re An 6 a a er oe ~ _4, Quantum Physics plac pody radiation a Planck’s theory (derivation), — | peduction of Wien’s displacement law and Rayleigh - | Jeans’ Law from Planck’s theory '— Compton effect. Theory and experimental verification = Properties of Matter | waves - G-P Thomson experiment - Schrédinger’s wave equation - Time. independent and time dependent equations — Physical significance of wave function ~ | particle in a one dimensional box - Electron microscope . Scanning electron microscope - Transmission electron | microscope. Introduction ssical mechanics is not adequate to explain the motion icles like electrons, protons etc. Many examples for the failure of classical mechanics are (i) black body radiation (ii) specific heat of solids at low temperature (iii) theory of atomic structure (iv) photo-electric effect and (v) Compton effect. To explain the failures of classical mechanics, the quantum theory was developed. 4. BLACK BODY RADIATION Black Body> 97°22, 40 cu ereefohes ie y QeesehS Ath pier. angie a In practice, a perfect black body is not available. The body showing close approximation. to a perfect black body can be constructed. A hollow copper spherical shell is coated with lamp black on its inner surface. In this, a fine hole is made and a pointed projection is provided just in front of the hole. (Fig. 4.1(a)). When the heat radiations enter into this spherical shell through the hole, the heat radiations suffer multiple reflecti el and they are completely absorbed. Now, this body acts ae absorber. an42. Engineering Physics «| When this body is placed in a constant temperature bath at high temperature, the heat radiations comes out from the hole (Fig. 4.1(b)). Now, this hole acts as @ radiator. It is {2 be noted that only the hole and not the walls of the body gots as the radiator. Pointed projection Incident Heat ‘Radiation Radiat Vole (a) Absorber (b) Radiator Fig. 4.1 Black body Perfect black body A perfect black body is one which absorbs all the radiations (all the wavelengths) incident on it. Further, when such a body is placed at constant high temperature, it emits radiation of all the wavelengths. Black body radiation The heat radiation emitted from a black body is known as black body radiation. ‘The wavelength at which the maximum energy of radiation pesied depends only on temperature of the black body and it "8 not depend on the nature of the material. Any object coated with a dull black pigment is a good SpProximation to a perfect black body. Note: i 1n Astrophysics, all stars are taken as examples for 8] black body. Ex’ Sun, j nysics: ys EO ithe tence 4 ad black body radiation jon's displacement Law ‘This law states that the product of wavelength (2, ) corresponding: to the maximum energy of radiation and “solute temperature of the black body (1) is a constant. ie, | A,'T = constant constant 3 4] It is found that the wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy of black body radiation is inversely proportional to absolute temperature. gy gq 2725 6 ‘As the temperature of black body increases, the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy decreases. Wien's radiation law Wien deduced the law for the energy emitted by a black body at a given wavelength (4) and temperature (7) to explain the blackbody spectrum. It is known as Wien’s radiation law. ‘The energy density in the wavelength range 4 and A+dd is given by She 1 _ Bmhe_1 5" ent = 8 ei é aw x e B= ener So RT 6, O/T e B= 0,0 where C, and C, are constants44 Engineering , ‘Tis the temperature of the blackbody, The constants C, and C, have the values, and Limitation This law holds good only for sh ort and not for longer wavelengths, Wavelengths Rayleigh - Jean’s law This law states that the black body is directly propo temperature (T) and inversely Power of the wavelength (4), energy distributio, tional to the nd . Proportional to the Pee ie, eT where ig’ Boltzmann's constant, Limitation This law holds regions and wot aid? $004 only for longer wavelength shorter wavelengths, tis found that both Wi Not agree with the Fange. Therefore, it explain the emission ion’s and Rayleigh - Jeans laws do experimental results for entire wavelength 's concluded that classical theory failed to of black body radiation, ens oe : 45 yi ax - Planck introduced quantum, theory to explain 1, quantum theory of black body radiation ye revolutionary ‘Planck hypothesis’ of black body was introduced by Max Planck in the year 199) aio xy successfully explains the nature of black body nis = metio™ pLANCK’S THEORY 1, A black body is not only filed up with the radiations but also with a large number of tiny ostilators. ‘They are of atomic dimensions. Hence, they are known as atomic oscillators or Planck's oscillators. Each of these oscillators is vibrating with a characteristic frequency. 