AS Physics Notes Written by: Yameen Jadoon M.Phil Electronics with Specialization in Quantum Physics Quaid-i-Azam University (QAU) MSc Electronics (QAU) A Level full time teacher at BMI from 2016 - 2022 A Level visiting teacher at APS Pasban Westridge A Level visiting teacher at DES DHA phase 2 Cell no: 031351719201. Physical quantities and units ________________+________AS Physics notes e . i © There are six base quantities included in syllabus * Units of base quantities are called base units Name unit symbol length ‘Meter m time Second s mass Kilogram kg Electric current Ampere A Temperature Kelvin K Amount of substance | mole ‘mol Derived quantities ‘They are derived from base quantities. The unit of derived quantity is called the derived unit Name Formula Unit i ‘Si base ‘Speed y ~ distance Meter oO mst time saand acceleration a ms? change in velocity [time taken | sqWare ‘Area A=1xB Meter square Volume V = LxBxi Meter cube m3 Density p= Kilogram per kgm? meter cube Force Newton kg ms? Frequency Hertz (Hz) st Electric charge Coulomb (C) As ‘Work or Energy Joule kgm?s? Power ‘Watt kgm?s3 Potential Volt kgm?s341 difference Homogeneity of an equation * For a homogeneous equation, SI base unit should be the same on both sides. + Ifan equation has more than one term, then each term must have the same SI base units * Every correct equation must be correct but every homogenous equation may not be correct 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 11. Physical quantities and units ________________+________AS Physics notes ‘* To find the power of any quantity in a given formula insert the SI base unit on both sides and equate powers of the same bases to get the unknown. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 2Multiples and submultiples of 10 Name Symbol value Tera T 10” Giga G 10° Mega M 10° Kilo k 108 deci a 1071 centi ¢ 10-7 milli m 10-5 ‘micro H 10° nano n 10” pico Pp 10-12 Scalar quantities Quantities that have only magnitude Examples. Length, speed, volume, density, area, electriotgu eprarae, potential S difference, energy, power, temperature, pressure, mas Vectors Quantities that have both direction and magnitude Examples: displacement, velocity, “ayer force, weight, electric field strength Addition of vectors @ The addition of vectors is nopliketpe addition of scalars ‘* Set a reasonable scale ‘Draw first vector using that scale Draw the second vector from the head of the first vector ‘* Draw the resultant vector from the tail of the first to the head of the last and measure its length. © Convert this length into a given quantity using the same scale ‘* Measure the angle of the resultant using a protractor There are two methods for two vectors addition Triangle method 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 3Vector a Vector b Resultant Vector Jogram meth + _ Vector a Vector b Resultant Vector © For the addition of perpendicular vectors use Pythagoraks Beorem Resultant Vector S ye S Or ae * Tofind A-B © Use A+ (-B) ‘* Find the negative vector of Band add in A. Resolving vector ©The resolution of a vector is the reverse process of the addition of vectors © Here we find components of a given vector Rectangular components * The two components of a vector which are at the right angle to each other. © First, set the reference direction 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 41. Physical quantities and units —__AS Phvsics notes © Then find vector components parallel and perpendicular to this direction. Original Vector F sina Fcosa If angle a is increased then ‘* horizontal component F cos a will decrease * And vertical component (F sin @) will increase SS Inclined plane Here we take reference direction parallel to the plane © ‘We will resolve only those forces which are neither parallel to nor perpendicular to the plane 2. Addition of vectors using the resolution of vectors * Resolve vectors in chosen reference direction for example horizontal and vertical direction * Find the sum F, of horizontal vectors * Find sum F, of vertical vectors © Find the resultant force using F = |(1 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 52.Measurementtechniques |||... _--—_____iAS Physics notes Measurement Techniques cRO * It is used to measure the Time period, frequency, and Amplitude of waves. CRO has time scaling (time base setting) and vertical axis scaling also called Y gain. Time period = (Time scaling ) (horizontal distance of one complete cycle) Amplitude = (Y gain )(vertical distance from central line) Frequency = For this signal time scaling = 2ms/div Y gain is SV /div © Time sata Din distance of one cycle are inversely proportional to each other ‘* If we increase time scaling, then the horizontal distance of one cycle will decrease ‘* Similarly, Y gain and vertical distance are inversely proportional to each other Random errors * The error whose magnitude is not constant. Random error can be reduced by taking the average