APPLICATION OF MODELLING TO URBAN AQUIFERS:

CASESTUDY GREATER ACCRA REGION, GHANA

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Abigail Nunoo Akuetteh

5-1-2023
ABSTRACT
A huge portion of the world's population gets its water from groundwater, which also plays a
crucial function in maintaining the health of ecosystems making groundwater a valuable
resource in both urban and peri urban areas globally. Overexploitation has resulted from its
uncontrolled usage, particularly when the natural recharge cannot keep up with rising
anthropogenic demands especially in urban areas where supply may not meet demand. These
risks poses posed on the groundwater resource have been attributed to population growth,
landuse for purposes such as dumpsite, waste disposal sites, climatic changes that results in
runoff and rainfall amounts, rising atmospheric temperatures, and population growth in the
urban areas. These poses massive and extremely multifaceted pressure on the resource. In
this study, urban groundwater will be reviewed in the framework of urban water management
by the use of flow, transport, and contamination models. Advances made in hydrogeological
investigation will be applied to monitor and model techniques for urban centres of the Region
to aid groundwater management and highlight the challenges. The study will consider how
techniques on contaminant concentration measurements, water balancing and contaminant
load estimation would be applied and to further develop a model for groundwater
requirements for the urban settings. The studies study aims to develop a model that can be
used to understand and quantify the groundwater systems in urban parts of Greater Accra
region that can be corporated into policy to sustainably manage groundwater resources in the
Region in the light of increasing urban city expansion and global climatic change.

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INTRODUCTION

The largest and most important water resource in Africa is groundwater (MacDonald et
al. 2012). Groundwater is considered more reliable, has close proximity to those who need it,
has less susceptibility to pollution, and less affected by climatic change variables as
compared with surface water ( Lapworth et al. 2013). Several urban growing areas in sub-
Saharan Africa depend on groundwater largely for varying activities including domestic
water supply (Adelana et al. 2008; Foster et al. 1999), commercial, industrial, health and
agricultural ((Lapworth et al., 2017) ). In most urban and peri-urban areas globally , these
uses of groundwater in addition to its advantages in terms of safety and reliability over
surface water make its accessibility critical for improved health and livelihoods for low-
income dwellers especially during droughts, utilization has greatly increased over the past 50 years.
(Hunter et al. 2010; Binaya et.al. 2o21 ). In the last thirty years, many determined efforts
including have UN Millennium Development Goals been geared towards improving supply
of water and sanitation across Africa (Bartram and Cairncross 2010). The most recent effort
is the SDG 6 targeted at ensuring available availability and sustainable management of water
for all. Groundwater is considered imperative to improving meeting the sdg goal 6 provision
in most parts of Africa and accessing it is an alternative to achieving this target (Danert &
Healy, 2021).

Groundwater is an important resource for sustainable planning of most urban cities and for
achieving city resilient policies from the climate change perspective (La Vigna, 2022).
In Ghana, through drilling of boreholes for domestic, commercial, and agricultural uses,
groundwater resources are increasingly serving as the main source of water for many urban
and peri-urban populations across the nation (Yidana et al., 2011). Domestic water supply
accounts for more than 95% of groundwater use in Ghana, primarily in rural and small-town
regions. In Ghana, 41% of families rely on groundwater for their water supply, with the
percentage being significantly greater in rural areas (59%) than in urban areas (16%).
Additionally, groundwater resources, offer a more cost-effective way to get water and are
quickly developing into a crucial component of urban water supply due to the growing

