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Sensor and Transducer - Compressed
Sensor and Transducer - Compressed
Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts one type of
energy to another.
The input transducer is called the sensor.
The output transducer is called the actuator.
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Input and Output
Transducers
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Basic requirements of a transducers
The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed.
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CLASSIFICATON OF TRANSDUCERS
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ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
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Active and Passive Transducers
• Active Transducers: The output energy of Active
Transducers is supplied entirety or almost
entirety by its input signal.
• Passive Transducers: Have an auxiliary source of
power. This power source is necessary for the
operation of passive transducers.
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Analog and Digital
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Resistive Transducer ( Potentiometer)
Wiper Contact
Translatory ( Displacement)
Helipot
Angular
Displacement
R2
Vo VT
Rotational
R1 R2 10
Resistive Transducer
Fluid Level Sensor With A Float
The voltage V across the wiper of a linear pot is proportional to the displacement d
V= E (d/D)
Where D is the full-scale displacement and
E is the voltage across the pot
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Resistance Pressure Transducer
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Resistive Transducer
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Resistance Pressure Transducer
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Wiper Contact
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Strain Gauges
1. Wire Strain Gauges
Resistance Wire
i. Unbounded ii. Bounded
Wire Types
i. Grid ii. Rossette ii. Torque iv. Helical
2. Foil Strain Gauges
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges
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Stress and Strain
Stress is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area.
It is a measure of the intensity of the total internal forces acting within a
body across imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied
forces and body forces.
In general, stress is expressed as
σ is the average stress, also called nominal stress and F is the force
acting over the area A.
Strain is the geometrical expression of deformation caused by the action
of stress on a physical body. Strain is calculated by first assuming a change
between two body states: the beginning state and the final state. Then the
difference in placement of two points in this body in those two states
expresses the numerical value of strain. Strain therefore expresses itself as a
change in size and/or shape.
l
The strain is defined as the fractional change in length strain
Strain is thus a unit less quantity l
Stress and Strain
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Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
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Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
l
R
A
Resistance
R
GF ( K ) R
l
l
Guage Factor ( K)
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Strain Gauge In Bridge Arrangement
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Types of Strain Gauges
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Types of Strain Gauges
0.2mm thick
50 & 1000 Ω
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Semiconductor Strain Gauges
0.7 – 7.0 mm
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Temperature Measurement
The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six primary
fixed points for reference temperatures in terms of:
The triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34C
The boiling point of oxygen 182.962C
The boiling point of water 100.0C
The freezing point of zinc 419.58C
The freezing point of silver 961.93C
The freezing point of gold 1064.43C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
The freezing points of certain other metals are also used as secondary
fixed points to provide additional reference points during calibration
procedures.
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Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate
classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.
The main principles used are:
The thermoelectric effect
Resistance change
Sensitivity of semiconductor device
Radiative heat emission
Thermography
Thermal expansion
Resonant frequency change
Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
Acoustic thermometry
Colour change
Change of state of material.
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Resistance Thermometer
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THERMISTOR
THERMally sensitive resISTOR
Rod Type
4mm dia Washer Type
12.5-50mmlong
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Thermistors
THERMally sensitive resISTOR
Thermistor Example
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RTD , Thermistor & Thermocouple
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Thermocouple
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Thermocouples (Types)
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Thermocouple
O/p Voltage Vs Temperature
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Thermocouple circuit
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Thermocouple Compensation Circuits
Type T
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Type J Thermocouple using
Isothermal Block
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Reference Junction Compensation
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Thermopiles
Multiple-junction thermocouple circuit designed to amplify the output of the circuit
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Different Types of Thermocouples
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples
Wide temperature range (-270oC to 2700oC
Rugged Construction
Bridge Circuits not required for temperature measurement.
Comparatively cheaper in cost
Good reproducibility
Speed of response is high compared to thermometer systems.
Calibration checks can be easily performed
Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distance transmission for
temperature measurement is possible.
Good Accuracy
Meter ~ Exciter
Air gap
Armature
movement
Linear and Angular Inductive Transducers Single Coil Self inductance arrangement
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Variation of Self Inductance
The Two Coil arrangement, is a single coil with a center tap. Movement of
the core alters the relative inductance of the two coils. These transducers are
incorporated in inductive bridge circuit in which variation in inductance
ratio between the two coils provides the output. This is used as a secondary
transducer for pressure measurement.