of several readings * Human reaction error and parallax error Systematic error * The reading is larger or smaller than the true reading by a constant amount. * Causes are zero error, wrong calibration, and faulty instrument Systematic error can’t be minimized by taking several readings and finding average 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 62. Measurement techniques —___AS Physics notes © Adjusting A meter to remove its zero error will reduce systematic error If two variables x and y are related by equation y = p — qx © The scatter of points about the line is due to a random error graph has random error but no system: error as the y-intercept is p 0 x This graph has no systematic error but a random error oo Precision is affected by Fandom errors. More random errors mean less precise Accuracy If the measured value is close to a true value, then it is accurate. If we have more readings for a single measurement, then we compare the mean with the true value. If the difference between the mean and true value is small, then more accurate. Accuracy is affected by systematic error. Compound errors Addition absolute errors are added Z=X+Y Then AZ = AX + AY 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 72.Measurementtechniques |||... _--—_____iAS Physics notes Subtraction Absolute errors are added Then AZ = AX + AY Multiplication Fractional errors are added Percentage errors are also added Az = %AX + HAY > Fractional errors are added, Percentage errors are ssid) N az _ ax av A BaF +Z Yds = WAX + %AY S Power formula @ z= aX"Y" where a, m, ai constants Ahas no effect on aN rror and fractional error. az_ ak ar gamo+nd %dz = m (%AX) + (AY) Example Z = X°Y if x has a3% error and y has a4% error The percentage error inZ = 2(3) + 3(4) = 18% 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 83.Kinematics ....|.|..|___—____AS Physics notes Kinematics Distance > Length of the path covered by an object > Its unit is a meter and itis a scalar quantity > Distance increases even if the object is coming back to the original point. Displacement Shortest distance between two positions Distance from a fixed point. It is a vector quantity so can be negative as well. If displacement, from a point on the right is taken as positive, then it is negative on the left side. If an object comes back to the original point from where displacement is taken, then its displacement becomes 0. sma Ss > The rate of change of distance is known a & > v= where dis distance and t is the time taken, > The Sl unit is ms“? XS > Itisa scalar quantity gy Velocity (v) Y > Rate of change of di ent. > vat whe icement and t is time > Stunit > Velocity can chage if direction or magnitude or both are changing > Ifan object changes its direction to the opposite direction, then the sign of velocity changes > If an object reaches the same point, then its average velocity becomes 0. Acceleration Vv ae = Rate of change of velocity. a = <> unit is ms"? > Itis a vector quantity. If velocity is constant, then ais 0. > If velocity changes at a constant rate then a is constant, For example if a = 10 ms~? then velocity will be 10 ms~* in each second. > Ifthere is no air resistance, then the acceleration of a free-falling object is constant. > The direction of acceleration is in the direction of the net force Deceleration If the magnitude of velocity is decreasing, then it is known as deceleration. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 83.Kinematics ....|.|..|___—____AS Physics notes Constant deceleration is when the decrease in velocity in each second is the same. Equations of motions Where s is displacement a > is initial velocity, vis final velocity, a is acceleration and tis > All equations are valid for constant acceleration. “S Graphs Oo The gradient of the distance-time graph is speed, Oo > > The gradient of displacement- time graph is velo: > The gradient of the velocity time graph istgcée)Btation. > The area of the velocity-time graph is displ nt. > The area of the speed-time graph is distanc Examples @ The gradient of this graph is constant so acceleration is constant. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 10The gradient of this graph is increasing so acceleration is increasing. Sis displacement and t is time. Gradient is decreasing so velocity is decreasing, Velocity at t=0 is maximum. The sign of velocity is positive throughout. 0 Y acceleration at y is greater than acceleration at acceleration is 0. From point t =0 to point R velocity is positive then it becomes negative this means the ‘object changes its direction. At Q gradient is 0 so acceleration is 0. At point R velocity is 0 but acceleration is not 0. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon "acceleration Graph of bouncing object * s > Initial velocity is V. Velocity at any time has two components 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 123.Kinematics ....|..|.|.