2, The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is same as that of oscillator frequency. ot absorb or emit energy in @ ator can 8, The oscilla 1 emit energy in continuous manner, It can absorb multiples of small units called quantum. ‘The energy ton ‘This quantum of radiation is called phot feoqueny of of the photon (e) is directly proportional to the radiation (v), ie, ee known 85 where h is proportionality constant. = 34 Planck’s constant (h = 6625x109) energy in quantum the oscillators vibrating with discrete energy values &y i» -_—- ha aie rene Tanta whore 1 ~ Total onorgy due ty ‘all the ncilatory (.Y « Enginooring 46 acct casa i, | ‘id It in givon by y ye niv = ne we N = Total number of osiinony " Mia: Number of atomic oscillators vs! in ground state hn ’ According to Maxwell’, gnorgy distribution tnw, the of oscillators with energy ¢,, is given by ) the number whore nis a positive intogor 1, 2 ,., 14 means that the energy of the atomle outage quantized and intogor nis known’ ug qwantun number. Planck’s law of Radiation NeeNenit oh me Statement where T - Absolute temperature of the black body The energy density of heat radiation emitted fry 4 black body at temperature 1 in the wavelength mane from i to A+da ix given by e ‘k= Boltzmann's constant. If N is total number of oscillators and N,, N,, N,, the number of oscillators with energies ¢,,€),¢)... then NeN, +N, +N, + From the eqn. (2), we have Here, fi ~ Planck's constant ene wt WT ulit 8) © ~ Speed of the light N=Ny +Noe T +Nye Pt. ¥ ~ Froquoney of radiation From Planck’s quantum theory, ¢ can take only a quantum of values Av. Therefore, the possible values of € are ~ Boltzmann's constant, 0, Lhy, 2hv, Shy, ete., (Fig. 4.2) ie, e,=nhy, n=0,1,2 1 ~ Temperature of the blackbody hv, €,=2hv (4s) PLANCK'S LAW OF RADIATION (Derivation) _, Consider a black body with a large number of atomic oscillators, Substituting these values in eqn (3), we have = win await é + N=Nye'+ Nye "+ Ny co Avera, E ~Bhvl ‘rage onergy E por oscillator is given by N=N,+ Nets Nye teeg 5hv as6 Ng andy ate ENERGY &=ShV er) | silty N s gem | + asi y _ n=0 Np Fig. 42 Energy diagram for a Planck's oscillator of frequency v put r=e "we get N= Ny + Nox + Nox" + Nyx’ +... ad) N=Ntr+e+.J 1 = ~ 6 a = sf a a © f: aya ee | by using binomial series. ) _ Taal energy of the black body due to all the oscillators is Bre by we have DE=@N,+6N, +e,N, +... AD Substitutingto, a NBFOTEy Ey & and Ny N,, N, ... in eqn (D tum Phy 49 O%Ng + AVN MT Saye tor, hv a ~ thy = bvNye "+ 2av Nye (8) put x =e ve have E = hvNox + 2hvNg+ (8) BE = byNyx(l42e4..] Ae (0) 1 j= (lnxy? = 14204... (1-x) m by using binomial series. Substituting eqns (6) and (10) in eqn (1), we get AvNoxtu ane th : n (16) represents Planck's rag} 4 4.10 Engineering 4 oq awit 1h nth. (For clectrom lation (On substituting «= @”» Worhave i yolensth agmetic wave) 8% it army = h _-—pranck’s law is also ; remy wy Suet eee uth ae ‘5 in terms of ' | cat =) putin = W/V" in eqn (15) Then, we have =. ot . (1) B= Geary ~ (12) amik’s Taw shows good agreenoat wih Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength ajues, FOF entire wavelength rogion which is ae range A and A+d2 is given by whtion of Wien's law alee dass ise a ral law ond (18) x nD) DEDUCTION OF WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW FROM PLANCK’S LAW ‘The energy density of radiation in the wavelengths We know that Wien’s law holds gond only at sbever Aandi +dh is given by Number of oscillators per unit volume wavelength v is very large, hence x (sors =a ery small, E, di =| in wavelength range per oscillator hand A+ dd ‘therefore, when 2 is ¥ eee ipo} and f°" is lange when compared t© 1 BE, dh %, at ” ory “ . ao Thus, ‘I’ is neglected in the denominator _ Bedh held } ie, ltt ya gO YP dency, the SLO a 8) vy, = = tahe ction . wen 1) ‘this eqn (18) reprosonts Wie? cia con's aw a haw reduces to ‘Thus, Planck's wavelengths,42, (45) DEDUCTION OF RAYLEIGH - FROM PLANCK'S LAW JEAN'S LAW 4 We know that Rayleigh Joan's law holds good only gt” is very lange, v i Ionger wavelength, ‘Therefore, when his very