Core of magnetic
material Non magnetic
material
Variable Permeability
Inductive Transducers Variable self inductance -Two Coil (Single coil with center tap)
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Variation of Mutual Inductance
In this type, the flux from a power coil is coupled to a pickup coil, which
supplies the output. Input information in the form of armature displacement,
changes the coupling between the coils. The air gap between the core and the
armature govern the degree of coupling.
Power coil
Pickup coil
To stage II
Excitation ~ Air gap circuitry
Armature
movement
Two Coil Mutual Inductance Transducer
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Variable Reluctance Transducer
A Variable reluctance Transducers are used for dynamic applications,
where the flux lines supplied by a permanent magnet are cut by the turns of the
coil. Some means of providing relative motion is included into the device.
The fig shows a simple type of reluctance pickup consisting of a coil
wound on a permanent magnetic core. Any variation of the permeance of the
magnetic circuit causes a change in the flux, which is brought about by a
serrated surface subjected to movement. As the flux field expands or collapses,
a voltage is induced in the coil. N Permanent magnet
To CRO
Serrated
surface
S
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Three Coil mutual inductance device (LVDT)
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Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
A RVDT is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring Angular
Displacement .
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Capacitive Transducers
The principle of these type is that variations in capacitance are used to produce
measurement of many physical phenomenon such as dynamic pressure,
displacement, force, humidity, etc. 0.088 KA( N 1)
An equation for capacitance is C Pico farads
d
Where K= dielectric constant (for air K=1),
A= area of one side of one plate,
N= Number of plates,
d= Separation of plate surfaces (cm)
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Capacitive Transducer
Capacitance
Capacitance Pickup to measure liquid
level (Changing dielectric constant)
Central
electrode
Hollow tube
Liquid
Opening
The above fig. shows a device used for the measurement of liquid level in a
container. The capacitance between the central electrode and the surrounding
hollow tube varies with changing dielectric constant brought about by changing
liquid level. Thus the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication
of the liquid level. Variation in dielectric constant can also be utilized for
measurements of thickness, density, etc.
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Capacitive Transducer
(Torque meter)
Sleeve
Capacitance
Change in
clearance 'd'
Pressure Diaphragm 56
Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive
(2) They have good frequency response and hence useful for dynamic
measurements.
(3) High resolution can be obtained.
(4) They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5) These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless.
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Piezo-Electric Transducers
Certain materials can produce an electrical potential when subjected to
mechanical strain or conversely, can change dimensions when subjected to
voltage. This effect is called ‘Piezoelectric effect'.
F
Piezoelectric
crystal Output voltage
E=gtp
The fig shows a piezoelectric crystal placed between two plate electrodes and
when a force ‘F’ is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in the
crystal and a corresponding deformation. The induced charge Q=d × F where
‘d’ is the piezoelectric constant.
The output voltage E=g × t × p where ‘t’ is crystal thickness, ‘p’ is the
impressed pressure & ‘g’ is called voltage sensitivity given by g=(d/e), e being
the strain. 58
Piezo-Electric Materials
The common piezoelectric materials are quartz, Rochelle salt
(Potassium sodium tartrate), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and
ordinary sugar. The desirable properties are stability, high output,
insensitivity to temperature and humidity and ability to be formed into
desired shape.
Quartz is most suitable and is used in electronic oscillators. Its output
is low but stable.
Rochelle salt provides highest output, but requires protection from
moisture in air & cannot be used above 45oC.
Barium titanate is polycrystalline, thus it can be formed into a variety
of sizes & shapes.
Cathode
T Srinivasa Rao - + 60
Photoconductive Transducers
The principle of these transducers is when light strikes a semiconductor
material, its resistance decreases, there by producing an increase in the
current. The fig shows a cadmium sulphide semiconductor material to which a
voltage is applied and when light strikes, an increase in current is indicated by
the meter.
Photoconductive transducers are used to measure radiation at all wavelengths.
But extreme experimental difficulties are encountered when operating with
long wavelength radiations.