________As Physics notes > The horizontal component V cos 6 is the same for the whole journey as there is no air resistance. > Vertical acceleration is due to gravity which is constant and downward. » Itis never 0 even at the top. > Initial vertical velocity uy = V cos 8 > To find the vertical velocity at any time use equation v = u + at vy = Uy tat v%, sind-gt Gravitational acceleration is downward and we have considered downward as negativeso a=—g The vertical component of velocity at the top is 0. ‘* Total velocity is obtained by the vector addition method The magnitude of velocity is minimum at the weir component is 0 there Variation of speed Ye speed © for horizontal displacement Vcos @ tas velocity is constant * For vertical displacement use 1 s=ut+ rat 2 is y= (Vsin 8) ¢-5ge* At point q vertical displacement becomes 0. To find the time of flight put y = 0 in the above equation. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 133.Kinematics __.|__________moé'seé4’é As Physics notes To find range R ie maximum horizontal displacement, use the horizontal displacement equation x=VcosOt And put t as the total time of flight. Time of flight, range, and maximum height are all inversely proportional to gravitational acceleration. On the moon, both height and range are greater than the height and range on the moon. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 144.Dynamics AS Physics notes Dynamics Momentum Product of mass and velocity p = mw where m is mass and vis velocity Itisa vector quantity Change in momentum IW SAT The pressure of the liquid increases with depth which causes an upward force on the object due to the liquids > Upthrust depends on the density of liquid and the volumé displaced The volume of the object displaced is equal to the vol 1e object inside the liquid Ifthe object is fully submerged, then the sounet he volume of the object. Dy > Upthrust does not depend on the csi bject Fp = pgV Archimedes’ ncn Where p is the density of li V is volume displaced is the gravitational adeeYepation. Fy = mg_ weight liquid displaced v v displaced is equal to the > If the object Htylly submerged, then up thrust does not changes by changing the depth of the object inside the liquid. Objects P, Q, R have the same volume. > Upthrust on P and Qis the same > Up thrust at Ris smaller. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 23S.Forces density and pressure_____|____-_+_+_--—=—______~AS Physics notes T+Rp=W So T=W-Ry » So the tension in string P and Qis the same. > Tension in Ris greater. iscus drag v Itis a resistive force when an object moves in fluids Itis due to resistance between the surface of the object and liquid It acts in the opposite direction of motion It depends on the relative speed of the object and liquids Ifyou increase speed it increases vv vv } This object is moving down in MS Sta constant speed. 2 Fy = W ros drag 0 4% ‘weight W 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 24S.Forces density and pressure_____|____-_+_+_--—=—______~AS Physics notes Work energy and power Work Product of force and displacement in the direction of force If force F and displacement d are parallel W=Fd Unit Joule and it is scaler quantity If force and displacement are at angle @ W = Fdcos@ If @ = 90° then work done is 0 joule SS Work done by/on gases Oo W = PAV Oo © Where P is pressure and AV is a change it wis of the gas. * Work is done by gas if Volume increases (g ands) © Work is done on gas if volume “ee is compressed) Kinetic Energy @ The energy of a body due to its oy D, the mass of the body and v is its speed Work Energy principle Work done by a net force is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body mal final Fe a F a Wnet sore = AEx 1 1 Fd - Fd =>mv? —>mu? 2 2 Where F is the forward force F, is the opposing force, 1 is the initial velocity and v is the final velocity 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 25S.Work Energyandpower _____.|.|.|.|||...__—______AS Physics notes Elastic potential energy Energy that is stored in an object due to a force changing its shape. Gravitational potential Energy The energy of a mass that is due to its position in a gravitational field The potential energy at point A which is at h m above the other point bis q mgh. Here potential energy at point B is taken at 0. If there is no change in vertical height, then there will be no change in gravitational potential energy. If a body moves from point P to R in any path, then the change in grayffatjonal potential energy will be the same. We will take value of h 30 m. Oo Earths surface In this situation 2 04m eta postion 0.6m _ ' 0.8m Final postion 0.4m 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 26S.Work Energyandpower _____.|.|.|.|||...