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    Chapter 4 of the Handbook of Hydrology

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    30 views27 pages

    1993 SHUTTLEWORTH Evaporation Handbook-of-Hydrology Ch4

    Uploaded by

    AUREO OLIVEIRA
    Chapter 4 of the Handbook of Hydrology

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CHAPTER 4 EVAPORATION ‘ W. James Shuttleworth* Hydrological Processes Division Insitute of Hydrology Wallingford, United Kingdom INTRODUCTION Evaporation occurs when waters converted into water vapor. The rate is controlled by the availability of energy atthe evaporating surface, and the ease with which water ‘Yepor can difuse into the atmosphere. Different physical processes are responsible {for the diffusion, but the physics of water vapor fos from open-water surfaces and. {rom sols and crops is essentially identical. In this chapter evaporation is defined as, ‘the rate of liguid water transformation 0 vapor from open water, bare soil, or vegeta- tion with soil beneath. Unless otherwise stated, this rate is in millimeters of evapo- fated water per day In the case of vegetation growing in sol, tranepiration is defied Seth pa ote portion hich ners te romper teal raxgh the plants. “The rate of evaporation has traditionally been estimated using meteorological $0 pest T 4 peoa peg, +209 — mmday aan where 7 isthe average temperature in °C; 5, is the water equivalent of net solar radiation in mm day”, and RH is the relative humidity in perceat. The ‘similarity in form between these earlier equations and Eqs. (42.38) and (4.2.39) isto be expected, {Inarid climates, on the other hand, the radiation-based equation of Doorenbos and Pruitt" which takes the form E oath ics, mma! 289 has been shown’ to provide estimates of reference crop evaporation, wih?* by 1.066 0.0013 (RHlyaa) + 0.045 (Uz)~ 0.0002 (Ray) (Ui) 0.000315 (RH an)" — 0.0011 (UL) (42.43) ‘where RH is metn relative humidity in péreentape, Ugis the mean daytime wind speed in mi 4, and S, i the net solar radiation in mm day”; see Eq. (4.2.5). 418 Temperature-Based Equations. ‘The physical bass for estimating evaporation using temperature alone is that both terms in Eq. (4.2.31) are likely tohave some relation. Ship with temperature. Sine the first (radiation- dependent tem is generally much Uc larger ofthe two, isthe correlation between radiation and temperature which is ‘most important. The yesrly temperature cycle is delayed with respect tothe yearly ‘adiation cycleand che empiricism in some past formulas has included allowasice for ‘his thermal ag In general, the only justification for using estimation equations of this type is that prediction of evaporation is required on the basis of existing data in which tempera- {ure is the only available variable measurement, and even inthis case ts unwise to make evaporation estimates for less than a monthly sveraging period. Certain rla- tionships merit mention either because their relationship to radiation-based esti- ‘mates s more explicit and plausible or because their empiricism is very broadly based ‘and they rein very common use, Only the Hargreaves equation and Blaney-Criddie ‘ethod are described below. Other temneature-based methods ae not recom ‘The Hargreaves equation is here taken as Be 0023 8,3, (7+ 178) mm day! aa ‘where 5, isthe water equivalent of extraterrestrial radiation in mm, day for the location of interest [see Eq. (4.4.4)], Tis the temperature in °C, and 3; i te difer- ence between mean monthly maximum and mean monthly minimura temperi- tures, This equation has been shown* to provide at least reasonable estimates of reference crop evaporation. Presumably this is because it contains an explicit link £2 solar radiation through S,; some measure of the extent to which this radiation reaches the surface and warms the air near the ground, though the factor By; while ‘the temperature variation in (T+ 17.8) approximates the