large, v is 7 hv small, and we <1 o_,, wit iy welt ep (by using exponential series and neglecting higher Now, eqn (16) reduces to L Sxhh [ kT fet (19) x ‘This eqn (19) represents Rayleigh - Jeans law. Hone, Planck's law reduces { i 's f aon ees to Rayleigh Jean's law at Thus, Planck's law reduces at smaller wavelength: Sand longer wavelengths, to Wien’s law of radiation 'o Rayleigh - Jeans law at with experimental ra or-susiler nat wal olemeeie So, it is an established formula for the validity of quantum hypothesis, a PS a Scattering of X-ray Like ordinary light waves, X-rays are scattered in two different ways. They are by matter (a) Coherent scattering or classical scattering or Thomson scattering. (b) Incoherent scattering or Compton scattering (a) Coherent scattering In coherent scattering, X-rays are scattered by clectrons without any change in their wavelengths, This type of scattering was explained by Thomson on the basis of classical clectromagnetic theory. (b) Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering) In Compton scattering, the scattered X - ray consists of two components, one is having the same wavelength as that of the incident X-rays and the other has a slightly longer wavelength ‘This type of scattering was studied by Compton on the basis of particle nature of light radiation. 6) COMPTON EFFECT Compton effect refers to the change in the wavelength of scattered X-rays by @ material. Statement When a beam of X-rays is scattered by a substance of low atomic number, the scattered X-ray radiation consists of two components. One component has the = wavelength 1 as the incident ray und the other sntly longer wavelength 2. component has 2 slig awe| aia En ait This change in the wavelength of scattered X-rays is known as Compton shift. The phenomenon is called Compton effect. ‘The radiations of unchanged wavelength in the scattered radiations are called unmodified radiations. The radiations of longer wavelength are known as modified radiations, ‘The change of incident X - rays, wwelength is due to loss of energy of the Explanation ‘The compton effect was explained on the basis of quantum theory of radiation. The X-radiation consists of quanta or Bhotons each having an energy of hv. These photons move with velocity of light (c). They obey the laws of conservation of energy and momentum when they undergo collision. The whole process is treated as a particle - particle collision between X-ray photon and a loosly bound electron of the atom in the scattering substance, When a photon of energy Av collides with a free electron of the scattering substance, which is assumed to be at rest initially, the photon transfers some of its onergy to the electron (fig. 4.3). Fig. 43 Compton effect, 7 tum Physics 2 435 ‘The electron gains kinetic energy and it ccloaty v. Therefore, the scattered photon hay ones Ti ower frequency and longer wavelength) than that of = cident one. os) THEORY OF COMPTON EFFECT (Derivation) Consider an X-ray photon striking an electron at rest (fig {4 a), This X-ray photon is scattered through an angle 6 ip X-axis from its initial direction of motion (fig 44 bp. (a) Before collision (b) After collision Fig. 4.4 Compton effect Lt the frequency of scattered photon be ¥ and its energy fv, During the collision, X-ray photon gives « faction ae energy to the fro electron, This fee electron of mass m gin energy and it moves with a velocity v at an angle @ Total energy before collision Energy of incident photon = hv 2 Energy of electron at rest = m,¢ whore m, ~ rest mass of the electron, ¢ ~ velocity of light 2 ‘Total energy before collision = Av + ™,¢ re an4.16 Engineering Physics . Total energy after collision Energy of scattered photon = Av’ 2 Energy of scattered electron ame where m is the mass of electron when it moves with velocity v. Total energy after collision = hv’ + me” Applying the law of conservation of energy, ‘Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision 2 2 hy + mc = hv'+me AD) Total momentum along X-axis Before collision fH Momentum of photon along X-axis = x ‘Momentum of electron along X-axis = 0 ince the momentum is vector si and Y-axis, then antity, ig + Ws resale long of photon along X-axis - AV Cos @ pjoment™ somentum of eeetron long Xai a] momentum along X-axis after collision mv 008 Tol = 08 6+ mu 28 9 Applying the law of conservation of momentum ie otal momentum before collision = Total momentum afer elisin hy _ hv = 088 + mvens sul) Ay _ AY cos = mucoss ce 4 (vv cos 6) = mu cos hi (v—V cos 0) = moc cos cos) 0 mvc Total momentum along Y-axis fore collision Momentum of photon along Y-axis = ° Momentum of electron along Ys = ° ‘Total momentum along Y-#xis g“= “8 ______Enarouing em « antum_ Physics “1 After collision RAS. of eqn (6) 419 Momentum of photon along Y - axis = Mino 22 WV BWV 008 0 V" cost) + 18? sity Momentum of electron along Y - axis = - musing 0 WV a0 004 co a 4 ato) Inegative sign indicates negative Y- direction} = v2 cos 0+ v" (ain? +003" 9) a2 Total momentum along Y - axis = sne-musing = WV" ~ 2 eos 0+ v4) [> sine + cos?