__—______AS Physics notes To find the change in gravitational; potential energy we will consider a change in vertical height between the center of masses. Power * Rate of doing work. Or the rate of energy transferred w oe Pat t © Unit is Watt or Joule per second © The gradient of energy time graph is power. Another formula of power ° P=Fv Where F is the driving force and v is the velocity of the object Law of Conservation of Energy * If there is no external force (nonconservative force) then Geen of an object remains constant © Gravitational force is a conservative force, if an Des only under gravitational force then total mechanical energy tant * The frictional force is nonconservative foe: * fan object is thrown up in a gravitational fi8jd'nd there is no external net force then gravitational potential sagen and kinetic energy will decrease. Loss of kinetic energy will be equaf‘tagin in potential energy. Efficiency ms © The ratio of Oe ir out to power input © Ratio of ¥ Output to total input energy ‘* To find efficiency in percentage just multiply the above ratio by 100. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 27‘LDeformation of solid: AS Physics notes Deformation of solids Deformation is the change in shape and size Deformation is caused by tensile or compressive forces. In elastic deformation, if force is removed object goes back to its original position Plastic deformation is permanent deformation, if force is removed object does not return to its original position. There is a permanent change in length Hooke’s Law The extension is proportional to applied force if the limit of proportionality is not exceeded Fakx Where F is force and x is the extension. k is the force constant whose unit is V/m ‘The gradient of the above graph is the force constant. SS Force length graph F t length The gradient is spring constant. The point up to which Hook's law is obeyed is called the limit of proportionality. FE Ais the limit of proportionality. Elastic ‘The point after which there will be permanent deformation 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 28force yt 7” - Oy extension R 0 If force is removed at point T object does not return to its original length. There is permanent extension V. So the elastic limit is between points S and T. Sis the limit of proportionality. Combinations of springs. o Series k . Extension in > jerent as their spring constants are & Ce ta me ight a Parallel Z ‘* Extension in each spring is the same. * Tension in each spring will be different © ke thy th ths Series and parallel both 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 28These three arein parallel First, find equivalent spring constant of three which are in series. Then use this result and Use parallel formula with the fourth spring to find the total. Stress Force per unit area SS F stress == 740 Unit is Pascal Strain Ne The ratio of change in length (extension) ere length. Grn =F s L Where e is the extension and al length. It has no unit Young’s modulus The ratio of stres$ Y Stress FL starin” Ae Young modulus is the same for a given material. FL ea AE Extension e exL ear 1 © ext a © ext 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 30Graph of stress and strain stress strain The gradient is young modulus. Hook's law is satisfied if stress-strain graph is a straight line stress — S Till point A hook’s law is satisfied. Ye Strain Energy or work done y . force extension ‘Area under the force-extension graph is equal to the work done in deforming an object Till point X use the triangle formula Where F = kx = 1x? SoW = Fkx 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon at‘LDeformation of solids __________~AS Physics notes After point x we can find the approximate area. ‘The area under stress-strain graph ‘Area under stress-strain graph will give us work done per unit volume or energy stored per unit volume 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 32S.Waves AS Physics notes Waves Waves are a source of transferring energy ‘Types of waves on the medium requirement Mechanical they require medium They require a mekjhdium. In these waves, particles vibrate about their fixed points. ‘Sound waves and water waves etc Electromagnetic waves They do not require medium ‘Types of waves on the Longitudinal > In longitudinal waves particles vibrate parallel to the direction off travel Example Sound waves Oo Transverse particles oscillate or vibrate at right angles to NS f travel of the energy or wavefront. Example. Water waves S Types on the basis transfer of mye Progressive energy is transferre face to another. Stationary es Basic terms Displacement distance of a point on a wave from rest or equilibrium position Amplitude Maximum distance of a point from the equili! im position Time period Frequency number of oscillations per unit of time ‘number of wavefronts passing a point per unit of time 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 33Where Tis the time period Unit hertz (Hz) 5“? Wavelength ‘* Distance moved by wave energy or wave front dut 1g one cycle of the source + The minimum distance between two points with the same phase. The minimum distance between