value of A/(A +7), ‘The Blaney.Criddie method" js well known and still in common use, and tis included here for this reason alone. Inits most modera complex form'®it contains ‘muuch empiricism, and it is now hard t0 consider it merely a temperature-based. ‘method. The currently preferred form of the equation is Be age bool 24s) with fo POAT +8.13) (42.450) yc 0.0043 RH ng ~ (n/N) 144 42.458) pc 0.82 — 0.0041 (RH qi) + 1.07 (n/N) + 0.066 (Ui) ~ 0.006 (RHfeus) (21) ~ 0.0006 (REHqse) Us) (4.2450) ‘where pisthe rato of actual daly daytime hoursto annual mean daily daytime hours expressed asa percent, 7s mean ar temperature in "C, (n/)is the ratio of actual to possible sunshine hours, RF, the minimum daily relative humidity in percent. age, and U;is the daytime Wind at 2m beight in m/s", The compleity ofthis equation is tribute tothe loyalty ofits proponents, but precludes is ready interpre- lation in temas of a physically realistic equivalent. EVARORATION a9 4.2.7 Atmospheric Feedbacks ‘Changes in surfce energy exchange ater the air asthe atmosphere pases over 2aa8i nd cove nual tis changes iamedatey adjacent tothe sites then JRanone prorcoatelyupvard through the near-surface wrbalen tye, ally per theatng the whale planetary boundary laycrand then the atmosphere above In 30 {ing tose properties of the air which conte surface evaporation rate can be Rea a aback ray oor Wo moderate he inluence of changes in srfce Sheer. Tis modiseation of thestmespherehappens at all horizontal sales, from the ‘ery Smal sae of the ea ran evaporation pan, through te intermediate sale of {Bloke or gated el, and then atthe reponat and sven continental sale, rvaporati¢ Small Areas (Oasis Effect). Empirical and theoretical studies: rr fo ol es et te ier a contin fm aa riot terme Sa ra ee a a ese Sarit dy oe nee tae es a a Se ir lero ot ee ns oaguaemrepatesan isang arid toes bese vores =u = bee oemranen tee crt ea te a ec ct gesture cepa Stade esta utr tee ry he Danas mereotaeemn gence caren anaeceane oe cee B= 3623 A (6g 0) Us 42.46) Eveportion rate (nm d) Prema: nen EEE] Te EE] Dison donmwind fire) ma 426 Pcie chaeein ne erction ‘ig wot fa ners betwen iy 30000 ee ans lene pany ee (eae oP) Be cay do Oadrwn fo al Ud wk sein) 4.20 ‘CHAPTER FOUR, and for lakes, with 50 m < 4° < 100 km, by 5 909 4-88 (eg— 6) Us 2.47) in which eand ere kP, and eycan be assumed to be the started vapor eatin KPa, and ey to bethe started sure corresponditg to the surface iSmperature ofthe water fee Ba. (4.2.2). Regional Seale Evaporation, Theschaslongten snintutveeiefamonghycroo- bat that amore eedbac mechan nerven atte Toa Sas fo moderate the effect of surface controls on evaporation, It is the basis of the hypotheti- ‘then anoaton ats ded nee A inthe cca of poeta craporston rr rw o song hat Bouche and Moron”=" postulated tat the cqubsum around te hypothetical, posal Cvaportion 4, which nol have boon appli ad water bon ey alae ‘agar provide mean of estimating ate evapration, They pst tat the tres potential Soman’ above tht prefered pote a cele rom Si cept portion HE ghee eerie ety ested othe “shor a inthe aetal vporation A eo reid availability, that is, " ae re oe Bg ~ EAE, HE gy (4.2.48) as climonsiontes) 0 “a0 “ea Surtocerestanen FIGURE 427 The eocivo daytime average value of the restey- Taylor parameter (42.37 asyatheed fost Sipe oaedimensional plactary boundary layer model. (From MeNaghaon and Spriggs Used wil permission) The sever ‘itrent nes crespond to mode nalitions wth ferent ‘cents dra fom dra collected inthe Nether: ‘tnde" Alva shown iste ale of sree resstance forse {nes crop andthe prefered valve ofa 1.26 for usd cinates fee Ba (42.39) with he range #15 percent around hs valu, EVAPORATION 421 Brutsaert and Stricker!” had some suocess with tis concept by substituting, calou- lated from Eq, (42.30) for 18,., and AE, ftom Bq, (4.2.39) for AE,, but recent modeling studies® have raised doubt about the hypothesis. “Over extensive uniform