MODULE 1 PART 1 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT

STRUCTURES
WHAT ARE EARTHQUAKES?

The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of energy

Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks
Continuing adjustment of position results in aftershocks
WHAT ARE EARTHQUAKES?

They are natural disasters of a generally unpredictable nature.

sudden movement - surface of the earth - may be tiny or several feet.
A sudden, and rapid shaking of earth caused by the breaking and shifting of rocks
beneath the earth surface.
Seismology
When earthquakes occur, waves travel in Earth in form of vibrations, such waves are called
Seismic Waves.
Study of such waves - Seismology.
Instrument measuring seismic waves - Seismometer.
Graphs given by that seismometer - Seismic Graph.
EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
• For the design of structures to resist earthquakes, it is necessary to have some
knowledge of ground motions.
• The earth vibrates almost continuously at periods ranging from milliseconds to days
and amplitudes ranging from nanometers to meters.
• The great majority of these vibrations are so weak that they can’t be felt or even
detected without specialized measurement equipments
• The earthquake waves arrive at a sight at various instants of time, have different
amplitudes and carry different levels of energy.
• Thus, the motion at any site on the ground is random in nature, its amplitude and
direction varying randomly with time.
• During earthquakes, the ground movement is very complex, producing translation in
any general direction combined with rotations about arbitrary axis.
EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION

• Earthquake engineers are interested primarily in strong ground motion. That is the motion
of sufficient strength to affect people and their environment.
• Motion of the ground can be described in terms of ground displacement, velocity or
acceleration.
• Seismographs are used to measure relatively weak ground motion where as strong ground
motions are usually measured by accelerographs.
SEISMIC ZONES IN INDIA AND EARTHQUAKE
HAZARD
Earthquakes are the shaking,rolling or sudden shock of the earth’s surface.These are the natural
means of releasing stress.
• Usually last less than a minute but can be felt over large areas. It can’t be predicated.
• There are plates along the Earth’s surface and these plates moves continuously and slowly past
each other, towards each other & away from each other thus causing different phenomenon on
Earth’s surface.
• As the plates move they put forces on themselves. When the force is large enough the crust is
forced to break & hence the break in earth’s crust results in release of stored energy.
• Then it moves through earth in the form of waves,that we feel & call as an Earthquake.
An earthquake is a vibration of the surface of the earth that is caused due to the elasticity or the
isostatic adjustment of the rocks under the surface of the earth. It may be caused via human as
well as natural activities.
The point where the seismic (earthquake) waves originate is called the 'focus' of the earthquake,
it takes place below the surface of the earth. Whereas, the place which perpendicularly above
the focus, on the surface of the earth where the tremors of the earthquake are felt for the first
time is called the 'epicentre'. The energy that is dissipated from the focus is known as the ‘Elastic
Energy’.
Seismic zoning map of India helps in identifying the
lowest, moderate as well as the highest hazardous
or earthquake-prone areas in India. Also, such
maps are used or looked before the construction of
high rise building so as to check the level of
seismology in any particular area. In the long run,
this helps in saving lives.
Based on the past seismic history, Bureau of Indian
Standards grouped the country into four seismic
zones namely Zone-II, Zone-III, Zone-IV and Zone-V.
Of all these four zones,Zone-V is the most seismic
active region whereas Zone-II is the least.
Zone – II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone. Zone –
III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone. Zone – IV: This is
considered to be the high seismic zone. Zone – V: It is the
highest seismic zone..
ROLE OF ARCHITECT AND STRUCTURAL DESIGNER
IN SAFE BUILDING DESIGN
INTRODUCTION :
•The earthquake resistance of buildings depends upon three quite different processes
in design .
*the overall layout of the building which determines the magnitude of the forces which
come on to the building and their distribution.
*the ability of the various parts of the building to resist these forces ,the strength of
individual members and the connections between them.
*those aspects of construction ,which are rarely mentioned at all,non structural or
architectural aspects of building , non –load bearing walls and finishes .
•both the architect and structural engineer have to be careful in creating a safe
building design.
ROLE OF ARCHITECT :
The architects role to oversee the whole project .
An architect is required to have awareness,
judgement and energy .
The earthquake resistant design of structural
frames is within the structural engineers remit.
However ,seismic capacity of structural frames
depends on the basic concepts of architectural
spaces for which the architect plays the leading
role.
An architect must oversee the whole team ,and
suggest and decide the basic concepts of
architectural spaces,with sufficient understanding
of safety of the living environment , and the
present state and basic concepts of earthquake
resistant technology.
ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEER:
The role of the structural engineer is a key
component in the construction process.
structural engineering is concerned with the design
and physical integrity of buildings and other large
structures .
Structural engineers have wide range of
responsibilities .
unlike architects ,who must focus on the
appearance ,shape ,size,and use of the building
,structural engineers must solve technical problems
and help the architect achieve his or her vision for
the project .
structural engineers must have a strong grasp of
physics ,three dimensional conceptual skills
,creative problem solving ,ability to apply
principles of mechanics ,mathematics and physics
to construct safe ,sustainable buildings.
ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
3. Communication:
The roles and responsibilities of structural
engineers include
1. Design
the design of structures - calculating the
loads and stresses the construction will have
to safely withstand.
factor in the different qualities and strengths responsible for the organization and delivery
delivered by a range of building materials,
and understand how to incorporate support
beams, columns and foundations.
2. Investigation:
Before work can begin, structural engineers 5. Training:
are involved in the investigation and survey
of build sites to determine the suitability of
the earth for the requirements of the
upcoming project.
co-ordinate and consult with other members
of their projects, including engineers,
environmental scientists, architects and
landscape architects.
assist government bodies in their own
inspections relating to the project.
4. Management:
of materials and equipment for the needs of
the construction project.
The supervision and management of on-site
labour.
Because of the safety issues involved in their
work, structural engineers must be trained to
strict standards.
Most structural engineering courses require a
related undergraduate degree in an
engineering discipline.
 COMPARISON OF SEISMIC AND CONVENTIONAL
DESIGN
CONVENTIONAL DESIGN METHOD:
The traditional method of construction where the construction knowledge is
passed from one generation to the other associated to the wet construction
(in-situ) using reinforced concrete.
the components of the building that are pre-fabricated on site through the
processes or timber or plywood formwork installation, steel reinforcement
and cast in-situ.
Conventional building is mostly built of reinforced concrete frames.
uses wooden formwork. It is much more costly for construction, which
includes labor, raw material, transportation and low speed of construction
time.
SEISMIC DESIGN METHOD:
For a building to perform satisfactorily during
earthquakes, it must meet the philosophy of
earthquake-resistant design.
The seismic design philosophy may be summarized
as follows:
a) Under minor but frequent shaking, the main
members of the building that carry vertical and
horizontal forces should not be damaged;
however building parts that do not carry load
may sustain repairable damage
b) Under moderate but occasional shaking, the
main members may sustain repairable damage,
while the other parts of the building may be
damaged such that they may even have to be
replaced after the earthquake
c) Under strong but rare shaking, the main
members may sustain severe (even irreparable)
damage, but the building should not collapse.
SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic design is a specific area of
architecture dedicated to the structural
analysis of buildings, bridges, and roads,
with the aim of making them resistant to
earthquakes and other seismic activity.
Its ethical goal is the protection of the
occupants and users of these structures.
Seismic designing can be divided into 3
stages.
I. Planning stage
II. Design stage
III. Construction stage
Planning stage
Plan building in symmetrical way (both axis)
Avoid weak storey and provide strong
diaphragm
Don’t add appendages which will create
difference in Centre of mass and centre of
rigidity
Conduct soil test to avoid soil liquefaction
Steel to be used of having elongation of
14% and yield strength of 415 N/mm2
 SEISMIC DESIGN
Design Stage
Avoid weak column and strong beam
design.
Provide thick slab which will help as a
rigid diaphragm.
Avoid thin slab and flat slab construction.
Provide cross walls which will stiffen the
structures in a symmetric manner.
Provide shear walls in a symmetrical
fashion. It should be in outer boundary
to have large lever arm to resist the EQ
forces
SEISMIC DESIGN