adjacent crests or troughs Wave equation =fa © Where vis speed, f is frequency and 2 SS © Iswavelength Graphs of waves C Oo * Displacement distance graph * _Itshows the displacement of all points 6 ium at a particular instant. © From this graph, we can find amplitude andgavelength. oe 0 distance x ais amplitude A is the Wavelength. isplacement time graph * _Itshows the positions of one particle at different times ‘* From this, we can find the time period and amplitude 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 34S.Waves AS Physics notes Where T is the time period and a is the Amplitude. Phase difference * The phase difference between two points that are one wavelength apart is 360° or 2nrad ‘© The phase difference between two points that are x m apart is i = (2) 360° o= @) 360 ‘* Particles having a phase difference of 180° are known as antiphase * Particles having a phase difference of 0° or 360° are called in phase. The phase difference between two waves + = (2) 360° Where A is the wavelength of both waves, x Is the minimum distance between two points of both wags Tvlne the same phase. © stance displacement These two waves are in phase as crests of two waves overlap. If the crest of one wave overlaps with trough of the other then they are anti-phase Intensity of wave Energy per unit area per unit time. __Energy ~ Area/time 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 35S.Waves AS Physics notes P Power Or = area Intensity depends * Directly proportional to the square of frequency I « f? ‘* Directly proportional to the square of amplitude I « A? If you increase the amplitude by two times, then the intensity becomes four times. If Intensity increases by 2times times then A increases by a factor of v2 © Inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) from the source having constant power. 1 las © Asta a? SoA «+ Electromagnetic waves SS * All electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of lig um © They do not require medium © Electric and Magnetic fields vibrate perpendiculal to the direction of propagation Ye Froquoncyitz ch other and perpendicular tot 10" Wavelongtnim Se as Doppler Effect The phenomenon in which the observed frequency is different from the source frequency when the source moves relative to the observer * fais observed frequency © f, frequency of the source * v, source velocity © vis the velocity of the wave The source is moving towards a stationary observer. Frequency increases and the wavelength decreases Xv voy fo If the source is moving away from the stationary observer. Frequency decreases and wavelength increases. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 36S.Waves AS Physics notes aD vt, In our case, observer should be at rest. * If the source is moving with a constant velocity, then the shift in frequency is constant. ©The shift in frequency will not change with the distance of the source from the observer In the case of the light source, we consider a change in wavelength. © Ifthe source moves away, then the wavelength increases (Redshift). * Ifthe source moves towards the observer, then the wavelength decreases (Blueshift) Polarization of waves If vibration of a wave is along one direction then it is known as region Only the transverse waves can be polarized. Oo Malus’ Law, It relates the intensity of wave passing after "AO ‘intensity before polarizer. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 37‘9. Superposition of waves ______cc_......__--_—____~AS Physics notes Superposition. ‘When waves overlap then they interfere Principle of superposition When waves meet, the resultant displacement is the sum of individual displacements of waves. Coherent waves © Waves that have constant phase difference between them. Phase difference should not change with time * We can observe interference only when waves are coherent Conditions of constructive and destructive interference Ss S oo ; | A ee Two sources S; and S; produce cei are in phase and they reach point p with different path lengths d1 and d2. Constructive interference Phase difference =0 nie nm Path dif fere dyFd, = nd where n = 0,1,2,3 If each source produces waves with amplitude A and intensity then at point P amy a wave is 2A and intensity V2! Destructive interference Phase difference = ie m radian or odd multiples of d,—d; mn +a 0,1,2,3... If sources are out of phase Then condition becomes opposite iffraction of waves 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 38‘9. Superposition of waves ______cc_......__--_—____~AS Physics notes ‘Spreading of wave into geometrical shadow when it passes through an aperture or edge. ‘More diffraction | -LIKp) I tex itraction| * Diffraction depends on comparison between gap width and wavelength. * If the gape width is approximately equal to or smaller than the wavelength, then there will be more diffraction. SS + Allwaves diffract * Wavelength and speed are not changed after diffract Darotuce decreases due to an increase in distance from the source. S Interference of light waves QQ Young’s double slit experiment. 