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population burden that is not being matched by expansion in surface water infrastructure
(Saka et al., 2013).
Population growth in urban areas has increased over the years, this phenomenon is
associated with an excessive use of land and water resources, high urban density, and a
random spatial distribution of houses and economic activities ( (Siedentop & Fina, 2012),
Santos et.al. (2017). Urban growth contributes significant impacts on the social systems,
economy, and environment including surface and groundwater resources (Praskievicz &
Chang, 2009). Urban activities increase non-point sources of contamination; reduction in the
filtering capacity of soil to contaminants; decrease permeable surface areas, which influences
the quantity of groundwater recharge; and changes to surface water and groundwater
interactions(Len Ritter, 2011). The growth in the city largely impact on urban water
supply and wastewater disposal, that consequently become a matter of importance to urban
environmental managers (Allen, 2010). The urban growth phenomenon may result
subsequently in insufficient water supplies abstracted form shallow aquifers due to limited
available resource, and deteriorated quality caused by pollution(Sinha Ray & Elango, 2019).
The review by Vazquez-Sué et al. (2005) discusses concepts unique to the study of
groundwater in urban settings, such as groundwater variations brought on by land resource
usage, which are both causes of periodic and diffuse pollution of the urban system. Schirmer
et al. (2013) focused on complexity of urban hydrogeology including heterogeneity of land-
use and the existence of underground networks which lead to spatial and temporal variations
in flows of water and contaminants These impacts on available water resource, hence, the
excess water resources needed will be accessed from deeper aquifers, or more often, will be
drawn from aquifers or surface water bodies in the city locality (Bouwer, 2002).Urbanization
interrupts flow systems balance of the of underlying aquifers, particularly recharge variation
(Lerner 2002). Reduction in recharge may also occur due to the usage of surface sealants,
which counterbalance infiltration from the water-supply network and the discharge of
rainwater through soakaways (Vázquez-Suñé et al. 2005). These leaks according to Lerner
2002, amount to about 25 % of flows in transit contributing to about 30–40 % of the total
recharge of urban aquifers. Modification of the recharge of urbanized areas via leaks in
networks represents a threat for groundwater quality (e.g. micropollutants, pharmaceuticals
and personal care products, pathogenic bacteria). Quantifying the interaction between
groundwater and the sewer network has been the subject of several studies and is already well
reviewed. In particular, Lerner (2002) worked on the identifying identification and
quantifying quantification of elements contributing to the recharge of an urban aquifer.
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Rutsch et al. (2008) investigated on the leaks from urban drainage networks into the aquifer,
and, Karpf and Krebs (2004) and (2011) on the other hand, studied the drainage of urban
aquifers. the results showed that altering the recharge affects , affects exploitation of the
groundwater resource to supply water for human and industrial consumption.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In most sub-Saharan Africa cities, including Ghana, residential self- water supply from
groundwater, accessed through boreholes and hand dug wells is a rising phenomenon (Danert
& Healy, 2021;Foster et al., 2020). Rate of urban population growth is largely represented in
the significant proportion of the water indwellers use. (Watson & Davies, 2011). Since
growth in population is inevitable, sustainable use of the available water resources becomes
an alternative to safe guard the resources (Lazarova et al., 2001). Sharp Jr (1997)
recommended reduction in water demands, efficient use of available waters, and upsurge
water supplies to aid finding solutions in to the increase in the demand for water. Decreased
pressure on demand is likely to be achieved by widely endorsing sustainable use of the water
resource in addition to increasing efforts and practices to attain reduced water- related losses
(Morris et al., 2003). Additionally, several other groundwater management approaches are
being employed globally in urban cities to ensure sustainable use of the resource (Gorelick &
Zheng, 2015). These means of providing necessary information for groundwater management
include hydrogeological monitoring that require varying applications such as: preservation of
the groundwater resources; creating groundwater protection zones in growing residential
areas in urban cities; investigating groundwater potential; identifying groundwater
vulnerabilities; recharge caused by sewer and pipe leakage estimation and documentation of
historical evolution of urban groundwater systems (Mueller et al., 2018). The difficulties with
such studies is the task to identify causes that influence recharge and time of change in the
groundwater (Krogulec et al., 2020).

The process of groundwater management requires an appropriate designed networks for

monitoring that would purposely, bring about distinction between shallow and deep urban
aquifers systems ( Foster & Chilton, 2003); (S. Foster et al., 2002) (La Vigna and Baiocchi
2021). This is necessary because the management of groundwater is hampered by a variety of
uncertainties, such as global climatic change and socioeconomic development, as well as
ineffective governance structures that affect resource use, regulation, protection,

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implementation of alternative strategies necessary for sustainable resource management and
landuse (Addae & Oppelt, 2019).

