Paper No.

: 04 Indian Anthropology
Module : 06 Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle

Development Team

Principal Investigator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor

Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor

Paper Coordinator
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Indelah Khan
Content Writer
Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Subir Biswas, Department of Anthropology,

Content Reviewer
West Bengal State University, Barasat, West Bengal

Indian Anthropology
Anthropology Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle
 Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 04 Indian Anthropology

Module Name/Title Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle

Module Id 06

Indian Anthropology
Anthropology Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle
 Table of contents

Introduction

1. India‟s social structure

1.1 Tribes

1.2 Varnas and castes

1.2.1 Origin of Varna and caste and its influence on structuring Indian society

1.2.2 Functions of caste system

2. Social changes

2.1 Sanskritization

2.2 Westernization

3. Life cycle

3.1 Ashrams

3.2 Family

Summary

Learning outcomes

 To understand the social structure of Indian Society

 To understand reasons and basis of modern Indian social structure

 To understand lifecycle of individuals ancient India

 To understand variance in the family and marriage system of India.

Indian Anthropology
Anthropology Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle
 Introduction

India is a colossal country with vast cultural and social diversity as well as unity. From the Historical
point of view it is evident that India has been a hub to immigrants from various parts of Asia and
Europe. Altogether they form a cultural diversity which has undergone a varied modification to
become India‟s integral part, forming a mosaic pattern of India‟s social and cultural structure.

Diversity is not only India‟s unique feature but also adds beauty to its internal core. Not only socially
and culturally but also racially and religiously India is diversely very rich. No other country in world is
as diversely rich as India. Talking about racial diversity one would be amazed to know that India
contains elements from six main racial types: the Negrito, the Proto Australoid, the Mongoloid, the
Mediterranean, the western Brachycephals and the Nordic. Religiously India holds faith from Hindus,
Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Jews, and Buddhists etc.

Social structure of a particular region is influenced by the cultural norms and values of the particular
region. However, social stratification is not word of modern India but can be dated back to the Vedic
times. Works of Manu‟s Dharmashastra (2nd-3rd century BC) and Kautilya‟s Arthashastra (324-296
BC) are the earliest known collections on the orchestration of Indian society and the influence of
politico-economic sphere on functioning of Indian society. Similarly, Megasthenes (a Greek
ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya from 324 BC to 300 BC) documented the structure
and customs of ancient Indian society. From these early studies it can be derived that Hinduism had
major influence on stratification of Indian society. These traditional strata were carried forward to
medieval India and passed on to modern India. This traditional variance among human beings
motivated many Indian and non-Indian, especially British sociologists and anthropologists to
investigate into roots of social stratification

1. India’s social structure

The early lifestyle and the religious textures of Hinduism are considered to give existence to the
stratification of the primary Indian society. Traditionally Indian society is said to have three types of
communities – tribal, caste and peasant.

1.1 Tribes

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Anthropology Basis of traditional Indian social structure and life cycle
 A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or
professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might
have been so.

- Imperial Gazetteer of India

Tribes are geographically isolated community, concentrated in areas which have been more or less
inaccessible. They have few external ties and speak a variety of dialects which can be shown to differ
in various aspects from the major Indian languages. They practice a different set of religious beliefs
which don‟t seem to have their roots in Hinduism. Tribal communities are said to be the most primitive
form of social grouping of man. Tribal communities can be exemplified by the Munda of Chotanagpur,
Naga of Nagaland, the Bhil of Rajasthan and Gujarat, the Gond of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
and the Toda of Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. . After tribesman started to widen their social interaction,
different tribes converged into a common community. This lead to the elution of tribal identity of
people and emergence of a larger social network called villages. Successively, the new form of human
conglomeration was multi-sectioned with “castes or jatis” what is referred as Varna system.

Figure1: Families of different tribes from left to right: Munda of Chotanagpur, the Bhil of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Naga of
Nagaland and the Toda of Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu.

1.2 Varnas and castes

Caste is a collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical
ancestor, human or divine, professing to following the same hereditary calling and regarded by those
who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.

