ; alcoholism ;
prostitution and STDs. The Wandervogel
thought Germany was straying too far
from traditional German culture. Many
agreed. They thought Germany had be-
come too ‘Americanised’.
Problems the Weimar Republic
faced in 1929
‘Dancing on a Volcano’
German prosperity was built on American
loans. If at any time America called the
loans back in, the German economy
would be ruined. It was like dancing on a
volcano: fun but could erupt at any
minute!
Was democracy working?
Proportional representation makes
the WR slow and often indecisive.
Hindenburg is made President from
1925 until his death in 1934.
Hindenburg was a symbol of the
Kaiser’s German, and was the peo-
ple’s choice.
Resentment is festering
• Middle-class people had lost their
savings due to hyper-inflation.
• The Right -Wing was upset at
Locarno and the TOV.
• The Wandervogel were upset with
the hedonism of the 1920s. Above: ‘Dancing on a volcano’ -
• The Left-Wing still wanted revolution.
The WR may have stability in 1929, but
for the middle class, 1920s Berlin
it still had many enemies, all waiting for was the place to be. Despite the
a mistake to pounce…
problems the Weimar Republic
would soon face, many had the
times of their lives.
Left: A German cartoon protesting
Left, A right wing cartoon showing
against the French occupation of
Germany being driven by the
the Ruhr. Stresemann’s quick
Dawes Plan
actions were crucial in restoring or-
der to the Weimar Republic.
133
 Section 2

2. Why was Hitler able to The origins of Na

ational Socialism

Date founded January 1919 Founder Anton Drexler

dominate Germany by Mostly made up
Frieko
korps, bitter ex-sold
diers.
1933? of :

Tactics: Violence (was

(w seen as a radical party)

1.destruction of TOOV
2.Citizenship to be
e given only to those
se with German
25 points: Blood
(co-wrote by 3.Lebensraum
Hitler, Strasser 4.Anti-democratic
and Drexler) 5.War profiteeringg to be made illegal
6.Large dept. store
res to be divided up
p and given to
small traders

Instead of working to achieve power by armed coup, we

shall have to hold our noses and enter the Reichstag
against the opposition deputies. If outvoting them takes
longer than outshooting them, at least the results will be
guaranteed by their own constitution. Sooner or later we
shall have a majority, and after that-Germany. The ‘stab in the back’ myth (above). This influenced many of the Nazis’ beliefs;
the Jews were seen as profiteering large store owners who had made money
Adolf Hitler, 1925
out of the German defeat in WWI.
134
 How were the Nazis affecte
ted by the Munich Putsch? Key terms associated with Mein Kampf

Positive Negative Living space’- the idea that Germany was

Lebensraum overpopulated and needed living space. The
Hitler becomes a celebrity, and an
Nazi party was officially banned until East was where this space could be found.
‘infamous’ politician: he had spoke
January 1925
well at the trial. The ‘Aryan’ race- white, with blonde hair and
Aryan
blue eyes. Seen as the master race.
Rosenberg took over as leader of
Hitler realises that the Nazis must
the Nazi party. He was a poor Sub-human’- Jews, Homosexuals, disabled
change their tactics in order to
leader and the Nazis didn’t grow Untermensch people, gypsies etc. Needed to be eradicated
succeed- democracy over violence.
during Hitler’s time in jail. from society.

Some distanced themselves from Anti-Semitism Discrimination against Jews.