A groundwater monitoring system is used to continuously gather data on groundwater, such

as water levels, quality, rainfall, and abstraction, and to analyze groundwater trends to satisfy
monitoring goals (Jakeman et al., 2016). According to (Praskievicz & Chang, 2009, the
observed variations in groundwater flow, which are related to fluctuations in
groundwater flow are used to calculate aquifer water levels. Thus, crucial information for
managing groundwater resources is provided by monitoring groundwater abstraction and
aquifer water levels (Stevenazzi et al., 2017). The management of groundwater monitoring
takes into account a balance in exploitation of a complex resource in terms of quantity,
quality, and interactions with surface water in response to the rising needs of water and land
users(Vigna & Baiocchi, 2021). Through groundwater monitoring systems yearly and
seasonal fluctuations measurements of groundwater level and quality of as well as amount of
abstraction needed for purposes such as irrigation, industry, and population growth are
measured. It also aid assessing weather patterns and water table recharge, documentation on
events such as floods, droughts, and unintentional pollution and storing level and quality data
are made available(Saha et al., 2018).

According to Jakeman et al., 2016, the management of groundwater resources depends

heavily on the data gathered through groundwater monitoring. Since such information is
necessary to assess the condition of the groundwater, it must be made available to all parties
involved for the development and implementation of groundwater management strategies. To
reduce the costs associated with long-term monitoring, it is also important to optimize the
current groundwater observation infrastructure. Monitoring is crucial in groundwater
management systems since provides the data necessary for the groundwater management
system to take the appropriate action (Krogulec et al., 2020 ; Castilla-Rho et al 2019).
However, most cities worldwide, including Ghana have not put in place dedicated
groundwater monitoring network, even though in most urban cities worldwide, the number of
drilled boreholes and hand-dug wells that abstract groundwater are widely distributed and
typically undocumented (Morris et al., 2003). Few cities have achieved city-scale
groundwater monitoring. These include Miami (Florida, USA), Christopoulou et al. 2002).,
managed by the US Geological Survey, Beijing city area (China) (Zhou et al., 2013); Seoul
(South Korea), (Wu et al. 2005); Rome municipality (Italy), (La Vigna et al. 2015b) and

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(Mastrorillo et al. 2016); Cardiff (UK), (Patton et al. 2020). Amsterdam,The Netherlands,
( Menberg et al. 2013)..

Complex hydrogeological models serve as the foundation for groundwater monitoring

systems, which simulate scenarios for aquifer prediction and disseminate information to
enable the organization's stakeholders to manage groundwater resources as efficiently as
possible (Condon et al., 2021) . It also makes it possible to build process indicators, results,
and impacts to evaluate how well groundwater management is working and to exchange data
on groundwater management with other organizations(Braga et al., 2020). Models are
simplified representations or approximations of real hydrogeologic systems and may
incorporate a number of processes operating within ground water and/or unsaturated zones.
Long-term groundwater resource management greatly benefits from the use of groundwater
models to understand the behaviour of groundwater flow systems through observation and
prediction Jakeman., et.al 2016).
Several researchers (Foster et al. 2013, Boreux et al. 2009, Vazquez-Suné and Sanchez-Vila
1999, Foster and Garduo 2013) have emphasised the application of current management
models applied to groundwater. Since 2010, the Deep City method's research has produced
the first three-dimensional (3D) picture of subsurface planning (Li et al. 2013a, b). This plan
is based on the integrated management of all underground resources, including groundwater.
The development of 3D urban planning is still hampered, according to Zhang et al.
(2011), by a lack of knowledge and understanding of the connections between various
subsurface constructions and groundwater. The first step to better qualitative and quantitative
groundwater resource management according to (Jakeman et al., 2016), is to understand
groundwater flow in an urban setting. The review therefore includes works that discuss the
quantitative effects and interactions of underground constructions (such as deep foundations,
tunnels, and underground parking lots) on groundwater flow in an urban setting. In this study,
the influence of an underground structure on groundwater flow is taken into account as a
modification of the flow system, an evolution of watertable elevation, or a disturbance of
groundwater budget.