@ = 1} LHS = RUS of eqn. 6 Applying the law of conservation of momentum ie, myc! = hy? -2wv cos 8+ v4) ‘Teal momentum before collision = Total momentum after calc AT) a Squaring eqn (1). on both sides, we get 0 = “sin 0- mo sing Feat aenams | 6) ~< mite Riy—vPemte!s2hw—vome Se ene i mict = Re? —avv + v4) + dhv-v)me + met | Squaring eqn (3) and eqn (5) and - = — - ‘hen adding, we got, Subtracting eqn (7) from eqn (9), we get Ue (me cos 0) + (mve sin 9)? (vv 00s 8) + (hv sin oF a me! —m2y22 = ni? aw’ 4v)42hv-vome LHS. of eqn (6) + mic! A" —2w cos 0+¥9) a 2 me 2 (2 uy = AN? — 28 w +h V+ 2h (Vm, 22 ay 4 m2 22? m°v'c'eos' + me’ a es emit AN" + 2h’ Ww! eos =v 222 2 | m'v'c’ (sin’ § + cos” 6) 22 = mie 2 = -2nw + 2hwv-v) me a6 + 2w cos 8 + msc (0) 2h? w (1 -€08 8) 222 ; » +2hu-v)me tm eFrom the theory of relativity, the variation of mass volocity is given by 22a o me m=!) = me Multiplying ” on both sides, we have mi tot) = mee 24 46 me Substituting eqn (12) in eqn (10), we get mize! =~ 2h? w' (1 cow 0) + 2h (v-v) m, e+, c* 2h(v-v’)m,c? = 2h* vv (1 - cos 6) A L-cose) me quantum Physics ‘Therefore, the change in wavelength is given by th= (1 - con) ~ (4) me It is found that the change in wavelength ( Six td" x8x10 da = 0.0243 A ‘this difference in wavelength is known as Compton wavelength of electron. ‘Case -3 | When 0= 180°, then a = 2 (1 cos 180%) a= a-1) Cy 8 1802-1) me ae fame dh = 0.0486 A Thus, the change in wavelength is maximum at @ = 180°. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF = COMPTON EFFECT ‘A beam of monochromatic X-rays of wavelength > is mad® to incident on a scattering substance (fig. 4.5). The X-rays are received by Bragg spectrometer, Fig. 4.5 Experimental verification of Compton effect ‘The intensity of scattered X-rays is measured for various scattering angles. The graph is plotted (intensity Vs wavelength) as shown in fig. 4.6 Tt is found that the curves have two peaks, one corresponding to unmodified radiation and other corresponding to modified radiation. ‘The difference between two peaks on the wavelength axis gives Compton shift. ‘The curves show that the greater the scattering angle, the greater is Compton shift in accordance with the expression hk N-hedh= (1-08 8) ‘The change in wavelength dh = 0.0243 A at @= 90° is found to be in good agreement with the theoretical value 0.0243 A. ‘Thus, Compton effect is experimentally verified.Engineering Physics - | ine | -unmodifiod oe Intensity of the scattered X-rays ae modified line r ® Wavelength (0) — 46 Graph between intensity of the scattered X-rays and wavelength () Importance of Compton effect the direct + Historically, Compton effect provided < ‘confirmation of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation. It had conclusively showed that photons carry energy and momentum like any material particle. ‘+ Further, it proved that the momentum as well as the energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized, « Compton effect showed that the photon description applies not only to visible light but also to X-rays Quantum Physics 425 Conclusion Hence, Compton effect i Compton effect explains the elastic collision of two particles, ie, electron and photon. It also proves the partctenatur’of Hg radiat a the quantum concept. . _* | MATTER WAVES Wave Nature of Particle ‘The light radiation bohaves like a wave in interference and diffraction experiments. The same light radiation behaves like a particle in photoelectric effect and Compton effect. ‘Thus, the light radiation has dual (two) nature ie., wave nature and particle nature. ‘The idea of wave nature of the particle was put forward from the observation of dual nature of light radiation. de - Broglie’s Hypothesis Louis de-Broglie proposed a very bold and novel suggestion that like light radiation, matter or material particle also posseses dual (two) characteristics