1 Musicarchaeology Vienna – Online Publication 2018_1

Roman Bells in Central Europe: Typologies and Discoveries

Beate Maria Pomberger

Keywords: Bronze Bells, Iron Bells, Typology, Roman Period, Musicarchaeology,

Archaeomusicology, Acoustics

Schlüsselwörter: Bronzeglocken, Eisenglocken, Typologie, Römische Kaiserzeit,

Musikarchäologie, Akustik

Abstract:
The article deals with ancient bells cast in bronze, formed of terra cotta or hammered of iron
sheet. It shows an overview of typologies of Egyptian, Grecian and Roman bells. Differences
of typologies are demonstrated. The possible origin of three rare bell finds could be
determined. To round up acoustical phenomenona are illustrated.

Abstrakt:
Antike Glocken aus Bronze, gebranntem Ton und Eisen sowie deren gängige Typologien
ägyptischer, griechischer und römischer Glockenfunde werden in einem Überblick präsentiert.
Dabei werden diverse Unterschiede demonstriert. Drei seltene Glockenfunde, deren Ursprung
ermittelt wurden konnte, werden vorgestellt. Akustische Eigenheiten der Glocken bilden den
Abschluss des Artikels.

1. Introduction
Almost 82% of all musical instrument finds of the Roman period are bells (Lat.: tintinnabulum).
The majority of them (83%) is cast in bronze; the rest (17%) is forged from iron sheet. During
the Ro a s’ e pa sio to Ce t al Eu ope i the fi st e tu A.D., ells e a e o o i
these conquered regions as well as in the neighboring lands. Tintinnabula were sometimes
used for cattle and flocks1, sumpter mules, horses, sacrificial animals, pets and wagons. They
decorated and protected cavalry horses2 as well as children3. Bells sounded at the opening of
markets and baths and warned of fire and enemies. Bells toll in antic towns, guardians
fastened bells on ropes and tightened them on the town walls4. Bells hung from gables of
temples5 and statues of gods6. They were fastened on Roman oil lamps cast in bronze as well
as on Roman tintinnabula (wind chimes) in the form of phallic figures afflicted with apotropaic
characters. Bells regulated daily life in military camps and sounded during cultic ceremonials.
Bells had their functions in religious and profane life. They were discovered on roads, streets,
mule tracks, in houses and temples, in tombs, in hoards, in amphitheatres, road stations,
mountain pastures, military camps as well as settlements. Their sizes range from 1.5 cm to 30
cm.

1
Mandl 2000, 74–84.
2
Kronberger 2012.
3
Ubl 1997; Hickmann 1956, 208–276.
4
Kramer 2015.
5
Martinet 2001, Sueton, Augustus 91, 2.
6
Kramer 2015.
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2. Terminology of Bells
A bell is a directly struck idiophone percussion instrument: a percussion vessel with the
weakest vibration near the vertex (System number according to Hornbostel and Sachs
111.242.122)7. It shows three kinds of vibrations: the fork vibrations, the meridian vibration
and the centre of gravity - meridian vibration8.

Fig. 1: Parts of a bell – terminology. (Graphic: B. M. Pomberger)

3. Typologies of Ancient Bells

3.1. Egyptian Bells

Hans Hickmann presented a very clear and detailed typology of Egyptian bells in his article
a out ells i the e lopaedia Musik i Ges hi hte u d Gege a t olu e 5, edited
Friedrich Blume 1956. The ells’ ate ials e e bronze, terracotta, silver and gold. He
distinguishes seven types with variations9.
A – Bells with circular base
a) Small shapes
I. Hemispherical
1. Without neck
2. With neck
3. Plu age of the Bes’ head as e k
4. Like 1 but bigger
5. Like 4, but with knops and step-shaped attachments
II. Egg-shaped-oval
1. Without eyelet ring attachment
2. With eyelet ring attachment
III. Cone shaped
1. Without eyelet ring attachment, without rim
2. Without eyelet ring attachment, with rim
3. With eyelet ring attachment, without rim
4. With decorated knobs
IV. Cone shaped with curved flanks
1. Slim shape
7
Hornbostel/Sachs 1914, 553–590.
8
Ellerhorst 1957.
9
Hickmann 1956, 268–276.
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2. Short shape
3. Thimble shaped, with developed rim
4. Thimble shaped with edge-rim
b) Big shapes
I. More cylindrical than conical
1. Tube shaped, slanted top
2. Tulip shaped
3. Cup shaped, with rim
II. More conical than cylindrical
1. Cup shaped, curved flanks
2. Cup shaped, straight flanks, with rim
B – Bells with oval base
1) Cup shaped, curved flanks
2) Cup shaped, straight flanks, with rim
3) Conical profile, rounded top
4) Trigonal shape, with rim
5) Trapezoid shaped, curved flanks
6) Trapezoid shaped, flat top
C – Bells with hexagonal base
1) Lotus blossom shaped (typical Egyptian type)
D – Bells with octagonal base
1) Lotus blossom shaped
E – Bells with quadrangular or rectangular base
1) Obelisk-pyramidal, with rim
2) Obelisk-pyramidal, recessed edges
3) Trapezoid shaped, recessed edges
4) Pylon shaped
5) Pylon shaped with curved top