According to Attard et al., 2016 , urban underground is a complicated system with a variety
of operational man-made infrastructures (such as heat pump systems, subway lines, and
underground buildings). These constructions alter the groundwater's normal flow and quality.
Numerous research have examined the specific effects of subsurface constructions on

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groundwater flow, according to the literature. To assess the barrier impact of impervious
structures and the interaction (i.e., infiltration or exfiltration rate) between sewer and water
supply networks, numerous methodologies produced sensitivity analysis or analytical
solutions for the structure area.

Modeling techniques demonstrated the extensive spatial and sequential extent of groundwater
disturbances caused by subsurface structures in urban areas. The major contribution of
modeling techniques to the quantification of these disruptions is highlighted. These included
numerical representation of hydrodynamic behaviour of an underground structure with
appropriate material properties and boundary conditions, which is a crucial step in assessing
the impact of an underground structure on groundwater flow with a deterministic modelling
approach. These included numerical representations of an underground structure's
hydrodynamic behavior with appropriate material properties and boundary conditions, which
is an essential step in determining how an underground structure will affect groundwater flow
when using a deterministic modeling technique.

The literature presents deterministic numerical modelling as a tool that contributes to the
management of an urban aquifer. It permits quantifying the impacts generated by
infrastructures on groundwater flow. These results can be used to develop analytical solutions
and predict disturbances (Pujades et al. 2012). Deterministic numerical modelling can also be
used to quantify the effect of an underground infrastructure project on flows ({(Attard et al. -
2016 - ; Merrick and Jewell 2003; Dassargues 1997; Bonomi and Bellini 2003). It can
provide a decision aid tool for choosing construction techniques (Epting et al. 2008) or for
formulating a resource management strategy (Larson et al. 2001). In addition to that, the
literature shows that numerical modelling is often used as a means of anticipating the
disturbances caused by underground infrastructure projects, in their order of construction in
areas.

Several lessons can be drawn from these studies such as Vertical 2D techniques enable for
the correct representation of groundwater flowpath modification and the assessment of local
disturbances produced by impermeable tunnels on flow. These methods also make it possible
to comprehend the overall impact of impermeable structures on the elevation of the water
table. Flow systems can be represented spatially using horizontal 2D techniques.
Additionally, modeling outputs can be layered on top of spatial urban data to produce
management suggestions for problems with underground planning based on a spatial analysis.
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With a precise representation of the modification to the groundwater flowpath, 3D techniques
enable the assessment of local disruptions induced by subsurface constructions on flow.

The quality of the resource (Larson et al. 2001) and the flow regime of aquifers are both
impacted by the decline in water levels that results from over-using groundwater (Wada et
al. 2010). To avoid these effects, it is necessary to estimate the maximum exploitable flow
rate of the aquifer for each populated urban areas, according to Larson et al. (2001). Drainage
networks can seriously disrupt the groundwater's normal hydrogeological cycle and
contribute to a decline in water levels in addition to overusing the groundwater. In order to
comprehend how groundwater flow and subsurface development interact, Boukhemacha et al.
(2015) created a conceptual model that was applied to a 9 km2 pilot area in Bucharest,
Romania. The relationship between groundwater and drainage networks was considered. The
structure of the aquifer system, required the development of a 3D geological model on the
scale of the urban area studied. Groundwater recharge by rainfall and water supply network
are elements permitted in building a numerical model to perform simulations of development
scenarios and sensitivity tests., The results of the simulations showed that the drainage
networks contributed 53 % of the groundwater recharge and 76 % of its discharge.

To represent the vulnerability of urban aquifers to pollution, Ducommun (2010) developed a

model that integrated the alteration of the recharge and took into account the cumulative role
of several underground structures. The findings quantified the impact of man-made
infrastructure components on the groundwater's natural hydrogeological cycle . By
incorporating two different types of anthropogenic elements—the basements of major
buildings and networks—the author created a horizontal 2D numerical model that covered a
surface area of 22 hectares at the scale of the Maladière district in Neuchâtel, Switzerland.

Furthermore, according to (Mueller et al., 2018), 3D methods enable the spatial

representation of flow systems both horizontally and vertically. The method is especially
useful for determining how complicated geometries and hydrogeological contexts (such as
layered aquifers, faults, and subsurface structures that reach overlying aquifers) would affect
certain types of structures.

Regarding the development of urban underground planning, according to Schirmer et al.