Hitler writes Mein Kampf while in
the Nazis, and the violence put
jail Those who had signed the TOV, and
them off. November Criminals
betrayed Germany.
Mein Kampf (My Struggle)

• Only though a dictator could Germany be great again How does Hitler strengthen the Nazi Party, 1924-1928?
• Germany had to find Lebensraum to the East
• Germany had to stop ‘untermensch’ from being a part of Aryan so- 1) Goebbels - hired as head of Nazi propaganda. Prints posters and
ciety, as they were diluting the ‘master race flyers that spread the Nazi message. Helps increase Nazi popularity.
• Jews were the worst of all the ‘degenerates’, and had lost Germany
WWI 2) Democratic means- Hitler realises the need to gain power
democratically, so slowly builds up support in the Reichstag.
There must be no majority decisions. The decisions will be made by
one man, only he alone may possess the authority and right to
3) SA intimidation- the SA intimidate the Reichstag, and beat up
command… Blood mixture and the resultant drop in the racial level is
the sole cause of the dying out of old cultures… History proves that communists and other political opposition.
the German people owes its existence solely to its determination to
4) Wealthy backers - Big businesses like VW support the Nazis and give
fight in the East and to obtain military land by conquest.
them money. They are worried by the growth of Communism in Germany,
An extract from Mein Kampf, above. who would give more power to workers.

135
 Nu
umber of Seats in Reichstag electio
ons Why does th
the Weimar Republic fail to deal with the depression?

Social A product of proportional representation, a coalition

Nazis Communist government was when one single party did not have a majority,
Democrats Coalition
so would be made up from a number of parties. This meant
Government
1924 100 32 62 decision making was slow, as individual parties had their own
agendas.
1928 153 12 54
The Weimar Republic in 1929 simply did not know how to deal
1930 143 107 77 with the great depression. This was the first time the whole
world had been affected by an economic crisis on one country.
July 1932 133 230 89 Chancellor Brauning raises taxes and cuts welfare and public
November 1932 121 196 100 spending; this merely makes unemployment and poverty worse.
Unsure
But very few democratic governments did know how to deal with
March 1933 120 288 81 the depression - Britain and France were affected for
generations, and F.D.R was so worried that he seriously
Despite Hitler’s changes, Nazi popularity up until 1928 was still low. But considered moving America away from free-market capitalism
events in America were about to drastically shake the foundations of the into an agrarian based economy.
Weimar Republic, and given the Nazis the springboard they needed to
gain power.

The Wall Street Crash

Left, a Nazi election poster from
In October 1929, America suffered the worst economic depression in 1932. It shows a Nazi towering
world history. Started by over speculation on Wall Street due to market above the Jews and Communists,
saturation, events quickly plunged America’s economy into crisis. America who are more interested in spending
quickly recalled all foreign loans, and Germany’s worst fears were real- time debating the problems rather
ised. Stripped of the U.S dollars which had made the recovery under than fixing them. While propaganda
Stresemann possible, German unemployment sky-rocketed as their like this was undoubtably useful, the
economy crashed. The whole democratic world was caught in the ‘great Wall Street Crash was the catalyst to
depression’. Nazi success.

136
 Why is Hitler made chancellor in January 1933? Why is Hitl
tler even a contender to be made Chancellor?

While the meddlinng of Hindenburg was an obvious factor, Hitler had also
1932: the situation was dire for the Weimar Republic. Unemployment hit 6 built up
u a large following and was hugely popular.
million, and the government still did not appear to have an answer to the
great depression. Public support in the government appeared to be at an Hitler was a brilliant speaker who captivated
Charismatic
all time low. audiences.

Goebbels propaganda capitalised on the depression,

1932: the Nazis were also the largest party in the Reichstag. Normally, saying it was the fault of Jews and Communists, and it
the leader of the largest party would automatically be made chancellor, Propaganda
was the fault of the TOV and the WR for being too
but Hindenburg, the president, didn’t trust Hitler. Instead, he chose ‘Americanised’.
Franz Von Papen.
Toured From 1929 he toured Germany, making speeches and
November 1932: the elections were bad for the Nazis- their popularity Germany gathering support.
actually fell, from 230 to 196 seats, party due to the bad reputation the
SA tactics SA intimidation scared opponents.
tactics of the SA had gained. Morale was low.
Hitler appealed to:
December 1932: General Von Schleicher also wanted to be chancellor,
They lost their money through hyperinflation and the
and began to quarrel with Von Papen. Thinking that Von Schleicher Middle Class
depression- they resented the WR for this.
would be a better choice, Hindenburg appoints Von Schleicher chancellor.
Hitler promised to end unemployment- something the WR didn’t
Unemployed
January 1933: Von Schleicher realises he needs the support of Hitler, but seem able to do.
still Hindenburg refuses. Von Schleicher thinks he cannot rule without
Hitler hated communists, so this made him a natural ally with
support of the Reichstag, so resigns. Factory owners
factory owners.