surface, or where surface changes occur ata small scale and ina haphazard way so that mixing ofthe air makes them appear uniform tothe “mosphere, regional scale atmospheric feedback processes can be adequately repre- Sented by one-ditnensional models. Such models have provided better though ‘ll incomplete understanding, with broad suppor: fora regional eveporation rate, though the highlight thatthe concept ofa potential rateisonly approximate and that {thas significant dependency on the control exerted by vegetation and soil. ‘Currently, such modeling is limited to simulating the development of a one- dimensional atmospherie boundary in daylight conditions, with field data from fadiosonde aseonts" used to initiate the models and define the meteorological vari- bles aloft, There is therefore no simulation of clouds or precipitation in these models, Nonetheless such models suggest thet both the Penman equation (Eq, 2.30)) and the Priestley-Taylor equation (Ea. (4.2.39) can provide reasonable Similation of daytinte surface evaporation, and tha the value a= 1.26 inthis last ‘cquation isacceptable oan accuracy of 15 percent fora range of ares-averagesurface fenistance typical of pasture and agricultural crops, including the reference crop (y= 69 sams gee Seo. 4.11). Figure 42.7 shows the simulated variation in the Dieferred daytime average Priestley-Taylor parameter tas a function ofthe area- Pretage surface resistance, The Bouchet “complementary evaporation” hypothesis is not, however, supported by these studies. 4.3 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION __ [Natural evaporation canbe measured either asthe rate of oss ofliquid water fom the turface or asthe rete of eain of water vapor by the atmosphere. Measurements in the iiquid phase either assume or create a closed system, such as an evaporation pan or Iytimeter, aad deduce evaporation as the net loss of water from that closed system, ‘vera piven tithe, the measurement being one of discretechangs in total quantity of Shier atthe system. Measurements inthe vapor phase most commonly assume that {he atmospheres open system and determine evaporation asan integration ofthe tate offlow of water vapor (or equivalently latent heat into that open system through {he turbulent boundary layer near the land surface. Measurements of the net change jn the vapor content ofthe ac over large areas using balloons can provide estimates of {egloval evaporation rate,®"""" bu this approach doesnot yet form part of uxéro~ Iegic practice, Most of the techniques described below provide measurements of the focal evaporation rate, with the exception of catchment water balances which est- rate aretaverage evaporation for confined watersheds, 4.3.1 Measurement of Liquid Water Loss Measuremeats of this type draw up a mass or volume balarce forthe water in a {pecified volume of soil or in abody of liquid water. The surface area ofthis sample is ‘Fpcoesary part ofthe measurement, while its depth can cither be well defined, asin {Yoimetric beaturements, or poorly defined but large enough for vertical drainage to ecither neglected or computed, as in watershed experiments. Ths difference infu noes the time scale over which the results are applicable. In.each case the roeasure- 42a cuarreR rouR rent reduces to determining ie terms ina basic water balance equation which is applied over particular ime interval. EB=P- Wat Vet Via mm (aay ‘where E ~ net evapotranspiration loss from the specified volume per unit area, mm ‘P= net precipitation (or irrigation) input to the specified volume per unit V_ = net volume of liquid water entering or leaving the specified volume as ‘measured inflow or outflow bath above and below the surface, liters V, = change in liquid water stored within the specified volume, liters 1, ="leakage,” ie, that total volume of Liquid water leaving the speciied ‘volume which is not, or cannot be, measured, and hich therefore sepresents an error in