ie., particle -like and wave-like since nature loves symmetry. ‘The moving particles of matter such as electrons, protons, noutrons, atoms or molecules exhibit the wave nature in addition to particle nature, ‘According to de- Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is always associated with waves. (Mig. 4.7) |na (@) Particle nate (& Wave nature Fig. 4.7 Particle and wave nature of matter particlePhy jeles are the only two modes, in propagate in nature, Sithrougn, cal imo which © composed of light). is folly Padiation sang uy Waves men act like @ Wave and a pa, mice trons, Protons ete) shoulg. «rR (electrons, P' Stead ag : " rater toves symmetry, ‘matter «sine mature petri. If eletrOmaanetis sada Bi tights Oe les til eterial Pal mat particle and like ® ticle is always associated wij ing particle i ith a wave, a wave. + Bvory movi proglie waves and Its wavelength . « associated with the MAtter particles a, ‘The wave’ Broglie waves, cated matter waves oF de= From Planck's theory; v is given by the energy of @ pHoton of frequency ae ~@ According to Binstein's mass - energy relation oo ~@ where m - mass of the photon © = velocity of the photon. Equating (1) and (2), we get oe (8) Quantum Physics az7 ith 2 = FE (for electromagnetic radiation) Since mc =p momentum of a photon, then A = . “ay ‘The wavelength of de- Broglie wave associated with any moving particle of mass m with velocity v (momentum p = mu) is given by a (5) Bis ‘This equation (5) is known as de-Broglie’s wave equation. de - Broglie wavelength in terms of energy Wo know that the kinotie encegy # = ma? Multiplying by m on both sides we get, mk =} pty? (6) Ba 2mE = mv? 2mE Taking square root on both sides, Vm" = V2mE mu =V2 mE Wo know that 2 = oD substituting for mv in eqn (7), we have do Broglie wavelength | 4= phEngineoring Physics - | de-Broglie’s wavelength associated with electrons When an electron of charge ¢ is accelerated by @ potential difference of V volts, then the electron gains a velocity» and hence, 428 . Workdone on the electron = eV w ‘This workdone is converted into the kinetic energy of the electron as 5 m0" Workdone = kinetic energy en .@) eV = mw eV = mu" mo’ = 2eV Multiply by m on both sides, we have my? = 2meV ‘Taking square root on both sides, we get Vmiv® = \2meV my = \BmeV » @) From the de Broglie’s concept, the wavelength associated with any moving particle is given by h mo x Substituting eqn (3) in eqn (4), we have . @) VmeV Substituting the given values, we have Quantum Physics 429 h 6.62510 "Js, ¢ - 16x10 m ~ 9.110 kg a 6.625 x10 Vax9.1x10 "x16%10 "xv y= 210” = ST metre 16) 12.25 aad m ) PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES 1. If the mass of the particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that particle is longer. 2. If the velocity of the particle is small, then the ‘wavelength associated with that particle is longer. 3. If v=0, then h=«, the wave becomes indeterminate and if v=, then 1=0. This indicates that de - Broglie waves are generated by the motion of particles, “4. "These waves do not depend on the charge of the C4 ~ particles. This shows that these waves are not electromagnetic waves. 5. The velocity of de - Broglie's waves is not constant since it depends on the velocity of the material particlelenergy 100 eV 430 Engineering Physics - | »ROBLEM| INA'UN [Problem 4.1 |An electron is accelerated by a potential ; a ial difference of| }150V. What is the wavelength of that electron wave? (AU. Jan 2010) Given data Accelerating voltage applied to the electron V = 150 V Solution We know that the de- Broglie wavelength __ 12.25x10""” Ww a ‘metre Substituting the given values, we have _ 1225 x10"? vio a metre 12.25 x10" 12.24 metre = 1,001 x10" metre A= 10014 [Problem 4.2 Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an electron of| (AU, Jon 2010) Quantum Physios 431 Given data Bnorgy of otectron E = 100 eV B = 100x1.6x 10" joule Ce Lev = 16x10 J) Mass of the electron m =9.1 10° kg Planck’s constant h = 6.625 x 10° Js Solution h Wo know that 4 =~. mu Rm Substituting the given values, we have 6.625 x10 ** bseixw™xwaisuu™ 2x9.1x 10" x 100%1.6 «10 de - Broglie's wavelength = metre = 1.285 [Noter At the time de- Broglio proposed bis hypothesis, there] lwas no experimental evidence to show that the particles 0 imatter like electrons, protons, neutrons. etc,, have wave properties. S; Howeversthe wave nature off atomic particles. waa lexperimontally vorified by'tho American scientists Davisson and IGermer.in 1927 and by G-P. Thomson in 1928 and thus.the ruth of de Broglie concept was established.