30th January 1933: Hindenburg now wants to bring back Von Papen as Hitler wanted a traditional role for women- childbearing. This
Women
chancellor, but knows it will be unpopular. Von Papen persuades him to appealed to many.

make Hitler chancellor- he is popular with the people, which will gain Hitler promised to return Germany to its traditional way of life..
Traditionalists
support for the government. Von Papen wants to be vice-chancellor, Many such as the Wandervogel loved this.
where he believes he will be able to control Hitler, alongside Hindenburg.
Hitler promised to take land away from Jews and distribute it
On 30th January Adolf Hitler is made chancellor. Farmers
amongst poor farmers.

137
 Hitler - fr
from Chancellor to Führer in less than 2 years

Date Event Significance

As Chancellor, Hitler now is head of the Reichstag. He can propose laws, which if passed
30 January 1933 Hitler appointed Chancellor
through a vote in the Reichstag, will become law.

The Reichstag burns down in mysterious circumstances.Hitler claims the Communists are
27th February 1933 Reichstag Fire
trying to start a rebellion. Historians believe the fire was actually started by a Communist.

Hitler convinces a paranoid Reichstag (what is left of it) that the Communists are trying to take
over. The Emergency decree means Hitler can arrest anyone, without evidence, and hold
28th February 1933 Emergency Decree
them indefinitely without trial. He uses this to round up Communists and any other political
opposition.

The Nazis gain 288 seats, and have clear control of the Reichstag. Using the Emergency
5th March 1933 Reichstag elections
Decree and the SA, the openly intimidate anyone who opposes.

With a majority in the Reichstag, the Enabling Act is passed. This allows Hitler to make laws
24th March 1933 Enabling Act
without going through the Reichstag.

2nd May 1933 Trade Unions banned Hitler bans all trade unions, confiscating their funds and putting their leaders in business.

14th July 1933 One state party Hitler bans all other political parties. This signifies the death of the Weimar Republic.

Hitler signs an agreement with the Catholic Church, promising not to interfere in the running of
20th July 1933 Concordat
the Church, if they promise not to interfere politically or criticise Hitler.

Hitler moves against the SA, led by Rohm. He feels they have become a threat, and are out of
June 1934 Night of the Long Knives control. He uses the SS to quickly arrest or kill some 4000. Rohm is killed. Himmler is the head
of the SS.

Death of Hindenburg, Hitler President Hindenburg dies. He has been president from 1925. Hitler is sworn in as President,
August 1934
becomes Führer and declares himself Führer (emperor). He is now officially a dictator.

Why does Hindenburg allow Hitler to do this?

As President, Hindenburg has the power to remove Hitler, and choose a new Chancellor. However he knows by this time, Hitler is too powerful: he
already controls the Reichstag and has popular support. Probably as well, Hindenburg feared for his life if he opposed Hitler.
Left: ‘The temporary triange’ shows Hindenburg (left) and Von Pa-
pen (right) holding Hitler. Hitler needed the support of both men to
be made chancellor; they needed his popularity to increase sup-
port for the unpopular Weimar Government.

Above: A cartoon showing the Night of the Long Knives. Goering

is dressed as the god of war, to Hitler’s right. The caption reads ‘
they salute with both hands now.’