- Herbert Risley

Human conglomerations, was multi-sectioned with “castes or jatis” what is referred as Varna system.
Varna literally means color, originally referred to distinction between Arya and Dasa according to their
fair and dark complexion respectively. According to Varna scheme there are only four castes excluding
the untouchables all over India. As per this hierarchical classification, the three upper levels-the
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 Brahman, the Kshatriya, and the Vaishya- are considered of supreme ethnic values followed by the
Sudras (artisans and works man who perform non-polluting occupations). The first three castes are
“twice born” as the men from them are entitled to undergo the sacred thread at the Vedic rite of
upnayana, while Sudras are not. And at last, the lowest class of people known as Antyaja, (because
they are classified outside the Varna system) or in the modern terms as the Dalit. Varna has provided a
common social language which is considered good for India.

In modern India all the three communities prevail, although the concept of classification on account of
occupation has diluted. However, it seems to have become a hereditary trait of a person i.e. passed onto
offspring‟s from family.

1.2.1 Origin of Varna and caste and its influence on structuring Indian society

As per the Hindu mythology the four upper castes originated from the sacrifice of Purusha-the creator,
the primordial being. Myths suggest that Purusha destroyed himself to incarnate beings of appropriate
social order. These beliefs can be derived from the Vedic hymns in the purusha-sakta (Rig-Veda)
which says that the Brahman Varna originated from the mouth of the purusha; the Rajanya (i.e.
Kshatriya) his arms, the from thighs originated Vaisyas whereas origin of Sudras from his feet. Various
other Vedic verses also support to the theory of the classification of the human beings into four varnas.
However various authors strongly believe that these verses were incorporated in Vedas or wrongly
translated in favor of a particular group to enforce their superiority over others. The myth goes on
explaining stratification of the superior varnas as follows. The whole world consisted of Brahmans
which got segregated on the basis of their acts and consequently gave rise to the four varnas and the
other casts. Those who started living a sessile life and spend most of time in managing the socio-
economic issues sustained their Brahman ethnicity whereas people who possessed attributes of
courage, fighting skills and unmindful toward their religion became Kshatriyas. Those who spend their
time in cattle breeding, agriculture or other self-relying occupations were categorized as Vaisyas.
Those who led relatively loose life and indiscriminately opted all sort of professions for their
maintenance and lacked purity of behavior became Sudras. As the ages passed, different sections of
people started living a loose life, further dividing the varnas to castes. Caste may be defined as a
hereditary endogamous group which decides the individual‟s status in the social stratification and his
profession. In words of Nadeem Hasnain caste may be understood and explained as a form of social
stratification which involves:

(i) A system of hierarchically ranked,

(ii) Closed,
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 (iii) Endogamous strata,

(iv) Ascribed membership,

(v) Restriction of contact between castes,

(vi) Mobility theoretically impossible.

Figure 2: On left hand side is shown the Varna classification whereas on right hand system is the caste classification as per
Hindu mythology.

As previously mentioned the demographical boundaries suggest the variance in the caste system.
However, travelling back through the history of India, the appropriate formation of regions and
regional consciousness was developed only after the eighth century AD. In North India, Brahmans
were divided on the basis of clan and their residence into following groups Kanyakubja, Sarayuparier
and Maithila brahmanas residing by Kanauji, Sarayu River and Mithila respectively. Tomaras,
Kacchavahas, Hadas and Chauhanas were tribes of Rajputs converted to sub-castes. Thus the number
of castes, sub-castes kept increasing in medieval times. Modern times emerged with adding some new
features to the caste system like addition and categorization on the basis of surnames. One particular
caste or sub-caste came to acquire one, sometimes more, „surnames‟. However, as the time progressed
many riots amongst the castes lead to further variation in the caste system adding further new castes.
The Brahma-samajis acquired the status which is very similar to a caste. In modern times caste system
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 has become complex. Substantial regional variation is found and hence it has been impossible to define
it in a precise manner region, sub-region, economic status, nearness to political authority, craft,
vocation, following a particular deity all have come to play a role in its formation and subsequent
changes. Regarding the origin of caste system there are two theories one group of anthropologists and
sociologists believe caste system was amplified and strongly implicated due to colonial imperialistic
policies where as other group believes in the previously mentioned Hindu mythology. Among those
who are protagonists of this later view, the prominent ones are Louis Dumont, G.S. Ghurye, Edmund
Leach, and M.N. Srinivas. They see caste as a social or cultural phenomenon peculiar to the Indian
society, more precisely to the Hindu society because among the non-Hindus it does not constitute the
religious ideology despite the fact that they have also developed „caste like‟ stratification.