> Engineering Physics - | 4.32 4.10) G.P. THOMSON EXPERIMENT GP. ‘Thomson mede investigations with high speed electrons, accelerated by potential difference ranging from 10,000 to 50,000 volts and studied the electron diffraction effects ‘Thomson found the electron diffraction patterns exactly analogous to X-ray patterns. Moreover he was able to determine the wavelength associated with electrons. Experimental arrangement and working ‘The experimental arrangement is shown in fig.4.8 It consists of @ discharge tube in which the electrons are produced from the cathode C. The electrons are accelerated by ‘2 potential upto 50,000 volts. These accelerated electrons are passed through a slit S to obtain a fine beam of electrons. cabo Fig. 48 GP. Thomson experim: (Gee Fig. 15 at the end of the book) Then, they are allowed to fall on a very thin gold foil G. The thickness of the foil is of the order of 10°° cm, sna The whole. apparatus is exhausted to a high vacuum so on the electrons may not lose their energy in collision with molecules of the gas, if present inside 6 Quantum Physics 433 The electron beam coming out of the foil is recorded by the photographic plate P. After developing the plate, a symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric rings about a central spot diffraction pattern is obtained. (fig. 4.9). This is similar to patterns produced by X- rays Fig. 4.9 Diffraction pattern obtained in GP. Thomson's experiment The diffraction pattern can only be produced by waves and not by the particles. So, Thomson concluded that electrons behaved like waves. He also calculated the associated wavelength of the electronics. It is found that the wavelength of the electron depends only on the accelerating voltage and it is independent of the nature of the target material. Thomson's experiment led to the discovery of Electron microscopes Note: In order to check, whether the diffraction pattern of concentric rings is produced by the electron or by the X- rays, a magnetic field is applied between the gold foil and the photographic plate. It is found that there is deflection of the diffraction pattern due to deflection in the path of the electron indicating that the diffraction pattern is produced by electrons, If it is produced by X-rays, there should be no deflection of diffraction pattern, because X-rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields (Fig. 4.9).Engineering Physics - | SCHROEDINGER WAVE EQUATION Schroedinger wave equation describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form. It is the basic equation of motion for matter waves. IF the particle has wave properties, then there should be some sort of wave equation to describe the behaviour of that particle Schroedinger connected the expression of de-Broglic's wavelength with the classical wave equation for a moving particle. He obtained a new wave equation, This wave equation is known as Schroedinger wave equation. Forms of Schroedinger wave equations ‘There are two forms of Schrodinger wave equations. "They are: (a) Time independent wave equation (b) Time dependent wave equation 2) SCHROEDINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION (Derivation) Consider @ wave associated with a moving particle. Let x, 92 Let x, J. 2 be the coordinates of the particle and y wave function for de - Broglie’: oe lie’s waves at any given instant of time t. | Quantum Physics 435 particle /\ wave associated with particle x Fig 4.10 ‘The classical differential equation for wave motion is given by 2 ( aw (1) ox Here, v,, is wave velocity. ‘The eqn (1) is written as ( ( f J 12 Wye aq ® uy a oe whore P= 25 + 2 + & is the Laplacian’s operator. ae ay ae ‘The solution of eqn (2) gives as a periodic variations in terms of time f, WOE9 20) =, Ze / yeuet @ a Here, y, 952) is a function of 9,2 only which is the amplitude at the point considered. o is angular velocity of the wave.Engineering Physics = Quantum Physics "a SS , at Substituti ii (o forentiating the eqn (3) with respect to t, we Bet Substituting eqn (7) in eqn (5), we have 2 . 