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Fig. 2: Typology of Egyptian bells. (According to Hickmann 1956, 274–275)

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3.2. Ancient Greek Bells

2002 Alexandra Villing presented ancient and classical Grecian bells from the Spartan acropolis
- thirty-four bells are cast in bronze and 102 bells formed of terra cotta - and beyond. The non-
Spartan bells count 48 objects and stem from Athens, Samos, Idalion, Pherai, Tanagra,
Olympia, Perachora, Argive, Olynthos, Thebes, Boitia, Korinthos, Olbia, Nimrud, Al Mina and
Chauchitza. She classifies the bells in seven profile shapes, four base shapes and five handle
shapes. Seven bells showed inscriptions10.

Profile shapes
1) Hemispherical
2) Dome-shaped
3) Conical
4) Cylindrical (barrel shaped)
5) Flaring rim (tulip shaped)
6) Truncated cone
7) Truncated pyramid

Base shapes
1) Round
2) Square
3) Rectangular
4) Octagonal

Handles
1) Basket handle (arched)
2) Basket handle with upturned ends
3) Loop handle
4) Arch-and-loop handle
5) Angular handle

10
Villing 2002, 223–295.
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Fig. 3: Terminology and typology of ancient Greek bells.

(According to Villing 2002, 225, fig. 1)

3.3. Roman Bells

In 1925, Ludwig Ohlenroth created a typology of Roman bells11. He researched twenty-six bells
from Swabia and Bavaria and classified them into five types, without distinguishing between
bronze and iron bells.
A – High, in the middle slight diminished shape, round-oval base (fig. 4)
B – Four sided bell with rectangular or quadrangular base (fig. 5)
C – Hemispherical shape with circular base and hexagonal loop (fig. 6/C)
D – Hemispherical shape, circular base and round loop (fig. 6/D)
E – Shape of church bells and circular base (fig. 6/E)

11
Ohlenroth 1925, 151–154.
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Fig. 5: Type B.
(According to Ohlenroth 1925, 152)

Fig. 4: Type A.
(According to Ohlenroth 1925, 151)

Type C

Type D

Type E

Fig. 6: Types C, D, E. (According to Ohlenroth 1925, 153)

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Herbert Kneifel wrote 1988 about the bells found in the Roman military camp Lauriacum at
the river Enns at the Danube limes. He counted thirty-one bronze bells and classified them
into five types12.

Bronze bells:
Type I – Pyramidal-frustum shaped body with dome-shaped apex, base rectangular and feet
Type II – Cylindrical shaped body with dome-shaped apex, circular base
Type III – Hemispherical shaped body with circular base
Type IV – Truncated cone shaped body with dome-shaped apex, circular base
Type V – Cone shaped body, circular base

Fig. 7: Typology of Roman bells in Lauriacum (Enns, Lower Austria). (According to Kneifel 1988, 225)

Wojzech Nowakowski wrote an article about Roman bells in the European Barbaricum (1988).
He presents bells of the Roman Empire and classifies the bronze bells into four, the iron bells
into two types. Further, he mentions bells of Roman origin or imitations from the northern
and western Black Sea coast, the steppes of Black Sea and the woodlands of Eastern Europe
and Germania as well as Sweden13.