the method, liters A m effective area ofthe sample volume atthe land surface, ma? All water budget measurements share the problem that th error in the evaporation calculated from Eq, (4.3.1) isan accurnulation of the errors in the other measied variables, Evaporation Pans. Because ofits apparent simcity, the evaporation pan is probe- by the instrument used most widely to estimate potential evaporation. However, Gangopadhyays eta." ist 27 different designs of evaporation pans and suggest that {his Hist “is undoubtedly far from complete.” ‘Sunken pans (eg, Colorado, USSR-GGI, USDA-BPD are sometimes in crop water requirement studies, since these pans havea Water level at soil height ‘and give a better direct prediction of reference crop evaporation than other pan ‘esigns* The Colorado pan i 0.92 m square and 0.46 m deep. It is made of alva- nized iron, set inthe ground with the rim 0.08 m above ground level. The water level inside the pan is maintained ator sightly below ground level “The U.S. Weather Bureau Class A pan sshown in Fig. 43.1 His doula, [21 m in diameter and 0.255 m deep, and is made of galvanized iron (22 gauge) or mone] ‘etal (0.8 min), The pan is mounted on a wooden open-frame platform with is bottom 0.15 m above ground level. The sol is built up to within 0.05 m of the bottom of the pan. The Pan must be level Is illed with water 1010.05 m below the rim, and the water level should not drop to more thaa 0.075 m below the rim. In sermlarid countries itis quits common to cover the exposed water surface with mesh 10 top animals fom drinking the water. Ths lowers the evaporation measurement ‘by 10 10.20 percent, depending on the dimensions ofthe mesh. “The evaporation from a pan can difer significantly from that from an adjacent lake or surrounding vegetation. It is mevessary to accommodate these sometimes lenge diferences using empirical pan coefficients. Evaporation from pans is generally ‘reater than from adjacent large areas of water or wellwatered vegetation, Dut pan ‘ocffcients vary significantly with siting and pan design a8 well as with ci factors. Since pan data are widely available and much used for estimating crop water se {foririgaion purposes, empirical pn coeficients have been derived, particularly for the US, Clas A pan. Table 4.3.1 gives suggested values™ fork, inthe equation Em Kee mim day! 432) fora range of conditions, ad fo pans sted in eropped lds (ase A) and no0- cropped, dry-surface ik (case B). In Eg. (3.2, £8 relerence crop evaporation and Ej isthe measured Class A pan evaporation EVAPORATION. 423 FIGURE 43. US Weather Burau Cas A evaporation pars with {ren nthe foreground tid wihow en nthe beskgroun, eae sii iets penn ens cea sem fn ae mo cm ca ei i i wah aah ah ey efydrinanrmen tora atbl Gc dtr ptn ofthe aalle hie rr eieenmtrcs cama me 0 abot 9 pent, Bu contra ifs ar nolved im wing he Scene as sie entertain Se ese agence ed oan ikea eee etre me eto cr se ania te Sam tag ements ar en "Accurate estimates of area average precipitation {P in Eq. (4.3.1)] are problem wpe een tig cateetan aceite tina aad atarien bears ear atten i aac precipitation over water bodis eee tenet cas enc Figen roe oe ef yntcmaliunerunty the evaporaon os deduced foe a catchment vat apace amen me we Sires ae Some so ii een etna aera gra ee eats eyaseas 4.24 ‘CHAPTER FOUR, ‘TABLE 4.3.1. Suggested Vales fr the Pan Coofiient lity, Which Relates Reference ‘Crop Evaporation Et Measured Clase A Pun Evaporation Ea, Case A: Pan Case 8: Pan surrounded by surounded by short green erop ‘dy, bare area ‘Mean relative ‘Mean ative Upwind —_bumiity, Thur, fetch of Unwin keen Low Med High feichofdry Low Med_‘High Wind cropm <4 40-7 >70fallon, ms <40 40-70 >30 Ligh © 055 08s 075 os 08s ims) 0650.5 8s 07 os 100 0708 ons Des 075 1000075 085 OAs os oF Mode «00S 06 065 07s og Q-5m) 0067s 065 OF 10 06s 075 Oo 08 oss 10000703 oss 05 Steong D 04s 03 Os 065 07 G-8m) 10055 as OS 055 Os 10 06 ass 07. 