(2013), some recommendations are made for future urban hydrogeology research: A
sensitivity analysis should be performed to categorize the effects on structures and design

8
principles. It is important to identify the flow factors that will affect subsurface structures,
such as hydraulic head, Darcy velocity, and groundwater age. At the decision-making level,
the cumulative effects of subsurface structures must be evaluated in light of hydrogeological
restrictions.

To measure such an impact, investigations using three-dimensional modeling should be

conducted. Multi-scale techniques in particular might be useful to portray complicated
phenomena at greater dimensions. (_ The 3D modeling method could help identify the
possible flow status of urban aquifers. By using a spatial analysis, it may be possible to locate
relevant natural and human contexts for the growth of the urban underground with the aid of
an accurate depiction of groundwater flow and an understanding of the influence of
underground constructions.

According to Schirmer et al. (2013), “since only part of the groundwater system can be
measured, groundwater contaminant flow and transport models are indispensable; the urban
groundwater compartment interacts closely with the unsaturated zone, sewage systems, and
surface water.” Groundwater models often must be coupled to the other compartments
holistically. Such models are defined as IUWS (integrated urban water systems) models
(Schirmer et al. 2013).

To do this, deterministic numerical modelling can be used to describe the flow systems of an
urban area. The role of urban developments in the organisation of these flow systems must be
quantified. The cumulated impacts of underground structures on flows could therefore be
described operationally by decision-makers. Epting et al. (2008), Ducommun (2010) and
Boukhemacha et al. (2015) show the potential provided by numerical modelling to quantify
the accumulated impacts and interactions of underground structures in a heterogeneous
underground space subject to complex hydrodynamic phenomena. Moreover, the accurate
depiction of urban groundwater flow systems, as it can be performed with 3D deterministic
modelling, remains an important step to develop relevant spatial analysis to sustainably
exploit urban underground resources (Attard et al. 2015). Lastly, the capacity of decision-
makers to understand flow systems, how they function, and their response to the installation
of new structures in the territory they manage will form the basis for the operational
management of urban groundwater resources(Jakeman et al., 2016)).

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In Ghana, for the Greater Accra Region, 3D modelling in some isolated investigations have
been achieved in Ga East and the Adentan municipalities which estimated 90% of hydraulic
Conductivity lower than 15.0m/day and suggested abstraction up to 200% without substantial
geometric change (Hagan & Darko, 2020) . According to stochastic simulations performed on
the calibrated model, the model is distinct in terms of aquifer recharge, hydraulic
conductivity, and hydraulic head. Akurugu et al., 2022, reported findings on the Densu basin,
Ghana, which included some parts of the Greater Accra, using a 3D MODEL. The results
indicated that groundwater exceeds the abstraction and offer great potential for other uses but
climatic changes may cause diminishing of the resource,

Other factors that may adversely affect the resource, is reduction in runoff and rainfall
amounts, rising atmospheric temperatures, and population growth. Akurugu et al., 2022b;
Yidana et al., 2014; and Grönwall & Oduro-Kwarteng, 2018 are a few of the groundwater
investigations that have been conducted in the Greater Accra Region. With regards to
population growth in urban centers, the effects of flow and contamination on groundwater
have not yet been investigated. Therefore, there is currently no model that takes into account
the Greater Accra Region's urbanization, land use, and population growth. This has been
attributed to constraints brought on by a lack of funding for gathering the necessary data for
such studies(Asomani-Boateng, 2019). The effects of urban systems on groundwater can be
measured using this studies.

GENERAL OBJECTIVE
The objective is to identify the aquifer system and evaluate the effects population increase
and its associated stressors have on groundwater in urban areas of the Greater Accra Region.
3D Models of the flow, transport, and contamination of groundwater would be developed to
aid in the assessment and understanding of hydrogeologic systems.The models can be used to
estimate flows and other aquifer features which when data is not available, can be employed
to simulate the aquifer's response to hypothetical conditions. In order to increase
understanding and aid identification of sensitive locations that may need more hydrogeologic
data.
The following specific objectives are employed, these are:

[1.] To compile and analyzeing field data including; water table, topography, etc,
1.[2.] Integrate data collected into the model to understand natural groundwater system

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 2.[3.] Predict the groundwater heads and flow directions and identify the main sources
and sinks to conceptualize the groundwater system
[4.] Identify Determine fluctuations in groundwater levels due to land and water use.
3.[5.] To characterize and integrate aquifer systems
4.[6.] To select suitable numerical method and codes for Waterflow and Solute transport
modeling
5.[7.] To Calibrate and verify/validate the model
6.[8.] To predict or simulate future scenarios
7.[9.] Present model results and their analysis in thesis and paper publications
8.[10.] Organize seminar to disseminate the results of the study.