Strictly speaking, caste can be treated as a cultural phenomenon in the domain of social stratification
which highlights the hierarchy of hereditary groups. These groups are segregated on the basis of caste
endogamy, limitations on inter relation exchange of survival items and physical contact. Despite these
limitations these hereditary groups are interdependent for trade on the basis of occupational division.
As mentioned above the primary basis of this hereditary separation was on the basis of the pure and
impure. Various other authors like Dipesh Chakarbaraty argue that the caste system prevailed due to
colonial rule where in government policies were formulated to take census of people their ethnicity.
Implanting the difference of castes in people made them to organize into groups and stratify the
society. Various historians like M.N. Srinivas (1964), Romila Thapar (1979) and A.R. Desai (1984)
have signified the mobility in Indian society. On the accounts of the previous literature it seems
obvious to label the social mobility mostly with sanskritization, and somewhat to migration and
religious conversion.

During British rule in India, a significant mobility was seen in the caste system. Some people who
were financially and politically sound labeled themselves as elite people and moved up in the caste
hierarchy from lower castes or tribes. Taking into account residence of the people belonging to a
particular region, even in modern India it can be visualized that the occupational association of caste
has marginally changed in rural areas whereas in urban areas the occupational labelling to a caste has
diluted to a large extent. In rural areas, the priests are chosen among Brahmins; however, some of them
have also taken to agriculture. Aristrocrats (Zamindars) belonged to 1st and 2nd levels of caste hierarchy
generally worked as supervisory farmers or employed peasants and laborers to till their lands and
harvest the grains and other food items. The peasants and labors were of lower castes and broadly
worked on wage basis. Other occupations like carpenters and iron-smith continue with their traditional
castes in rural areas. Comparing to rural areas, in urban areas, lower caste and upper caste people join
same work place, industry, trade etc. In addition, the traditional occupations of a particular caste have
been mostly shunned. Inter-caste cultural gatherings are mostly restricted in rural areas and to some

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 extent allowed in urban areas, for example inter-caste marriage. However, if we take into
considerations on broader scale, the limitations of drinking tea from a cup not touched by lower caste
has diluted. Similarly sharing food and drink are allowed upto some range. Taking a very broad and
sharp introspective view of the society in modern urban India only distinction is of wealth, status and
political influence. A person belonging to schedule tribe or class can be higher official at any office
where his subordinates can be of upper class. Social structure has been hugely influenced by the
migration of people to bigger cities. Caste system has been utilized as a critical phenomenon to account
for the vote bank gains. Marriages one of the most important factor in a community and culture.
Marriages give rise to families and families broaden the kinships. Marriages are strictly intra caste,
consequently the kinship remains intra caste. Hence, it can be said that caste system has undergone a
huge variation. Hence we can further deduce that the caste is basically a closed system of stratification.

1.2.2 Functions of caste system

Caste system traditionally holds the following functions:

(i) It determines the occupation of various groups among the caste thereby reducing economic
competition.

(ii) It strictly follows endogamy. Any member of the caste not abiding the rules is severely punished.
Sometimes it becomes so aggressive that honor killing takes place. So marrying a person outside the
caste is a hard nut to crack.

(iii)Jajmani system is the economic basis of the caste system. In this system, exchange of goods and
services takes place through well defined division of labour. The higher landed castes, and the lower
occupationally specialized castes also called service caste are traditionallybound by certain Jajmani
obligations. Thehigher class (Jajman) is the owner of land; exchange the land produce against
theservices provided by other castes.

(iv) Caste sometimes is also seen as a social and psychological resource for its members. A sense of
solidarity and common consciousness becomes rescuing bait to fellow caste man.

2. Social changes

The first systematic attempt to define, analyze and understand the process of social change in Indian
society was well understood by eminent Indian sociologist M N Srinivas in his significant and path

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 breaking study in “Religion and society among the coorgs of south India (1952)‟‟. He was the first to
give the concept and use of the word „sanskritization‟ in his above mentioned book. According to him
Hindu caste system is neither static nor rigid that it can‟t be altered.

2.1 Sanskritization

Srinivas defines sanskritization as the “process by which a low caste or tribe or other groups takes
over the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology and life style of a higher caste and in particular „ twice born
(dwija) caste.”