Bronze bells:
A – Cylindrical shaped body
B – Pyramidal shaped body with rectangular base shapes
C – Cone shaped body
D – Hemispherical shaped body

Iron bells:
Profile shape with narrowed walls and rectangular base shape
Profile shape with narrowed walls and oval base

In 1993, Christian Flügel described 29 bells from Cambodunum (Kempten, Bavaria). According
to Nowakowski he subdivides types B and C into 1 and 2 as well as miniatures14.
A – Cylindrical shaped body

12
Kneifel 1988, 137–147.
13
Nowakowski 1988, 69–146.
14
Flügel 1993, 99–103.

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B 1 – Pyramidal shaped body with rectangular base shapes

B 2 – Pyramidal shaped body with rectangular base shapes and feet
C 1 – Cone shaped body
C 2 – Truncated cone shaped body
D – Hemispherical shaped body

A more detailed typology:

I myself created in my theses a typology of Roman bells discovered in the region between the
river Salzach and the Danube bend. I based my classification on the typologies of Ohlenroth,
Kneifel, Nowakowsky and Flügel as well as more than hundred-thirty bronze bells and 20 iron
bells15. My intention in this article is to work out more details and to do small corrections. I
distinguish between eight types of bronze bells and two types of iron bells. All bells had
clappers, but mostly the iron eyelets and the clappers have corroded.

Bronze bells:
Base shapes:
Rectangular, square (quadrangular), circular, oval

Fig 8: Base shapes of bronze bells. (Graphic: B. M. Pomberger)

Profile shapes:
Type 1 – Pyramidal profile with domed top and rectangular (quadrangular) base
Six variations characterized by small deviations of the profile form as well as a high form (the
height is max. the length of the base) and a broad form (- (height and width are identical)

A – High form, profile with straight flanks

B – High form, profile with straight flanks, feet on the base
C – Broad form, compact profile
D – Broad form, compact profile, feet on the base
E – Pyramidal shape with quadrangular base
F – Pyramidal shape, with quadrangular base and feet on the base
Type 2 – Tulip shaped profile, domed top and oval base
Type 3 – Stepped pyramidal profile shape, circular base
Four variations, based on the moulding of the top
A – Pointed top
B – Domed top with loop going through the top
C – Flanks nearly pass without a step into the domed top
D – Cylindrical top with loop

15
Pomberger 2016.
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Type 4 – Truncated cone, circular base

Type 5 – Hemispherical profile shape, circular base
Two variations based on the moulding of the top
A – Round top
B – Stepped domed top
Type 6 – Cone shaped profile, circular base
Type 7 – Tulip shaped profile, circular base, smaller form
Type 8 – Cylinder shape profile with domed top, circular base

Fig. 9: Typology of Roman bells by Pomberger. (According to Pomberger 2016, 152/Abb. 107)
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Fig. 10: Typology of Roman bells by Pomberger with additions and corrections.
(According to Pomberger 2016, 153/Abb. 108)

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Handles:
1 – Loop handle with broad hole
2 – Loop handle with narrow hole
3 – Pretzel handle (Double loop handle)
4 – Angular with four edges
5 – Angular with two edges and arch
6 – Angular with seven edges
7 – Rectangular handle
8 – Coronet shaped handle
9 – Ring loop going through the top

Fig. 11: Shapes of loops.

(Graphic: B. M. Pomberger)

Walls:
1 – Smooth
2 – With marks or inscriptions
3 – Circular lines
4 – Ringlike ornaments

-
-
Fig. 12: Wall decorations.
-
(Graphic: B M. Pomberger)
-

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Clappers:
Clubbed shape (iron)
Shaft with club head
Shaft with cylinder head (iron)
Shaft with ball head (bronze)

Fig. 13: Clappers. (Graphic: B. M. Pomberger)

Iron bells:
The pattern of an iron bell is are cut out from sheet, hammered and soldered or riveted. All
bells show rectangular base shapes. I distinguish between two types.

Profile shapes:
Trapezoid-rectangular
Trapezoid-conical

Handles:
Strap handles

Fig. 14: Types of iron bells. (According to Pomberger 2016, 176, Abb. 114)

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4. Special Types of Bells or Non-Roman Types?

Three bells show unusual shapes and I could not classify them to any of the abovementioned
types. A visit to the Centre-Musée Eu opée d’A t Ca pa ai e i L’Ilse – Jourdain near
Toulouse solved my puzzles! I found two nearly similar bells in the exhibition.