05 06 woo 068 07s 04s 5s Vey 0 04 04s 0s 055 tong 1D OSS 035 e8m) 10 0506 05 100005506 as ‘Sere: fer Doses and Prt (Re 30, Uand wat person Men emi bb ere aa ky hit one ‘erp wh very ry sl bey {Caz For ros money ey ry with ppd ls wet leon he rset eh ‘The change in storage term Vin Eq, (4.3.1) is difficult to measure reiably in extensive natural cachments and will usually provide the most important error in & ‘weekly or monthly evaporation measurement. lis significance becomes less for a0 annual determination, when the error fom this component caa become comparable ‘with those in presipitation and runofl. ‘In the light of the very real possibilty of significant error in the bulk evaporation loss deduced from a watershed, itis advisable to supplement any such derivations of evaporation with parallel and independent meteorological or lysimetric measure ments ‘Soil Moisture Depletion. Given sufficient measurements of soil moisture content 10 ‘account for spatial variability in water storage and provided that drainage isinsigai- ‘cantor can be quantified, measurements of change in Vsin Ea, (4.3.1) allow evapo- tation tobe calculated when precipitation is either absent or separately determined, ‘The technique requires the repeated, in situ measurement of soil water content, EVAPORATION: aoe “which is now possible with neutron probes, capacitance sounders, or time-domain woiscometers?-s22eh.0¢ : ee ‘When applying this method and these instruments, considerable cae i required toavoid dutntbing the plant canopy or alering the density, aeration; and nitration aaa eitesistce of the soil surface.” Drainage losses from the soil sample cen. Snpeant:©"5*"? When subterranean wafer movement ooours via unsaturated fib, fequent simuitancous measurement of sil water tension protles? can sgnif- Eantlyenbencethe method by helping io distinguish between theelative proportions tie water loss Gue o evaporation and drainage. Figure 432 isrates tho det Ghination ofa plane of zero potential gradient, the “zero fue” pane, and its us i Brita defining the proportion of tored water lost by evaporation duringa simple soi "ary-down.” sa Alpimeeiva dvs in wich a yolune fs ply 031020 m Posmay i planes vith version, outed Halo So that in amet, ay nae frameY make oo eee ioe ait te chang va Se i an orp diana egesre fo sal, Pie. egies by eh pet ply nvearehepenionto st tesco odo yee aan of ome ean eratine metsmt oe al tas fame Sng. aeraueand sora ex nt teu Cet ou wala amin aes elo more comps oe 3.3 shows sighing lysimeter in which ample of welldsones weihing sine i erate 43.3 sho ror Homie mee st berepreeniaie ofthe FE a eadnuieedamplet besoland epson Soi water potemah ° Danan tow sl nae ——_,__~ ‘etorminaa rom wnsiomte: “say menses rm Srabetncazremons woe, Monaton ofthe measurement of vaortin sng sol mia deeton FIGURE 432 ee okanion of a svg eo x an odie Bree epee erporton in (owas) Suna 426 (CHAPTER FOUR FIGURE 433 An cumple of nelLdaned wethington om Wig ‘thems employing on vcore craps sox Td wk Se ‘atersotisf esol maitied snare he fuouuaag ser pumaedeee ae, This meaas tat tps mus alo be taken to ensre that te thermal, yd Beth ropes fhe sae sar ooo rounding sa ado establish that the vegetation sample is representative of surrounding vegetation in terms of ea, deny, and phyolopeal wal-bing. Plant Physiological Techniques. ‘Transpiration isthe primary component 38 erent of evaporation fom dente canopies wes le dice soar doa reathes the ground, or conversely, for sparse vegetation in aid or semiarid cimates, ‘hen esol surtce i very dry. In thee parca case, cret measurement of transpiration gives a wortwile and cos-fetve estat of foal evaporation. Suocesful field measaremens have been made of ranoiation by cutng the stems of te vegetation under watt, immersing the et ced a tank ewan and olin the water uptake," though cae is nocessary fo coeck ta! the phystelogta, Status ofthe lan esis representative of te surrounding crop. Measuremestsa? the rte of