“The say i lied to the preset for example, with che sully Aa be + moa‘ on atves at emai he seas mo aire il besitig "The echsigue of auton is especially ear and ostrctivein he Ati inguages, ln O14 Tuskish (Cabain) the nuniiaryconsration compass an itoted ausilay ver anda xed "coer in ‘The eather broad spectrum of suave icles ver of general ‘messing which, as atures, produce pasghass desciptively ‘today slated: om fer saad” one extn aly tre i the Tait of decsving fom ttl tt pret conical: fron lg ‘exbt ql lg “ey 00 to Ue el fcr "pal giintat “teoutslowy "Namerows ether paces which come to mind ates to both the ‘wide apply of the procsdae and the sking mati ree Tan of ts ius elintons “These insights enbl ws to place the susilary contractions of the Indo-European languages fa broader desciptive frame, which 4 cunts fer the sore elfectvly Conversely, where lngunge witht eon history exhibit suliary traares comparable fo those of the Indo-European languages, we should fel fee to make we of he IndoBaropen model in genetice=plastions (Created by Yano Matte and MARLYN MAY VIAN) ™ iste in Eg heel tig the ura a a any aay Engh quale by he ae seaop Tt Illa exageoth et aeawn o Hoje), ese Stitt f Nese me Sew Yo Vig and VL 6) Day Has *4 Gea Sea of Tuna” (p99) snd Bein Le ‘he he i Di of ac a) Ae ae ae Empirical Foundations for a ‘Theory of Language Change URIEL WEINREICH, WILLIAM LABOV, and MARVIN 1, HERZOG Cotati Vive‘URIEL WEINREICH Uriel Weinrich diatom Nach 30, 1967. Those who kacw hin, finds and colleagues in many fds of ese, fd i ical 10 ontin thee rie. He was at yet forty-one eas old La the list weeks ot hislife he devoted his asa fot the fal revision ofthis pape, snd worked actively on itu two days before bidet. ‘This puper emerge when, ater several years of reach aod dit ‘asson on problems dang with lngsage change, te thee sthors fel it opportone to atampt jolt formation of cesin ess 00 whi thr thisking hd ben oaverging, Iwas Weinrich who pre: ped the original dat inearpoting sppoprinte materiale sbmited {oi by the second and tit-named authors, Hews, atthe ine, 20 [NSF Senior Pstectonl Fellow ath Canter for Advanced Suis in the Behvorl Scenes; the Ast deat, for pension t the Sm sum in Apri, 1966, wa produc aces a geographic tance, ad under sschedale which rule out the possiy of fll ducer ‘There, some coclsons remained to be hace into sone ‘mutully agree form, This proces of revision began after Welae ‘eich’ return to New Yorkin he fil of 1986 and proceeded atively pte eines ‘Weinzich's pesonaetig of the inal deft comes to end with ‘Sation 2:4 The ial ormalaton ofthe reminder, fom 2.416 the work ofthe seond-nral author. The third section ofthe paper ‘vas sketched out only ily i he deft presented a the Tee con ference: Thoagh many of Weinsc's formations snd erations appear her, and the ove ranewoek sped of oa joint thine ing in the ely months of 1967, tere are undoubtedly many detailshich would hae taken a diferent form if he ad shared inthe Saal siting ‘Whatever sevisions have been latreduced the basic oitaton of the piper remains unchanged. thus largely eB Weinrich co ception, The hiturial perspective, epecily the seions on Psa and Smosuc, are exclusively hi. The Introduction also Wenash’s ‘wort itemerged after oi frequent metings ding the st few weeks ‘of hii. In this nl verso, after many revisions, Weizcich Fused th even themes ofthe per ito singlet His coauthors se honored that he deliberately hove his meas of preparing a oa Satcment of his vews onthe structure of lngunge andthe nture of linguini change 6. INTRODUCTION “The present pape is hued on the cbseraton that strc thors of resign, hve Foundations of sybtonc study, was aware ofthe conrsponding i tracy of language cunge, tnd was apperety resigned tt Bl ‘with che majority af Unguss afte Susur, the choice Between sa the Stusntean dilemma to eaorte # Ghpine which would be strctrl an historical tthe ae tie ‘We would ike hereto depict the orgs of the stactuehistory ntioomy in Neogranmasan theory; we wil dwell particltiy 00 Hermann Pal, who apparel was the sto oat the hnguage of he individ! atch et legit objet of linguistic stad. We “The un wih he pe els rel spat oi ‘Seder nace tl he det cam Lg comps nae Sy. Resch on New York Cy English i