Light Ammeter
Semiconductor
material - +
E
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Digital Transducers
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Hall Effect Sensors
• Developed by Edwin
Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed
Hall in 1879; and
hence the name Hall
effect
• Used to:
– provide noncontact
means to detect and
measure magnetic
field
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/62/227729006_fab88c1668.jpg?v=0
How they work
• Presence of magnetic field Depiction principle of the Hall
deflects electrons flowing Effect
through conductive material
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Hall_eff
ect_A.png
Applications
• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
– Used to determine position of cam shaft
• Brushless DC Motor Control
– Sensors determine position of permanent magnet rotor
• Assembly Lines
– To determine shaft position and velocity
– As contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
– Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors
Hall Effect Sensor Types
• Linear Hall Effect Sensors
– Output is proportional to magnetic field strength
• Hall Effect Digital Switches
– Presence of magnetic field above threshold turns
switch on
– Presence of magnetic field below threshold turns
switch off
• Hall Effect Digital Latches
– North field turns latch on
– South field turns latch off
Packaging and Manufacturers
• ICs
– Analog Devices:
SOT23
• AD22151G from Analog Devices
– Allegro MicroSystems, Inc. SIP
• Wide range of linear, latching and http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/Part_
Numbers/1120/pinout.gif
switching sensors
• Great sampling policy
– Many, many more
• Packaged units
– Honeywell Hall Effect
– Many, many more Sensor Module
http://sensing.honeywell.com/client_asset/docu
ment/1/5/4/0/3/5/document_C3697B35-C930-
CB7C-FE090DFFCE61FB22.jpg
Implementation and Words of Warning
• Sensors may be affected by temperature
variation.
– Some sensors incorporate circuitry to reduce this error.
• Sensors may be directional:
– Care must be taken with respect to orientations of sensor
and magnet
• Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence of
ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic fields
Variable Reluctance Sensors
• Used to measure speed and/or
Industrial Variable
position of moving metallic Reluctance Sensor
object
• Sense change of magnetic
reluctance (analogous to
electrical resistance) near
sensing element
• Require conditioning circuitry to
http://www.motionsensors.com/railwithoring2.jpg
http://www.instronics.com/images/sensoronix/image.ds.drawing.vr.jpg
Typical Application
• Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction control
• Crank and cam shaft position sensors
Installed on CV axle
Sensor Schematic
http://www.me.gatech.edu/mechatronics_lab/Projects/Spring07/Group1/dorthy6.JPG
Interfacing Concerns
Pulse echo
sensor
Transmit-Receive
sensor
• Sound is transmitted through propagation of
pressure in air
• Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at 0oC
and 343 m/sec at 20oC for dry air
• Digital signal processor embedded in sensor
calculates distance between sensor and object
X = vsound . t
Where:
Vsound is known
t = 0.5 (time of flight)
X is distance between sensor head and object
Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
Sensor is not appropriate for very short distance
measurements
Frequency response (distance measurement update
rate) varies with distance measured
– In general, it is about 100 Hz
• Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing size
when voltage is applied
• Applying alternating current (AC) across them causes
them to oscillate at very high frequencies
– Producing very high frequency sound waves
• Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to radar or
sonar
–Radar and Sonar evaluate attributes of target
•Interpreting echoes from radio or sound waves
respectively
Applications
Medical:
Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
Come in variety of different shapes and sizes for
use in making pictures of different parts of body
Transducer may be:
Passed over surface of body or
Inserted into body opening such as rectum or
woman’s reproductive organ
Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures
often use probe positioning system to hold the
ultrasonic transducer.
Technology can be used for measuring:
– wind speed and direction (anemometer),
– speed through air or water
– fullness of tank
– amount of liquid in tank
• sensor measures distance to surface of fluid.
• Other applications include:
– in robots for obstacle avoidance
– burglar alarms
– non-destructive testing, and etc
Laser Ultrasound System
• Nd:YAG pulsed laser:
Repetition rate: 20 Hz
Pulse Width: 10 ns
Pulse Energy: 45-450 mJ/pulse Control
Box
Beam Diameter: 6 mm Nd:YAG
Positioning Stage: Laser
Resolution: 50 μm
Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT):
Bandwidth: 200 kHz-2.5 MHz
Data Acquisition Card: EMAT and
Resolution: 14 bit Positioning Preamp
Sampling Rate: 125 MHz Data Acquisition
Axis-lead screw
and User Interface
Automated Weld Inspection System
System consists of laser, beam delivery subsystem, stepper motor driven linear
screw, electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), data acquisition card,
computer software, and control unit
Generated ultrasounds traveling through weld seams are received by EMAT
System resolution not yet determined, but has been used to detect 0.4 mm void
Used system to inspect 180 mm long weld bead at 1 mm increment in 26 secs
Type of defects: Lack of penetration; Blow hole; and Short leg
Lens Mirror 3
Mirror 2 Beam Delivery
Sample
Mirror 1 EMAT
Flip Chip
Two medium size voids near the interface Poor wetting, an intermittent connection
Optical micrographs of Good and Bad Solder
Bump Cross Sections
Pad crater with crack initiating at the trace Crack initiates at the edge of the pad
• Advantages
– Simple to interface
– Inexpensive
– Reliable
Photo Interrupt
Types
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Discussion