HYPOTHESIS
Detailed hydrogeological Models are essential for mapping in urban areas to decrease
planning ambiguity, make groundwater more visible for non-experts and aid groundwater
uses for sustainable management. This is beneficial to urban planners to make enhanced
decisions of areas suitable projects and allow places for interaction with stormwater
infiltration or locations for siting industrial plants.

PROPOSED MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data collection and analysis is the first step to design and develop a numerical groundwater
flow or contaminant (solute) transport model. This is followed by processes to understand the
flow and/or transport in a natural groundwater system. Then conceptual model is developed
to by describing the physical, chemical and biological processes which governs the
behaviour of the system being modeled (Istok, 1989). A conceptual model is a pictographic
representation of the groundwater flow and transport system, often in the form of a block
diagram or a cross section (Anderson and Woessner, 1992)

Data Collection

- Collection of data to build database (data include; geological, hydraulic head,

hydraulic parameter and quality data pick some more data to validate present data,

11
 surface and subsurface geology, water tables, precipitation, evapotranspiration,
pumped abstractions, stream flows, soils, land use, vegetation, irrigation, aquifer
characteristics and boundaries, and groundwater quality.)
- Reconnaissance survey to the borehole location to ascertain data within the Region.
- Siting of monitoring boreholes

2. Development of the Model

- Define modelling purpose
- To Choose the model tool to be used
- To Build a conceptual model.
- Select a computer code
- Development of mathemetical code
- Develop the numerical model
- Calibrate the model
- Verify the model
- Sensitivity Analysis
- To predict the groundwater heads and flow directions and identify the main sources
and sinks.
- To find the optimal values for the hydraulic conductivity and recharge values for
different soil types in the area by calibrating the model using the measured
groundwater levels.

3. Results and Discussion

4. Reporting – Thesis, Journal article publication and Policy Briefs
5. Results dessemmination – Stake holder seminars would be held to disseminte the
findings

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 Objective Data collation
Identication Data Review and screening

Matheamtical model

Conceptual Model Design

model

Running the model

Calibrated
Parameters Calibration of model

Verifying the model

Sensitivity analysis

Reporting

Figure 1. Flow Chart for work plan

8. Data Analyses
Modelling instruments such as GMS. MODFLOW, MODPATH, , and ARCGIS, Excel, etc,
the most appropriate would be employed.

Expected outcomes
 Groundwater modeling tool would be developed for the urban parts of the Greater
Region.
 Results from this study shall be useful in policy dialogues and with Managers and
stakeholders
 (including Municipals and metropolitan assemblies’ managers of the for national
groundwater management tool.

Expected output
The modelling process is expected to yield the following outcomes:
 Create a study steady state Simulated groundwater for the region.
 Mass balance for the steady state;
 Simulated groundwater recharge.
 Identification Identified of sinks & sources that characterized groundwater in the

13
 Greater Accra
 Modelled aquifer system;
 Creation of water resource management tool for the Greater Accra Region.
 The results shall be made available to all relevant stakeholders through conferences/
seminar presentations to managers of the City including Regional, Municipal
Assemblies and publications.
 The study results shall be made available for re-use in academia, research, and
development towards improvement, adoption, and application in other urban cities
through seminars and publications.

RESEARCH PLAN

Year
Activity 1 2 3

Semester Semester Semester

Semester 2 Semester 2
1 2 1

Course Work & Literature

Review
Data Gathering ̸̸ Desk
studies
Reconnaissance Survey ̸
Field work
Data Analyses
Modelling Process
(Calbration)
Manuscripts Writing
Documentation (Thesis)
Dissemination Seminars

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