139
 Section 3
3. Nazi Germany
Above - Hitler salutes marching troops. Top Right, indoctrination
started in the classroom.
1) How effectively did the Nazis control Germany 1933-1945
2) What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?
Was Germany a totalitarian state?
A totalitarian state is where the government has complete control over
all aspects of life, and citizens have no choice but to obey. Nazi
Germany was largely totalitarian state, as the Nazis controlled almost
everything - education, politics, the economy and the media. The
Church was the only area where the Nazis did not have absolute
power, although the Concordat meant the Nazis had almost total
obedience. Hitler tried to set up the Reich Church, but it was unpopu-
lar, and largely, the Nazis were happy not to interfere with religion as
long as it was no threat.
140

1) The Gestapo
2) Persecution
3) Propaganda and censorship
4) Education
5) Strength through joy movement
(KDF)
6) German Labour Front (DAF)
7) The Hitler Youth Movement
8) Social Mobility
Nazi methods of control
The Gestapo was the secret police, under the command of Heydrich. Their job was to find potential
enemies of the regime and send them to concentration camps. They encouraged people to inform on their
neighbours, and even children to inform them if their parents made remarks critcising the Nazis. This created
a climate of fear which made people afraid to speak out, even though the size of the Gestapo was fairly
limited.
Enemies of the state were persecuted- political opponents, Jews, gypsies, Communists, Trade Unionists, the
disabled. This scared any potential opposition.
Goebbels ran propaganda efficiently, controlling papers, radio, films and t.v. Posters spreading Nazi doctrine
were distributed widely.
Teachers were required to join the Nazi Teachers Alliance, which made sure all teachers subscribed to the
Nazi viewpoint. The curriculum was changed to include focus on History, Biology and sports, with emphasis
on German History, the superiority of the Aryan race and the Nazi doctrine. There were book burning
ceremonies where any books that disagreed with the Nazis were burnt. Children were given anti-Semitic
books from a young age, and any Jewish children were bullied and isolated.
KDF was a way to control how people spent their leisure time. It was a way to keep workers happy after the
Trade Unions had been banned. Activities included camping and trips to cinemas.
After trade unions were banned, all workers had to join the DAF. As a member of the DAF, wages were
frozen and working hours were increased. Protesting or going on strike was not allowed.
8 million members by 1939. Boys would practice military skills, map reading and shooting practice. Girls
would learn about motherhood. The Hitler Youth Movement often held rallies.
Not a Nazi method of control, but a by-product of their persecution and terror tactics. For every person fired,
imprisoned or killed, it created an opportunity for someone else. This is often why totalitarian regimes can
survive for so long: many people gain opportunities they would not get in a meritocracy (where being good at
something leads to success in it). Under the Nazis, new teachers could be promoted to principal in the space
of a year, because all other senior teachers had been fired or arrested .
 Opposition to the Nazis
The Edelweiss Pirates were a group of teenagers who
rebelled against the Nazis. At first, this was just by
disobeying orders- having long hair, or not joining the
Hitler Youth. As the war started, they became more
political, sabotaging factories and stealing equipment.
Youth
Hitler had tolerate them at first, as they are Aryan. In 1942
however, 13 are hanged in Cologne after being suspected
of killing a member of the Gestapo. The Swing
Movement are a group who secretly listen to American
jazz music, which is banned by Hitler.
After Concordat, most in the Church are happy to work
with Hitler to avoid persecution, but some, mostly
Church Protestant, do oppose the Nazis. Dietrich Bonhoeffer
was a Protestant priest who helped Jews escape Nazi
Germany. He was hanged in 1945.
In July 1944, with the war going disastrously for Germany,
Colonel Stauffenberg tries to kill Hitler in the July Bomb
Army
Plot. The bomb narrowly misses Hitler, and over 5000
people are arrested, with 46 killed, including Stauffenberg.
3) Scapegoats
How effectively did the Nazis control Germany?
Overall, Nazi control was very effective. Opposition was very limited, and
rarely successful. We must remember that Hitler comes into power as
Chancellor democratically- he had support of the people. He was very
popular, especially up till 1942, when WWII was going well for Germany.
Only after that did people start to question him- and by that time, he had
such power there was little they could do.
Why did Hitler persecute minorities, especially Jews?
European history is full of anti-semitism. Originally, this came
from some Christian’s interpretation of the bible, and the role of
Judas in the death of Jesus Christ. However, by the middle
ages, it came from economic grievances. Jews were often
merchant traders, meaning they often were rich. This meant
they were often money lenders, and gained a reputation for
being financially prudent at a time when most were poor. Anti-
1) History Semitic riots were common throughout Europe. In 1894 there
was the Dreyfus affair, where a French Jew was accused of
selling military secrets to Germany. Although later proved
innocent, it re-enforced the idea that Jews could not be trusted.
Famous German composers like Wagner had anti-semitic
messages, and the fact that until 1918, Jewish academics were
not allowed in German Universities showed the history of anti-
Jewish feeling in Germany.
Many Nazis believed in Eugenics, the science of genetics.
Adapted from Darwin’s theory of evolution, Eugenics is the idea
that certain traits should be removed from the human gene-pool,
2)Eugenics for the progress of the human race. Nazis believed that Jews,
homosexuals and disabled people all weakened the ‘pure’ Aryan
blood. This was taught in German schools in Biology lessons, as
well as physical stereotypes about Jewish people.
The ‘stab in the back’ myth was that Jews and Communists had
cost Germany WWI because they their businesses had refused
to support the troops. Jews were an easy scapegoat as they
were often defenceless yet rich minorities. They were easy to
persecute.
Before WWI, Hitler had spent time homeless,after failing to get
into art college. Here he saw rich Jews making profit, and
4) Personal
convinced himself that they were the cause of his problems. As
experience
a soldier, in WWI, he was also fully convinced they had caused
the defeat of Germany.
142
 Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany Concentration Camps