The first puzzling bell is a small bronze bell from Lauriacum (Lorch/Enns, Upper Austria), with
the registration number JN R VI 199, Museum Lauriacum, Enns (fig. 15). The object was found
in a gravel pit of the railway. Its shape is hemispherical with a blossom shaped rim and a small
knop on the top. The loop and the clapper are lost. The wall shows circular lines. Related bells
come from the oriental part of the Roman Empire: a bundle of five blossom shaped bronze
bells without clappers hanging all on one oval ring (Number 30 in the room 18 of ancient bells
in the Centre-Musée Eu opée d’A t Ca pa ai e: Zo e A héologie ), (fig. 16)16.

Fig. 16: Floral shaped bells from the oriental part of

Fig. 15: Bell from Lauriacum, JN R VI 199.
the Roman Empire, origin unknown.
(According to Kneifel 1988, 139)
(Foto: B. M. Pomberger)

Another strange bronze bell (registration number 6/1907.20, Magyar Nemzéti Múzeum,
Budapest) stems from Hungary at Föreny, a place in Pannonia, which does not exist anymore
(fig. 17). It was detected together with Roman fibulae. Unfortunately, this is an old find and no
more information is available17. The shape is a truncated cone with oval base. The flat top
hangs over like a brim, capped by a semicircle loop. The clapper has corroded but the eyelet
ring of the clapper still exists18. An analogy to this bell is the object number 22 in the ancient
bells room of the Centre-Musée Eu opée d’A t Ca pa ai e. This o ze ell o es f o
Nishapur in Iran and dates to the 10th to 11th century AD (Islamic period), (fig. 18)19. Nishapur
is located near the old Silk Route, which connected China with Anatolia and the Mediterranean
See. Our Hungarian bell seems to be an older form of the Nishapur bell. It might have found
its way via the Silk Route from Persia to Central Europe.

16
Guide of the museum, which consists of single sheets, stapled together.
17
Registration notepad of the object and information of the colleagues of the Hungarian National Museum.
18
Pomberger 2016, 290, plate 50/1.
19
Guide of the museum, which consists of single sheets, stapled together; oo Zo e A héologie .
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Fig. 17: Bell from Föreny, Hungary. Fig. 18: Bell from Nishapur, Iran,
Registration number 6/1907.20. Islamic period, X - XI century A.D.
(According to Pomberger 2016, Taf. 50/1) (Foto: B. M. Pomberger)

A tulip shaped bell with circular base and open-worked walls stems from Au am Leithagebirge,
Lower Austria (fig. 19). This object is a stray find and classified by Gustav Melzer to the Roman
Period20, but bells with open-worked walls are common with nomads in the Caucasus region21,
in the northern steppes of the Black Sea22, in the Carpathian Basin23 and the steppes of Middle
and Western Siberia24 and not with the Romans. Does the unique bell from Au am
Leithage i ge o i e a Ro a t pe ith ha a te isti s of the Easte o ad’s ells? This
question only can be answered, until a similar datable object will be discovered.

Fig. 19: Bell of Au am Leithagebirge, Lower Austria.

(According to Melzer 1979, Abb. 435)

20
Melzer 1979, 428, Abb. 435.
21
Villing 2002, 223–295.
22
Bakay 1971; Häusler 1994, 77–109; Nowakowski 1988, 69–146.
23
Nowakowski 1988, 69–146.
24
Parzinger 2006.
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5. Acoustic of Bronze and Iron Bells

Bronze bells sound melodious whereas iron bells have tinny sounds. This reason’s fact is simply
the characteristic of the material. Bronze bells with a rectangular base show one striking key
note (fig. 20) and may have two subjacent sounds in various intensities – which can only be
proven in frequency analyses. Our sense of hearing cannot capture them (fig. 21). Bells with
an oval base show two keynotes, which differ by a second. An ellipse base is composed of two
circles. Each circle has its own keynote. Bells with a circle base show only one keynote. The
frequency analyses of iron bells illustrate very well, that the sound has its maximum in the
moment of the beat and ebbs away very fast (fig. 22)25.

Fig. 20: Spectral analysis of a rectangular bronze bell Fig. 21: Spectral analyses of a rectangular bronze
with one keynote. (According to Pomberger 2016, bell with keynote and two subjacent sounds.
157, Abb. 109) (According to Pomberger 2016, 157, Abb. 111)

Fig. 22: Spectral analyses of an iron bell.