Hindu society is a stratified one, consisting of innumerable small groups trying to pass over higher
groups by adopting the customs and ways of higher class. As the higher class is Brahmins it means
their customs and lifestyle spread all over Hindus. While in the process of passing over, most often the
lower class face hostility from the castes of middle strata, hence in some cases sanskritization may not
lead to elevation in caste status and so the lower class continues to suffer the traditional social
disabilities

Sanskritization imbibes a very wider sense of understanding covering almost every socio as well as
economic perspective. It includes cultural and social mobility. From parents choosing groom for
daughters to daughters choosing their life partners, from extreme Brahmanical practices to liberal and
tolerant Brahmanical practices, from untouchability to equality etc.

2.2 Westernization

Westernization and sanskritization is almost the same concept just the former simpler. It‟s all the
cultural and institutional innovations that came into political and cultural contact with the western
nation such as Britain. In other words it is all the social changes that the Indian society underwent
during the British colonial rule. The changes could be seen at different level –institutions, technology,
ideology and values. There was change in atmosphere during British rule in India, not only there was
negative change but a lot of positive development was also taking around. Beside political unrest there
was new political culture and leadership in the country too. Establishment of scientific, technological,
and political institutions emerged as boon to the Nation. The impact of Westernization could be seen in
the form of nuclear family, social reforms, economic and political reforms. Setting up of postal
facilities, railways, newspaper and periodicals etc have given fillip to pilgrimages, religious
propaganda and caste and communal congregations. Thus westernizations acted as catalyst to
sanskritization.
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 The most important impact of westernization was that many higher castes gave up their traditional life
style. It was one of the important impacts of education.

3. Life cycle

It is said that the very foundation of Hindu social organization is both materialistic as well as spiritual.
It is organized in such a way that man experiences both pleasure and divinity by practicing self denial,
discipline then slowly moving to fulfilling his desires and needs and again moving to total abstinence
from it and indulging only in religious practices through meditation and yoga.

In social anthropological parlance the four hierarchies of Varna, Guna, Purusharthas and Ashrams are
described in terms of „role institutionalization‟, „charismatic endowment‟,‟ goal orientation‟ , and „life
stages‟ and its value obligations respectively

Purusharthas are value themes, goals of life arranged in a hierarchical order to be persuaded by all
individuals and social categories

The four chief aims of Purusharthas are:

1. Dharma (righteousness): It is a law of all moral actions, the manner of one's duties, determined
by caste, sex, and stage of life. Dharma applies in being a student, a householder, and, in
attenuated form, a forest dweller.

2. Artha (wealth): is material success in life. It refers to all the means of acquiring worldly
prosperity like power or wealth. The word artha can mean business, work, profit, utility, wealth,
money, and also political experience and knowledge. It can involve practical wisdom at both
the personal and public level. Thus it involves all the economic activities towards the
acquisition of wealth. Though artha refers to security and materialistic aspect of life but at the
same time a parallel stream of non acquisition and renunciation also run side by side.

3. Kama (desire): Kama refers to all desires in man seeking pleasure through satisfaction of
senses, including sexual satisfaction. All the desires, instincts which has been laid on the needs
of the flesh comes under Kama. Kama also includes aesthetic satisfaction. In spite of an
emphasis on exercising control over senses, man always crave for indulgence in sexual
pleasure. Hence a correct balance as to be struck between the needs of mind and body. The
inclusion of Kama as one of the essentials elements of Purusharthas is the sign of its
recognition.

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 4. Moksha (salvation or liberation): salvation from the cycle of birth and death is moksha. It
signifies realization of the self.

3.1 Ashrams

According to the ancient Hindu Laws of Manu, there are four stages or “ashrams” of life, each lasting
21 (or 25) years.

The first stage (0-25) years – Brahmacharya/Student –This stage begins with a ceremony called
upnayan sanskar (sacred thread ceremony). This is a learning stage. Person is referred
Brahmchari‟ in this stage and live as an unmarried celibate, studies with a guru. Brahmchari is
supposed to focus on education, character development, development of skills, discipline and
non in artha and Kama.

The second stage (25-50) years – Grihastha/Householder – after completing Brahmacharya

person enters to second stage called Grihastha where his marriage ceremony takes place. Since
this is the stage where the basic trilogy of dharma, artha, Kama is translated into actions,this
stage is critically very important. Person is obliged to fulfill the duties such as – reproduction,
feeding the family by acquisition of wealth, providing education to his children,fulling duties
towards society etc. beside this Grihastha is required to repay all the rina (debts). According to
beliefs of Hinduism every person is born with certain debts such as Dev rina, Rishi rina, Pitra
rina etc. so a person has to repay these debts through recitation of Veda, yagna etc.