Construction Stage
Compact the concrete by means of
needle vibrator.
Cure the concrete for at least a
minimum period.
Experienced supervisor should be
employed to have good quality
control at site.
COMPARISON OF SEISMIC AND CONVENTIONAL
DESIGN
Conventional design using the routine design codes (meant for design against non-earthquake
effects), designers may not be able to achieve a ductile structure. Special design provisions in
the form of a special seismic design code, e.g., IS: 13920-1993 for RC structures IS
1893:2002 to improve ductility of structure.
The correct building components need to be made ductile. The failure of a column can affect
the stability of the whole building, but the failure of a beam causes localized effect.
Therefore, it is better to make beams to be the ductile weak links than columns. This method of
designing RC buildings is called the strong-column weak-beam design method.
Walls or columns are the most critical elements in transferring the inertia forces. But, in
conventional construction, floor slabs and beams receive more care and attention during
design and construction, than walls and columns. Walls are relatively thin and often made of
brittle material like masonry. They are poor in carrying horizontal earthquake inertia forces
along the direction of their thickness.
For seismic design the minimum dimension of column provided is 300mm where as for
conventional design the dimension of column less than 300 mm is also provided.
 COMPARISON OF SEISMIC AND CONVENTIONAL
DESIGN
Seismic design code suggested providing at least two bars go
through the full length of the beam at the top as well as the
bottom of the beam where as in conventional design the
requirement of bars in top and bottom depends on its design.
According to seismic design, for Beam Column Joint Use large
column sizes is the most effective way and also provide closely
spaced closed-loop steel ties around column bars to hold
together concrete in joint region and to resist shear forces.
Seismic design suggested that for masonry structures box type
structure should be adopted and proper bands like plinth
band, lintel band and roof band should be provided. Also
vertical reinforcement bars should be embedded in the edges
of the wall piers and anchoring them in the foundation at the
bottom and in the roof band at the top, so that it forces the
slender masonry piers to undergo bending.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE ,SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquakes are caused by disturbances in the interior of the earth and other causes.
Tectonic Movements:
•The disturbances inside the earth are called tectonic movements.
•These forces bring about changes on the earth surface and physical features like mountains,
plateaus and rift valleys are formed.
•Most disastrous earthquakes are caused by tectonic forces .
•Tectonic forces create tension and pressure and the stress begins to build up inside the earth.
When the stress tends to be more than what the rocks of the earth can bear, the rocks are broken
and displaced from their state of equilibrium. It is known as faulting.
• The energy accumulated during faulting is released. This release of energy gives rise to mighty
waves. These waves originate from a point called Focus in the interior of the earth and then
spread out in all directions. On the surface whatever comes into their contact begins to vibrate.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Volcanic Eruptions:
•The volcanic eruptions are often very violent and cause
vibrations in the earth crust.
•Sometimes the vent of a volcano is blocked temporarily
and explosive eruption takes place suddenly causing
tremors in the earth crust.
•The Krakatoa that erupted in 1883 became the cause of
a violent earthquake there.
Other Reasons:
•The roofs of underground caves sometimes give way and
release great force to cause minor tremors in the earth
crust.
•Nuclear explosions also release massive energy to cause
tremors in the earth crust
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
•An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault.
(A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move
relative to each other.)
•The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction.
•When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in
waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that we feel.

•Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.

•And so, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the relative deformations that occur due
to the gigantic tectonic plate actions taking place in the Earth.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
•But, when the rocky material along the interface of the plates in the Earth’s Crust reaches its
strength, it fractures and a sudden movement takes place there, the interface between the
plates where the movement has taken place (called the fault) suddenly slips and releases the
large elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the interface.
•The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake, a violent shaking of the Earth during which
large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the form of seismic waves that travel
through the body and along the surface of the Earth.
•After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified interface between
the tectonic plates starts all over again. Earth scientists call this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Divergent boundary: Where two boundaries move apart.
Convergent boundary: Where one plate moves towards, and potentially subducts beneath,
another plate.
Transform boundary: Where two boundaries slide laterally relative to each other.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
•Faults which move along the direction of the dip plane are dip-slip faults and described as
either normal or reverse, depending on their motion.
•Faults which move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults and are classified as either
right-lateral or left-lateral.
•Normal fault describes the downward movement of one side of the fault with respect to the
other side whereas reverse fault refers to the upward movement of one side of the fault with
respect to the other side.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKE
(IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKE)
•The major social and economic consequences of earthquakes result from damage to elements
of the built environment that are essential to the operation of the economic activities in the
impacted region.
•Some economic sectors are by their nature more vulnerable than others.
•Some sectors will even find an increase in their activity because of demands placed on them
by the disaster.
•Impacts are often classified as primary and secondary impacts. Primary effects occur as a
direct result of the ground shaking, eg buildings collapsing. Secondary effects occur as a
result of the primary effects, eg tsunamis or fires due to ruptured gas mains.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKE
•Social impacts (the impact on people)
Short term (immediate) impact
People may be killed or injured
Homes may be destroyed
Transport and communication links may be disrupted
Water pipes may burst and water supplies may be
contaminated
Long term impact
Disease may spread
People may have to be re-housed, sometimes in
refugee camps
•Economic impacts (the impact on the wealth
of an area)
Short term (immediate) impact
Shops and business may be destroyed
Looting may take place
The damage to transport and communication
links can make trade difficult
Long term impact
The cost of rebuilding a settlement is high
Investment in the area may be focused only
on repairing the damage caused by the
earthquake
Income could be lost
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKE
• Environmental impacts ( the impact on the landscape)
Short term impact
The built landscape may be destroyed.
Fires can spread due to gas pipe explosions
Fires can damage areas of woodland.
Landslides may occur
Tsunamis may cause flooding in coastal areas
Long term Impact
Important natural and human landmarks may be lost
EFFECT ON NATION
Reduction in Tourism
One of the major negative effects is that there is
a reduction of tourism in the area. People are
more cautious to go and visit an area that’s
recently become the victim of a natural disaster.
Cost for Repair and Treatment
Any time a natural disaster hits there’s damage
to infrastructure and people in the immediate
areas. The problem is that it’s then a big job to
repair all the damage, not to mention the costs.
Likely to Happen Again
One of the most frustrating things about natural
disasters is that there’s not a lot that can be
done to avoid them. These days the problem
with natural disasters is that we can attribute
human blame to them. Because humans interfere
with the planet, it increases the likelihood of
natural disasters.
Financial Burden
The biggest issue with natural disasters is the
financial effect they have on a nation’s economy.
Any time a natural disaster hits it can cause
millions in damage and even more to repair the
wreckage. The problem is that the fallout from
this is so costly many countries fall into a spiral of
debt having to get themselves back on track.