water dow which do not require cutting the ste are pefeable, 50 ‘methods of observing water Jow through plant stems have been developed. These {sally involve inidvcing “racers nt the stem ofthe vegetation, sometimes ab. Dale of heat fo determine sp velocity Ref. 28) as deuterium nthe “ition fauping” method. Success bes aso een reported" in deducing the rate of sap flow through its impact on thermal conduction in the sens af he baccous las 4.3.2. Micrometoorological Measureret fator Vay the Atmosphere oom sbetah teal acter Microseteslgeal methods of meatemen!deerninseaporaions he x Water vapor through thet fom the eraporatiag wafer suctace vege, o ok, ‘Hehe nef beso sine esce ct tt mn ver ee ey sl rsa [EVAPORATION 427 ‘Thore are two broad classes of micrometeorological evaporation measurement: those besed on measurements of gradients and those based on measurements of fluctuations. Both rely on the fact that turbulent exchange isthe dominant exchange rechanism within the near-surface atmosphere. Since micrometcorological mea- ‘Sirements are necessarily made some distance above the round, and the atmosphere {s almost always moving horizontally, the measurements obiained al a particular Ication re representative of am area some distance upwind. This can be an advan- ‘age in thatthe uporind turbulent mixing helps to produce a value representing the tverage evaporation overa fairly large area, However, ifthe measured evaporation is meant to be representative ofthe particular uniform crop surrounding the instra- rents itis necessary that there should bean extensive “fetch” of evaporating surface ‘wh ecsentially identical properties extending upwind from the measurement site for ‘considerable distance, To test this, the proportion F of the measured evaporation ‘originating from the erop within a specinied upwind fetch X, can be estimated, ** bet only approximately, In (unstable) daytime conditions po eap (8G =O Wolle= dyes) 1+ se a) Freo( ‘alt= ea ) 639 here zisthe measurement height and d = 0.67 fi., = 0.123 hand fis the average ‘eight ofthe crop. All these heights are in meters. ‘Methods Based on Measurements of Mean Gradients. The assumption behind these {echmiques is that above an extensive homogencous surface the transfer of vapor, ‘momentura, and sensible heat can be described by similar vertical, one ep). 3, “TORSaHTOP GINaHAN pasate Foon og, bans, 0) eC AISEERL HNGHP Pa AAC RHC HY HOSS OAA G TTAVS 1z0 10 190 or «0 0s0 120 S10 8£0 090 130 190 120 #70 O10 £60 910 Le0 a0 zw LOT yoo 970 1F0 aL0 960 ECT 910 9¢0 660 $80 21 S00 $70 80 £0 007 6" £10 960 290 6¥9 L 100 $20 0510 820 80" Ls £10 6£0 990 $60 97 OST SET FET 0 1Z0 $50 £80 $1 GFT E81 Eee 997 9r0 evo co WLUW? eS 867 $00 20 o¥0 750 oz Wz U8 9FE 1Z0 6¥0 080 #11 orz siz sve aL 600 9€0 670 ZDT AC LL 6Iz $97 EVE LIE HF 90 860 160 9TT 99" LOT Sz ZOE SF £11 sro 50 ovo st" gel sgt ive Jee SEO 890 HO! EP fz Ize eee G60 ago wet cxi the we Loe eve 180 Get Bt Ube See Ore B14 OEY 86 10 120 950 180 OC $51 S61 FET #10 ev ov 907 ZF 60 090 wz $97 SOT L0z 187 a6 PO 86 SEZ SEE pee Le TE LE 857 60 SDE ITP 0 190 wT §50 8¥0 8 uae e om oe 9 + tO (0001 <=eHIAR)D, “oR amaE A 2. “ana, Zaerrnaos 9 + tO (001 > spminF)9,“woRSaIBOP IMA sm 3 a i jones pore’ 109 (9, a ec aITIRRdT eA PuE Gq WOH (ea UD amMEREIedEA eH Y STAVE 438 aaa 436 ‘cuapreR FOUR tan one pai of dry and wet-bul temperatures are aval, es he average ‘ale derived fom these ee ee 3. Dew-Point Temperature, Data given: Tuas Taian Te eT) + (Tri D ; (Tag) KPO 48) with (Tu) (Tae) 4 (Tey) ftom Eq. (4.2.2) oF Table 4.2.1. Adjstment for Measurement Heights. Te prt . éxepoation Ben inter ccdne are apwopeate or mesued oceans SEED an ind ped ta igh of er nse van te i Value of the aerodynamic resistance r, alters if the measurement height therm or windspeed ote than >m, Howes cone owed ry Gusting the efcive vale of wind spat weed in By. (2231) andthe ean equations below to U3, this value being given by the equation u 34.9648 