5 Ee Foetal ¥ a + The single light source is used to get two coherent sources from two slits * Light diffracts from both slits overlap. © Bright fringes are formed on the screen where light from both slits interfere constructively 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 39‘9. Superposition of waves ______cc_......__--_—____~AS Physics notes © Dark fringes are formed where light interferes destructively Distance between bright or dark fringes depends > Distance D of the screen from slits > Wavelength A > Slits separation a Fringe spacing will increase * By increasing wave length J or by decreasing fre yey * Byincreasing the distance D of the screen from t © By decreasing slit separation. cms <> © Diffraction grating consists of many © Light passes from these slits er results in bright and dark 6 A> res constructively and destructively which 1e screen. thd odor second order _ first order mongetomatic light 2010 order first order grating second order thd order 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 40‘9. Superposition of waves ______cc_......__--_—____~AS Physics notes Equation dsind = nA Where d is the distance between two lines or slits of the grating. A cS N Where is the number of lines per unit length: © Where nis the order of nth bright fringe © Gis the angle of nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe. Maximum number of orders of maximum Put the maximum value of sin @ which is 1 ” 3} n © For example, If you get n seve Soto mana 7 up om cats down SO tral) © There is no net transfer of ener pinnae © Stationary waves are formed Ky progressive waves having the same frequency and amplitude and moving\if opposite directions. * Instationary wave, a s do not vibrate with the same amplitudes Some particle vibrat the greatest amplitude called anti-nodes (A) © Some particle El fore at all called nodes (N) * Distance betwWBgp two consecutive Nodes are antinodes is equal to half wavelength ‘npltude + Allpoints between two consecutive nodes are in phase. Points between two consecutive nodes and the next two consecutive nodes have a phase difference of vibrator 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon a‘9. Superposition of waves cl... __~AS Physics notes 180°. The phase difference between points Q and R is 180° The phase difference between points Q and S is 0 degrees. Stationary waves in a string Nodes are formed at both ends. Frequency of fundamental mode iS a A, = 2b Where vis the velocity of the wave and Lis the length of the string Frequency of the second harmonic S AO Frequency of nth harmoni ‘© Antinodes are formed at the open end * Nodes are formed at the closed end * Only odd harmonics exist. 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 421 ale Fundamental frequency f, = z Ay =4L Third harmonic f= 3h: aay Nth harmonic fy = mf where nis 1,3,5,7 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 43‘9. Superposition of waves ______cc_......__--_—____~AS Physics notes Stationary waves in an open pipe Anti-nodes are formed at both ends Bh Ris First harmonic f, = Ea Second harmonic f, = 2f; Xe L Frequency of nth harmonic rn 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 4410.Electricity —________AS Physics notes Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charge. Unit is Ampere (A) AG) at > nis Number density: the number of free electrons, per unit volume in amaterial. > Ais cross-sectional area of material “S > vis the mean drift velocity of the charg; les > qisthe charge of each particle car urrent iq © Ifthe current increases, the drift ve cm increase (v ec!) © If the wire is thinner, the electrons nféve more quickly for a given current (v P=v, P=PR and PaV7/R ss oe iffepence tthe current. Electrical resistance is defined as the ratio of the potential Its unit is Ohm @ v Ohm's Law & The potential differenc¥across a component is proportional to the current flowing through it provided its physical cond ns are not changed. “Ohm's law is obeyed by metallic conductors at constant temperatures . 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 46x % ‘> The diode and filament lamp do not follow Ohm's law as their resistance is not aa Resistance of Filament lamp increases with an increase in current. °0 v oo “Resistance of the diode decreases with an incre: on sor oe rssh length and aa area of a metallic wire as Bl. a Where p is the resistivity of the material. Unit is Om. Itis the resistance of the unit length of wire having 1 m? crossectional area. “© Resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) decreases as the light intensity increases » ——- “The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases (it will be assumed that thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient) oH 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 4710.Electricity AS Physics