Boycott of Jewish shops and businesses. Jews banned from
April 1933 being teachers or judges. SA stand outside Jewish
businesses and stop people entering.
April 1934 Jews banned from working as doctors and dentists.
October 1934 Jews banned from being journalists.
July 1935 Jews banned from being in the armed forces.
Any potential opposition
n were sent to concentratioon camps. At first, these
were labour camps for political prisoners, where conditions were harsh,
but most survived. As ttime went on, conditions and
a the brutality of the
guards increased, as didd the death rate. By 19399 those sent were mostly
‘degenerates’ - Jews,
s, Homosexuals, disabled people and gypsies.
These camps were rurun by the Einsatzgruppe en (Death-squad) , a
sp
special branch of the SS.

Nuremberg Laws- Jews are not allowed to marry Aryans, or No.of people sent to
September 1935 Year Deaths
be German citizens. concentration camps

November 1936 Jews are not allowed to say ‘Heil Hitler’. 1933 50,000 6,250

Jews must carry ID cards, a Star of David to show they are 1934 56, 250 7,300
July 1938
Jewish
1935 65, 850 7,900
August 1938 Jews forced to used Jewish names such as Israel.
1936 71, 150 8,500
Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass)- After a Gestapo
Office is killed by a Jew in Paris, the Nazis smash 8000
November 1938 1937 76, 850 9,200
Jewish shop windows, burn down 400 synagogues and
arrest 30,000 Jews. 1938 83, 050 33,200

December 1938 Jews forced to sell their businesses. 1939 132, 900 66,450

"If the international Jewish financiers inside and outside The Final Solution
Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more
January 1939 into a world war, then the outcome will not be the victory of In 1942, the Nazis decided on ‘the Final Solution’. This was the plan to
Jewry, but rather the annihilation of the Jewish race in wipe the Jews from the face of the earth. Extermination camps, like
Europe!" Hitler, in a speech in the Reichstag. Auschwitz were made, where Jews would be taken and killed. Often gas
showers would be used to do the killing, as it was seen as the most efficient
February 1939 Jews forced to give any jewels they own to the Nazis. way. This was the holocaust, and 6 million Jews and other ‘degenerates’
were exterminated between 1942 and 1945.