The third stage (50-75) years – Vanaprastha/Hermitage – this stage is technically retirement
stage .the person relinquishes the household duties and goes into the forest (or now in modern
society, a quieter retreat) for to devote his time to religious pursuits, prayer, and meditation.
The wife could accompany her spouse but abstinence from sex is practiced.

The fourth stage (75-100+) years – Sanyasa/Renunciate – this is a stage of total detachment
from social life. The person leaves all worldly activity and engages the whole force of
personality toward spiritual development and upliftment. One can become a guru atthis point.
It is believed that Sanyasa is necessary for attaining moksha.

3.2 Family

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 For anthropologists and sociologists the primary focus is the effect of particular culture or norm on the
individuals of particular region. Individuals grouped together in a particular structure and bond makes
a family. Traditional Indian family is a joint family which has a large kinship group. Families have
been categorized on the basis of residence or nature of marriage.

On the basis of this classification a flow chart has been given below portraying the types of families
found in India. In rural India joint families are predominant where as in urban India both kinds of
families i.e. nuclear and joint, are found. Joint family can be defined as one in which two or more
successive generations live together in a common hearth. All the members of the joint family own the
permanent property of the line in common and also hold a share of property on their account. Such
families are generally patriarchal and patrilineal in nature, that is, oldest member (grandfather or father
or grandmother) is the head of the house, holds responsibility for all members, takes all decisions and
administers the property and the headship descends in the male line.

On the contrary, in modern towns nuclear families predominate wherein family consists of wife,
husband and their children. Such families are also characteristically patriarchal and patrilineal. As said
in the beginning that India is a diverse country with vast cultural diversity, so is the diversity in
families. In many regions families are matrilineal, where the headship descends are in the female line
such as in Kerala, Nagaland and Meghalaya. As we had quoted earlier that families begin with
marriages. Depending on its nature, marriages are of various types such as monogamous, polygamous
and polyandrous based on the number of partners; anuloma and hypogamous (between man of low
caste and woman of high caste) hypergamous (between man of high caste and woman of low caste) or
pratiloma based on an alliance between different castes. Traditionally, marriages were arranged
amongst couple belonging to same caste and parental decision was final word. Even though marriages
between the same castes were organized between different clans, Inter-caste marriage was highly
forbidden in addition, marriages were forbidden between persons with a common paternal ancestor;
however, this rule has never been broadly followed as is depicted by the historical records.

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 Generally monogamous marriages predominate in India, in which one person is married to only one
person at a time; whereas polygamy is not prohibited. In ancient and mediaeval times the rich and
powerful often had more than one wife. Polygamy was a common culture in ancient time where in
marriages were done mostly for socio-political benefits. Two most sought examples are marriages of
Chandragupta and Akbar. Many other reasons can be found for the reason of polygamy e.g. increased
progeny, more sons etc. In modern India polygamy has been declared illegal. Only Muslims can marry
four times that too with some preconditions.

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 Figure3: Classification of families. Above is flow chart depicting family classification on the basis of types or ways of
marriage. Below is flow chart portraying classification of families on the basis of residence.

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 Father Mother

Elder Son Younger Elder Younger

Son Daughter Daughter

Figure 4: Diagram here shows fundamental structure of a family. The diagram portrays structure of a nuclear family. In
joint family the structure is more complex wherein the hierarchy starts with head of family generally grandfather. These
patterns can be further complicated, depending upon the integrity in relations like kinship and clan density.

Summary

India is the country with the vast cultural diversity, habituated by diverse ethnic groups. Social
stratification has been established by Varna system wherein under influence of Hindu religion people
were categorized on the basis of purity. This categorization leads to intra caste marriages and shaped
the society. Division of labour is still prevalent in the Indian roots. The socio- economic, political and
ritual axis of the caste system viz. Jajmani system in rural India is crumbling.

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 Life cycles of individuals have gone through a drastic change due to education and westernization. The
traditional four stages of life have been transformed into modern form. Joint family tradition seems to
be over and nuclear family has taken a toll on it. Overall the Indian society is changing by time.

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