on ee) a SO oaora7s) ™ (Caiare ‘where z, and 2, are the actual heights of the humidity and wind: | measurement respectively. For example, U3/U; = for z, a eo ye ier ae UE U6 forz,=1 mands, 22 mand C/O, tion 4.49) may lo be adeguat to comet wind speeds forthe purposes éstmating potenal evaporation rats for open wate: surfaces, beating thd te fmpical and sporoximatenatre of Ege. (0230) and 23), 49) 4.4.4 Estimating the Evaporation Rate from Open Water “The preted method forestinting the rat of evaporation from open wat 2,230) wiih where revmnes ne ona momma om B=PIASF}D amday* (44.10) here is the energy avaable or evaporation in mm ay), ign by A = (+ 4) and eimai falowing the proces given See, 442; and Bs tare) ‘por pesure det (in KPa alaatd asin Se. 44.3 "he coeficint Fis function of temperature andthe levation ofthe sit: a rd ant) in which A is piven by substituting ¢, from Eq. (4.2.2) into Ba (4.2.3), and y by ubstoting {om Bg 621) ino Ba (4.2.28); with theatmosphens presen P=1013 (Bespesz 35 meal 4.12) ‘where Zs the elevation of the site (in m). EVAPORATION 437 TABLE 4.4.3 Valuce of Parameters in Evaporation Estimation Eqs, (44,10), (44.1), and (6417 for Two Elevations above Sea Leva, and Sample Values of Mean Air Temperatare snd Wind Speed seb Wine See Wind speed Hleyation Temperature “Us Tec ome! FORFAR me @ io 3 oss 3028 0383 2037 0.696 © 0 & 0583 489s 0293 4a55 0.686 ° 30 3 OTB 1505 0643 1.588.985 0 » & O78 2433 0545 2697 0985 1000 0 3 os2 2832 all 2802 0.733 1000 10 6 0582 4578 OUR 43360733 000 2 $ dao 1371 087 1470 1.010 1000 0 6 ogo 2216 057 2.524 1.010 “The coefficient F}is a function of temperature, wind speed, andthe elevation of the site: 1 (7) 64301 40.5360) (ch) 7 nee ‘in which A and y are given as for Eq. (4.4.11; Usis the wind speed measured at 2m {or the effective value calculated from Eq. (4.4.9) i necessary}, and 2s given by Ea. (62.1), Computer codes celine Fy and can be checked using the sample values given in Table 4.4.3 “The allowance for atmospheic difusion (se Sec, 4.2.5) implicit in Fs relevant to open water surfaces with reasonable smal surface area, and Eg. (44.{0) is there- fore expected to provide weekly or monthly estimates of the evaporation rate from shallow, ground-level evaporation pans (or small ponds or lakes) which are good to $ to 10 percent or 0.5 mm day, whichever is greater. The effective value of the ‘aerodynataic resistance for much larger expanses of water is larger (see See. 4.2.7), ‘and the evaporation rate is therefore reduced, Equation (4.4.10) might therefore systematically overestimate the evaporation for very lage lakes by approximately 10 +0 15 percent Fe Of the alternative techniques for estimating open water evaporation, the ‘Kimberly-Penman equation,"*™ given earlier as Eq. (4.2.33), has been shown 10 ‘Rave marginal advantage over Eq, (44.10) in seraiarid environments but is margin- ‘ily worse m humid environments. faotall of the climatological data areayailable to allows calculation of, from cither Eq. (4.4.10) or Eq. (4.2.33), the use ofthe same Secondary estimation techniques as for reference crop evaporation is recommended ‘based on radiation, pan, or iemperatre data (see Sec. 44:5). Estimates based on radiation, however, should use measurements or estimates ofthe energy available for ‘Graporation relevant to open water (as opposed to grassed) surfaces; see See. 4.4.2 4.4.5. Estimating the Evaporation Rate of the Reference Crop Preferred Method, ‘The peefeced method for estimating the rate of evaporation ‘Rom the reference crop orshort actively rowing grass (see Sec. 4.1.1 for definition) is 48 ‘CHAPTER FOUR from Eq, (42.31), which is here rewritten inthe form E.