143
 What was life like in Nazi Germany? Hitler formed the Reich Labour Service (RAD)
meaning t every man between 18 and 25 had to:
Hitler’s first job was to sort out the German economy. He wanted to reduce
• complete 6 months at the RAD
unemployment, and make the German economy self-sufficient (autarky). National Labour
• live in camps
He had several methods for doing this: Front
• do military/physical exercise daily
• receive no wages (only pocket money)
Work was digging ditches and planting trees.

Hitler built autobahns (motorways), hospitals and

Public Work
houses with public work schemes. This created
Schemes
jobs and improved German facilities.

Re-arming worked on two fronts - it reduced un-

employment as the size of the army grew, and
Rearming
producing weapons gave German factories
products to be made.

Nazi statistics were mis-leading- they claimed

only 302,000 unemployed by 1939, but these
Nazi Statistics
numbers did not include Jews, those in RAD, or
women!

In 1936, Herman Goering became President of

the Reichbank, and started the Four Year
The Four Year Plan Plan,to prepare for war. This further increased
re-armament as the size of the German Army,
Navy and Air-force grew rapidly.

By controlling how workers spent their free time

(and wages), the Nazis made sure money was
KDF
pumped straight back into the economy, on
things like VW cars and holidays.

144
 Unemployment in Germany 1933- 1939 The Performance of the German economy 1928 - 1939

1933 6, 014,000
Year" Production Cost of living Wages
1934 3,773,000
1928"" 100" " 102.2" " " 151.7
1935 2,974,000
1929"" 100" " 103.6"" " 154
1936 2,52,000

1937 1,853,000 1930" " 87" " 99.2" " " 148.1

1938 1,050,000 1931" " 70" " 95.1" " " 146.1

1939 302,000 1932" " 58" " 88.5" " " 120.6
Remember that these statistics do notn include Jews, people in RAD or
1933" " 66" " 92.5"" " 118
Women, but Hitler still dealt with un
nemployment far better than Britain,
France, orr the U.S.A. 1934" " 83" " 96.7" " " 121.1

1935" " 96" " 97.6"" " 123

How does Hitler do this?
1936"" 107" " 100" " " 124.5
• Clearly the removal of Jews, women and other (undesirables) from the
workforce was a factor. 1937"" 117" " 103" " " 125.1
• From 1935, Hitler introduced conscription so that the army grew
from a theoretical 100,000 to nearly 1½ million by 1939. 1938"" 125" " 107.5" " 125.6
• Rearmament gave a great boost to manufacturing; 46 billion marks
were put into this. 1939"" 132" " 111.1" " 126.2
• The RAD created jobs
• The DAF got increased productivity out of workers.
It is clear that Germany’s economic recovery was slow, only achieving
Weimar levels by 1936. However, the importance of full employment can-
not be underestimated and the fall in prices meant that the German peo-
ple now felt prosperous and optimistic for the first time in a long time.

145
 The Role of Women in Nazi Germany
Hitler had a very traditional view of the role of the German woman as wife
and mother –kinder, kirche and küche, (children, church and cooking).
Alarmed at the falling birth rate, the Nazis passed The Law for the
Encouragement of Marriage (1933) which offered tempting financial
incentives for married couples to have at least four children (1,000 marks,
equivalent to nine months’ wages). Every 12th August, the birthday of
Hitler’s mother, the Motherhood Cross was awarded to the women who
had the most children ( gold for 8, silver for 7, bronze for 6).These medals
gave special privileges, like discounts and cutting queues.
Lebensborn: It was against the law for healthy mothers to have an
abortion. Lebensborn was established in 1936, where members of the
SS could meet an Aryan girl with the aim of increasing Germany's Aryan
race.
Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring: sterilising
women who were 'unsuitable' to have children, e.g non-Aryan women.
Every women’s society in Germany was abolished and merged as one
under the German Women's Enterprise, which was controlled by the
Nazis. Its work was to organise Mother Schools, to train women in how to
be parents and housewives.