notes Kirchhoff’s first law The sum of currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that same point (conservation of charge) lin = Pout irchhoff’s second law The sum of the e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s around the loop SE==V. > EE isthe sum of the em.fs > BVis the sum of the potential differences oO It is linked with the conservation of energy ° oO Combine Resistance Series S Re AY +Ry Total resistance increases y Parallel Effective resista than the least resistance in parallel In case of two resistor parallel use this R pa Pike _ Product ©" Ry +R, Sum R 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 48E is emf of the source and r is internal resistance. V=E-Ir Where Vis the terminal potential difference. When current is flowing itis less than emf (E) If we connect a variable resistor instead of R and plot the V-I graph 0: 0 T Internal resistance is equal to the magnitude of the gradient of this x ial divider oO oe % Ifyou increase R, opfebigase R2 then V will increase > The ratio of volta, Iss both resistors is equal to the ratio of their resistance. & wW “If the light intensity is increased, then the output voltage will increase In this , both resistors are equal in value 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 4903135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 5011, Nuclear and particle Physics AS Physics notes 7 : * Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus * Proton has positive charge equal to +e where e is the elementary charge © Electrons orbit the nucleus. * The charge on electron is negative and its value is ~e Neutron has no charge The total number of protons and neutrons is called nucleon number © General representation is 2X where a proton number and b is the nucleon number Alpha scattering experiment In this experiment, Alpha particles were bombarded on thin metal foil (gold leaf) Observations © The majority of alpha particles pass through without any deflection or deviated with very small angles. Less than 10° RNs | , oO a SS © Few alpha particles des ean conuions AO © Most of the ator atom * The nucleus contains majority of mass of an atom empty space. The size of nucleus is very small compared with Before this experiment, it was thought that the mass of an atom is spread uniformly throughout the volume of the atom. This experiment concluded the small size of the nucleus which contains nearly the whole mass © Itishelium nuclei {He © Acharge is positive +2e * Reaction example 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 5111, Nuclear and particle Physics AS Physics notes Sar > {8K + $He The proton number is reduced by 2 and nucleon number is reduced by 4 * The approximate mass is 107k Beta radiations Beta negative © It is negatively charged. The charge is equal to the charge of an electron - * Reaction example 1B4r > SK + fe Proton number is increased by one and no change in the nucleon number ‘© Neutron is converted to a proton n>p+Bp +0 SS Vis anti-neutrino * thas greater penetration than alpha It has continues range of kinetic energy as sei of energy is taken by anti neutrino. Beta positive Ye The charge is equal to +e Reaction example gw aro gerge QO Neutrino is also emi his reaction Proton is cor ow lectron Ithas cor e of kinetic energy as different amount of energy is taken by neutrino. Gamma Radiations * Electromagnetic radiations + No charge so not affected by a magnetic and electric field © Have the greatest penetration power 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 82Comparison of penetration power stile paper = 1mm aluminium rf Ds 8 a Fundamental particles There are two main groups of particles 1. Leptons strong force/interaction does not act on hadrons. SS Leptons are fundamental particles Examples Electrons, neutrino, anti-neutrino © 2. Hadrons & strong force/interaction acts on hadrons. Hadrons are not fundamental particles theyage mate up of quarks Examples. Proton, neutron. @ Hadrons are further divided into 2B gasses Baryon they consist on thr FRE. Meson they cons SPwrie and one anti quark. Quarks They are fundamental particles Name Symbol __| Charge Up u Down d Strange s Charm € top t bottom b ne 3 Each charge has its anti-particle with an opposite charge but the same magnitude 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 53For example, anti-up is represented by ii and its charge is 03135171820 ‘Yameen JadoonIt is made up of three quarks 2 ups and one down uud Neutron it is made up of three quarks one up and two down udd In beta negative decay ‘* Neutron changes to a proton * Anti-neutrino is produced SS no>p+Bp +d oO * Down quark changes to up quark ’ oO In beta positive decay Proton changes to a neutron o> Neutrino is emitted Up quark changes to down S ponsft tv Weak nuclear force is€ to this decay * Proton number's conserved * Nucleon number is conserved © Charge is conserved Momentum is conserved 03135171820 ‘Yameen Jadoon 55