=FLA+FRD — mmday* (44.14) where A is the energy available for evaporation (in mm day-'), given_by ‘4° (+ dy), and estimated flowing the procedure given a Sec. 4.42; and Dis the (average) vaporpressire det (in KPa) calculated asin So. 44.3, ip incest Psa function often ind sed, and th cleaon of ste - 4, PF ay, {in which A isgiven by substituting e, rom Ea. (4.2.2) into Eq (4.2.3), and 7*is given. bby Eq, (4.2.32), with » obtained by substituting Ea. (42.1) into Bq. (42.28) and P taken from Eq. (4.4.12) ‘The coeficient Fi similarly a function of temperature, wind speed, and the elevation o he te y_) 900 U; ri-(sip) ters G41 ‘the required inputs being derived as for Eq (4.4.15). Computer code to calculate F, ‘and 77%, can be checked using the sample values given in Table 4.43. ‘Errors {a estimating the evaporatian from the precisely defied reference crop using Eq. (44.14) do not primarily aise because ofthe empirical values involved, since these are related tothe physically based values which control evaporation rate in the Penman-Monteith equation. Rather, they arse through diferences between ‘these values and those relevant tothe particular erop for which estimates are made. Studies suggest differences ofthe order 5 107 percent or 0.5 mm day"! may arise. Radiation-Based Estimates, The radiation-based method for estimating ‘reference erop evaporation is from Ea, (4.2.37), whichis here rewritten in the forma Eq=FyA mm day 4.17) Fog al/(4-+ 9], wither = 1.74 for arid regions and a = 1.26 forall other (humid) {eeations {see Eqs. 4.2.38) and 4.2.39], Arid regions, in this content, ae defined a5 having relative humidity oflessthan 60 percentin the month wth peak evaporation. ‘The value of (R, ~ Gis estimated following the procedure given in Sec. 44.2. ‘Computer cote to calculate F, for humid and ard locations canbe checked using ‘the sample values given in Table 4.4.3. Estimates using this method are prone tO errorsof the order 15 percent or0.75 min day, whichever is greater, and should be ‘made only for periods of 10 days or longer. ‘Other radiation-based estimation methods, especially those given by Turc'® and Doorenbos and Pruitt ar also in common use and are described in Sec. 42.6. Pan-Based Estimates. The prefered pan-based method for estimating reference ‘op evaporation is from Eq. (4.3.2), with values of pan coefficients for Class A pans from Table 4.3.1, Estimated errors in sing this technique are typically ofthe order 10 to 5 percent or 1 mm day, whichever i greater; for regions where dry winds predominate or whore the upwind fetches are ow, the error my well be bic as large. EVAPORATION 4.39 Temperatare-Based Estimates, Estimating evaporation from temperature data is not recommended, except when lack of other data means this the only option ‘valabl. Ta these condition the Hargreaves equation (Eq. (4.244) isthe prefered technique and Ref 6 may provideestimates with erorsia the order 10.015 peceat oF Limm day, whichever is eater, i Other more comple temperature-based techniques are sill in commen use in particular the Doorenbos and Pritt version ofthe Blane.Crdale method; se Ea. £42.43) Comparison sugzsts the adational eompleity in thisprovidesa margin ally inferior estimate to that given by the Hargreaves equation, 4.4.8 Estimating the Evaporation Rate of Other Crops. Tis the actual evaporation which is most often required and, in principle this could be estimated direcly from Eq. (4.2.27) there are values of andr, available which ‘are appropriate tothe particular crop for which estimates are required. In practice this is rarely the case except in research application, and itis therefore common ‘practice to estimate frst the evaporation rate forthe reference crop (for which rand ‘are prescribed), and then multiply this rate by an additional factor; thus E=KE, mméy? (418) “The factor K in this equation is called the crop coeflcent and, from a comparison with Eqs. (4.5.27) and (4.2.31, itis clearly a complex factor. It contains a significant Sependence on the effective average surface resistance ofthe actual erop (relative to the reference crop), and this isthe primary inluence in dry conditions, but i also

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