1921 – women banned from having jobs in the Nazi party

1933 – no women in professional posts, e.g doctors, solicitors, civil ser-

vants

1936 – no women as judges, prosecutors or members of a jury (as

women were controlled by emotion)

Women in 1919 Women in 1933

voted no make-up Above - A Gold Motherhood
good jobs e.g. doctors no permed hair cross, for mothers who had 8
children, Right, the role of
in government gave up their jobs to men
women in Nazi Germany was
good wages stayed at home to bring up the children clear to understand.

146
 Case Study - 1936 Berlin Olympics

Hitler wanted to use the 1936 Berlin Olympics to show the

world how well organised and efficient Germany was, and the
What was Hitler’s superiority of the Aryan race. Propaganda films such as
Plan? ‘Olympia’ were made. Anti-Semitic posters were taken down,
and a Jew was even included on the German Olympic team, to
show Germany wasn’t ant-semitic.

Germany did have great success in the medal table - they won
more golds than anyone else. However, Jesse Owens, an
African-American, won 4 gold medals, undermining Hitler’s
What actually Aryan supremacy theories. Hitler refused to present Owens
happened? with his medals, in front of the world’s cameras. Most visitors
were impressed by the organisation and infrastructure of Nazi
Germany, but many journalists were sceptical about how much
of what was seen was the real Germany.

Above - Nurem-
berg rally. Left, A
Hitler Youth poster,
Right ‘The German
Student." ’
Propaganda like
this was every-
where, and " "
indoctrinated "
ordinary Germans.
Far Right, the
opening ceremony
of the 1936 Berlin
Olympics.

147
Effect of WWII on Germany
From 1939-1942 Germany was not that badly affected by the war. Morale
was high, Germany was mostly victorious and no fighting had taken place
in Germany. The standard of living was still high and Hitler limited ration-
ing by taking food from occupied countries. Working conditions changed
little. More women worked in German war industries but only gradually
since this went against Nazi ideas about women’s role in the home. Most
German factories still worked day shifts only.
The bombing of Germany had the biggest effect on the lives of German
civilians. In 1942 the Allies decided on a new policy towards the bombing
of Germany. The British targeted industrial and residential areas of all
the major German cities. Their aim was to cripple German industry, to
lower the morale of the civilians and to force them into surrendering. The
bombing increase for the next 3 years and in Feb 1945 Dresden was
bombed. It killed between 35,000 and 150,000 people in 2 days. Most
estimates are around 135, 000. To put that into context, 60,000 British
civilians were killed during the entire Second World War.

War Economy

However, this all changed from 1942. Morale fell as the German attack on
Russia stalled in 1942. The standard of living fell and in May 1942 food
shortages reduced the weekly bread and meat ration. But a ration book
did not guarantee that people would get food. Some food disappeared
into the ‘black market’ and was too expensive for many people to buy.

Civilians had to cut back on heating, work longer hours and recycle their
rubbish. Goebbels increased censorship and he tried to get people to sup-
port the war by involving them in it by asking them to make sacrifices.
Hitler concentrated on the details of the war and so the German people
saw and heard less of Hitler.

Albert Speer was in charge of the economy from 1943 onwards, as Ger-
many switched to war economy. All entertainment was closed apart from
cinemas as Goebbels still wanted people to watch propaganda films.
People’s lives got worse as the war went on. Women did join the work-
force, but not in significant numbers. Most changed from farming jobs to
factory jobs.
Above: Despite intensive Allied bombing from 1942 onwards, German
plane production actually increased, peaking at 1944. After 1944, pro-
duction fell away - German cities like Dresden (next page, top left)
were completely flattened.

148
 Above: The world celebrates Hitler’s suicide, April 30th 1945. Below:
Soviet troops raise their flag over the ruins of Berlin. The Third Reich
was over, as was WWII.

Above and left: the

destruction of German
cities leaves the
German people
shattered and broken.
The early optimism of
the war had been re-
placed by the cold
reality that the war was
lost.

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