(According to Pomberger 2016, Frequenztaf. 145)

25
Pomberger 2016.
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6. Summary
Bells are the majority part of musical instrumental finds of the Roman Period in Central
Eu ope. I o pa iso to toda ’s ells i Eu ope, the sho a ious shapes. A e
classification presents eight types of bronze bells and their variations, based on typologies of
Ohlenroth, Kneifel, Nowakowksy and Flügel as well as Pomberger and inspired by the
Hi k a ’s t polog of Eg ptia ells a d Villi g’s t polog of ancient Greek bells.
The sizes of Roman bells range from 1.5 cm to 30 cm. Bronze bells show rectangular,
quadrangular, circular and oval bases. Their resonance corpi are pyramidal, tulip, stepped
pyramidal, hemispherical, cone and truncated cone shaped. Iron bells have rectangular bases
and more or less trapezoid bodies. All bells have clappers. Clappers appear in four types,
handles in nine shapes. The bells’ walls show smooth surfaces, but also marks, circular lines
and Ringlike ornaments could be determined. Bells with rectangle bases have one strong
keynote and two subjacent sounds. Three rare bell finds show connections to the oriental part
of the Roman Empire and the Scythian culture.

7. Bibliography

K. Bakay 1971: Scythian Rattles in the Carpathian Basin and their Eastern Connections.
Budapest 1971.

W. Ellerhorst 1957: Handbuch der Glockenkunde. Die akustischen, technischen und

künstlerischen Grundlagen sowie die Geschichte und Pflege der Glocken. Weingarten 1957.

Chr. Flügel 1993: Die romanischen Bronzegefäße von Kempten – Cambodunum.

Cambodunumforschungen V, Materialhefte zur bayerischen Vorgeschichte, Reihe A -
Fundinventare und Ausgrabungsbefunde 63, 1993, 99–103.

A. Häusler 1994: Zu den musikarchäologischen Zeugnissen der Skythen. In M. Otte (Ed.), “o s

o igi els: p éhistoi e de la usi ue: Liège, - - dé e e . Etudes et recherches
archeologiques de l'Université de Liège 61, Liège 1994, 77–109.

H. Hickmann 1956: Glocken. In: F. Blume (Hrsg.), Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Band V,
Stuttgart 1956, 268–276.

E. M. v. Hornbostel/C. Sachs 1914: Systematik der Musikinstrumente. Ein Versuch 1914.

Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 553–590.

H. Kneifel 1988: Römische Glocken und Jagdpfeifen aus Lauriacum. In: G. Kneifel (Hrsg.), Mein
Enns. Linz 1988, 137–147.

K. Kramer 2015: Klänge der Unendlichkeit. Eine Reise durch die Kulturgeschichte der Glocke.
Kevelaer 2015.

M. Kronberger 2012: Vindobona. Das römische Wien. Kurzführer Wien Museum -

Römermuseum. Wien 2012.

F. Mandl 2000: Weideglocken und Schellen aus der Dachstein - Salzkammergutregion.

Mitteilungen der ANISA 21. Jahrgang Heft 1/2, 2000, 74–84.
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G. Melzer 1979: Fundberichte Österreichs 18, 1979, 428, Abb. 435.

W. Nowakowski 1988: Metallglocken aus der römischen Kaiserzeit im europäischen

Barbaricum. Archaeologia Polona XXVII, 1988, 69–146.

L. Ohlenroth 1925: Oberstdorf: Nebelhornweg (1500 m ü. M.) Fund einer römischen Glocke.
Das schwäbische Museum. Zeitschrift für Kultur, Kunst und Geschichte Schwabens, Jahrgang
1925, 151–154.

H. Parzinger 2006: Die Völker Sibiriens. Vom Neolithikum bis zum Mittelalter. München 2006.

B. M. Pomberger 2016: Wiederentdeckte Klänge: Musikinstrumente und Klangobjekte vom

Neolithikum bis zur römische Kaiserzeit im mittleren Donauraum. Universitätsforschungen zur
prähistorischen Archäologie Bd. 280, Bonn 2016.

C. Sueton Tranquillus (H. Martinet; Ed./Transl.) 2001: Das Leben der römischen Kaiser. De Vita
Caesarum, Liber II, Divus Augustus (lateinisch – deutsch). Düsseldorf 2001.

H. U l : Katalog zu “ hausa lu g Rö e zeit des Museu s Lau ia u -Enns.

Forschungen in Lauriacum 12,2/1997 (Sonderband I/2) Enns-Wien 1997.

A. Villi g : Fo Who did the Bell Toll i A ie t G ee e? A hai a d Classi al G eek

Bells at “pa ta a d Be o d . A ual of the B itish “ hool at Athe s , , –295.

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