4n . M -ioye vy + Sy 7) Me-ioye 2 ‘Again differentiating with respect to f, we have on substituting, 2% A Glog ws pb re = oe ° particle velocity) k 73 mo . (4) sini, @ vue eo “ 1 veyef 2 If E is total energy of the particle, V is potential energy and py is kinetic energy, then ‘Total energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy F 12 2 o | E = V+smo, vy + Sy =0 ~@ § 2 % | o E-V = tm) », We know that angular tomo) (2) 2 d 2 - V) = mi} i 2 Here, v is the frequency (» ve = my, = 2(-V) Multiplying by m on both sides, we have 2k 2,2 (20) on ~O | mop = 2m@-V) : Squaring the eqn (6) on both sides, we = Substituting eqn (10) in eqn (9), we get 5 2 _. | a vy + x 2m@-Wy =0 rs 4 .Engineering Physics (a) 3 vye ar e-My known as Schroedinger time ‘the eqn (LD) is : for three dimensions. pendent wave equation, h eo . (12) inde ‘The eqn (11) is modified by substituting /, 2 8 vy + 4 €-wy=0 i axa 2 am ee el (13) an On substituting eqn (12) in eqn (13), Schroedinger time-independent wave equation is written as vy + 2 @wy = 0] © a4) ® We ve ae (14a) im V+ Ww = By Zy ~) Quantum Physics 439 (Note: In eqn (14), there is no term representing time. ‘That is why it is called as time independent equation, Special case If we consider one-dimensional motion ie., particle moving along only X- direction, then Schroedinger time independent ‘equation (14) reduces to dy , 2m .. (18) 3) SCHROEDINGER TIME DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION Schroedinger time dependent wave equation is derived from Schroedinger time independent wave equation. ‘The solution of classical differential equation of wave motion is given by V0E920) = Wy RZE Mm Differentiating eqn (1) with respect to time t, we get (24.40. E eS . ay 3 . 1 He | Schrocdinger time independent wave equation is e aa VY + Ww = By substitute for By from eqn (5) 2 -Evvevy int Roe a =|- wy z Srv] = ink o |Hy = Ey 6) 2 . 8) Quantum Physics 44h operator 1 where H = (-E-| is Hamilton a B = ih 5; is energy operator. ‘The eqn (7) is known as Schroedinger time dependent wave equation. [Note: In eqn (7), there is the term 2 representing time ‘That is why it is called time dependent wave equation. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION y 1. ‘The variable quantity which describes de-Broglie wave is called wave function y. 2, It connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature statistically. 3, The wave function associated with a moving particle at a particular instant of time and at a particular point in space is related to the probability of finding the particle at that instant and at that point. 4. The probability 0 corresponds to the certainty of not finding the particle and probability 1 corresponds to certainty of finding the particle. ie, fff v’ vde=1, if particle is present. = 0, if particle is not present. where y'- complex conjugate of W article at a particular 5. The probability of finding @ p* but the wave function region must be real and positive, yuantity. vy is in general a complex at442 Engineering Physics - | 4 8) PARTICLE IN A ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOX (Application of Schrodinger Equation) i Consider a particle of mass m moving between two rigid walls of a box at x=0 and x=a along x-axis. ‘This particle is bouning back and forth between the walls of the box. The potential energy (V) of the particle inside the box is constant. It is taken as zero for simplicity (fig. 4.11). ‘The walls are infinitely high. ‘The potential energy V of the particle is infinite outside the walls ‘Thus, the potential function is given by Vex) = 0 for 0 1m) F and f can be reduced to less than a millimetre. So, the magnification power of electron microscope is about 10° X. (©) Depth of focus It is defined as the ability of the objective of microscope to produce a sharp focussed image when the surface of the object is not truly plane. ‘The deviation from plane surface occurs when the specimen is severely etched or when certain constituents of the structure fare depressed or elevated from the etched surface. ELECTRON MICROSCOPE Definition It is a microscope which uses electron beam to illuminate ‘a specimen and it produces an enlarged image of the specimen. It has very high magnification power and resolving power when compared to optical microscope. ‘Types of Electron Microscopes ‘There are three types of electron microscopes. They are 1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 3. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) (Note: See Fig. 15 - 18 at the end of the book)Enginoering Physigg ‘CTRON MICROSCOPE (ren) 42 i aay) ‘TRANS! mission ELE microscope in which re Definition is a type of electron >pe Mp image is Motained by transmission of eleq,. cota ugh te specimens Principle re passed through the specime, n ‘The electrons ar hrowgl ie irae is produced by using either transmiteg imme nage) or diffracted (dark field in, through the specimen. age) and (oright fiel electron beam Construction sential parts of the Transmission electron microscope ‘The es ‘They are ‘are shown in fig. 4. 13. (i) Electron gun ii) Magnetic condensing objective and projector lenses (iii) Fluoresent (phosphor) screen or CCD (Charge Coupled Device) It consists of an electron gun to produce electrons. Magnetic condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam. It is also used to adjust the size of the electron beam which falls 0» the specimen, The magnetic abjective Jens is used to block the high angle diffracted beam. Th : _ nae specimen is kept in between magnetic condensing ted ignetic objective lens as shown in fig. 4.13. Pur ther, an aperture is used to eliminate the aif! beam (if any) and inturn it increases the contrast of the im The may ‘ sereen in onder t. Priest lens is placed before the siworese to achieve higher magnification. 453 Election Gun Magpote conden jens ° Specimen 1 Magnere Objective lens Je— aperure a Magnotic projector tons F Fluorescent sereen Image Fig. 4.13 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) ‘The image is obtained on a fluorescent screen or recorded by using a CCD (Charge Coupled Device). Working ‘The electron beam produced by the electron gun is made to fall on the specimen using magnetic condensing lens. the beam is partly Based on the angle of incidence, nsmitted beam and transmitted and partly diffracted. Both trar dlffracted beams are combined to form the image. The combined cepdak 2 HDS f sr ef egg t image is called phase contrast image. suite < In order to increase intensity and contras! st of the image; trast image Bas to be obtained, ihe an amplitude corEngineering pp, | t only by using tronemaitiag , wl be achieved beam to be eliminated. ng beam is passed through the cave lens and apertore ‘The aperture is adjusted Ena acted image is eliminated, Such « the resultant obi sway that the diffr final image obtained due to transmitt, ed ‘Thus, the dame is posed through the projector lens magnification beam for fargo ‘the mognifid image is projected on. fluorescent recoreded in CCD. This high contrast image is call Screen op Field Image led Bright "The bright field image obtained is purely due to | (clastic | scattering) transmitted beam. | (Note: Ifthe image is obtained only due to the diffracte y due to the diffracted racted bea im (by eliminating the transi Dark Field Image. eRe ees Advantages a The resolution and magni which ett be blaine in otal ee ‘The focal length of th in optical microscopes. chan, the lens can b ‘ pas the current through eee by simply ferent types of i clectromagnet. = images possible, ges and processing of images are Limitations ln My EM, th Preparatioy Fo teri tion. W, ‘als require difficult sample Uo be elects ® Beee lect: 0 prod 00 transparea ee & sample thin enough a, ple may be changed during It is 8 time me Consuming pr ocess, ‘Quantum Physics 455 / tye rogion of analysis on sample is too small and may not be characteristic for the whole sample. ‘he sample may bo damaged by the electron beam particularly in the ease of biological samples. 6 Biological samples should be given @ thin metal coating for proper conduction of electrons. Applications ¥ It is used in structure of crystal and al the investigation of atomic structures and Is0 in various fields like iological sciences, medicine, physics, chemistry, _ material science ‘and metallurgy. & in biological applications, it is used to create tomographic reconstructions of small cells or thin sections of larger cells. 3.1m material science, it is used te find the dimensions of powders or nanotubes metals can be identified. It 4, ‘The defects in crystals or jects and also js used to locate the position of the def the nature of the defect present. "TEM (HRTEM) technique allows the 5, High Resolution al structure directly. detection of eryst (4.18) SCANNING ELECTRON MicROSCOPE (SEM) Definition It is om improved and latest model of == electron microscope. + It is used to produco an enlarged three dimensional in the order image of a specimen of very small size even ™ of nm, Here, the image is built up by using 2° clectron probe of very small diameter which scans ‘the specimen surface In parallel straight lines as in the ease of # television