being cotiusd bythe send Aa in Pe 838 e Cnpin ec anh US Oe A Theory of Language Cheng » wil ace the hardening ofthe paradox the Susi peio, when Ihomogenety of laguage—terimed tobe found inthe dst was dew upen as 2 preequnte for ana, We will sow the fea ‘opportunites for explaining linge change thet came with the orescence of Linguistic deripton ster Werld Wee I, and coment also on the inition tat developed in viewing language tes ‘determinants of the owe father development. We wil review & umber of atmpts that were madeto se the language fs community 18 diferente stem and to recone the oberved fats of in sti etrogeety with the theoretical desidersts of finding order ‘nd strc. We wil, Saal, sagget that a model of lnguage which sccommodatss the fas of vaiable wage and ite soil and pic (p25) All thse linguistically cecal relations cn be found only ia te language ofthe individ, in whos rnd one will, find the “interlocking ine groups, with thir mupe interlaced ‘ton, which are relevant to spech activin” (p. 39). The image Ups Coast of “images” (Vorstellngen, tht is taes in the fnconscious of physically and consul perceived wterances* ioe {he india! payee is sen a5 the lous ofthe sections an con ‘etons betwee language component, we elie why Dual oltes the iid as the primary cee of 3 language, 20d beings the srgumeat to its logical conan by asering that “we must ‘distioe [Bish ss many langage theese ndidle”™ “The elton ofthe invdoal,Palthoght, ad the advantage of + Pua special coed withthe erie pores ofan ternal ‘eli of age pon at pps mete a ete a {ary allman food gobs fount eatenent, cannon ‘SEs Toprn) ong apenas slo fo oh dean se (he ae fre nur fal epee il sa a i ies eel oan gurney” mahng thn pes [Spucgsai (p. 9) A Dal sr it hier the tr ot See tom te chan of cance “To te [ove sal fac 0 esl ones Pal we (p90) eet aah opal nrc ed on wet Wehner eur ons mins Ce ‘ny toened et seers als aoa Spach Sgt eet eee ag a soe le fing aly ee ny ee nh elt by “iti 1 ooh ows (pp 268), using ‘etal repentant pele pune pac "The alin ray of langage of costes soportestaching Linguists toa more ene science of psychology The pice of sch olaton, however, was he cretion oes ence oppo tion between the individual and sociy. Pal thes hd to costo 3 ‘heontil bridge for passing from the wiqu, individual ebject of linguist taniodvdaal catty. A comparison of individ! languages (which we my, tthe Hl of terminological snachronim bat with lite fear of dro, rebel “Wllecs™®) yields» cerain “average” which determines what i scaly noua in the lnguage—the Language Gator (Spracbrar, 29) For the purpose of lner disusion, lau aote the folowing features of Pas “Language Coto.” Fit i (one the ot) atl of the Hngst—a prod of hs work of coping iio. lec; ao independent "eristnce is claimed for i Scoly, Las- sage Cust has no determiaate bounds vey grouping of speakers {bt dale groups i abitay, witht teuetical matvaton (p38). ‘Ceaay the Langage Casto "verge," resin fom a caput son of doles and B would die fr dt een fom aco soa of ils, 8, and C—and there i uo way to dei 0 he [rounds of Paul's ccumserbed Ueoey wheter C shuld be included tr omitted frm the comparison, Thirdly, if "Language Custom” were seroay tobe interpreted a an “average,” it would be meaniogfl ‘aly wit reference to gradient phenomena; We might argu at is the “average” of w and, bu thet is obvious eanag oan “ave age of sp tae and pop atwoiioleal dexgntions of carbonated Severge Forty, we mst at that in positing the soe a Aliidaliyof ils, Pal provider no cae fo ranking erences, "mong idiots on any sale of importance. I fll, then, hat for sol the only objet of thors sgnfcance isthe ile: Lam gage Gastom is derivative, vague, untacused nce on his tems attire Zea dos a sol vith he os opin of these pur sittin (3 ° A Tier of Language Change ws strucute and honogealy imply one athe, no structured objet ‘whichis tngsiadividual canbe coeeved™ (Change i lc and i Langnage Cast. We ae 00 te 10 soe how Paul teats Ianguage change, Changes ia lngauge ca be ‘undastod ia two seme (1) at ages ina ile, asd (2) a5 Changs in Language Cstom, Change ss Language Cason, i, ‘an ate in two ways: (1) ficough changes within the Holts ove ‘whi a givea Language Cast is defined: (2) Uxough additions ‘bern filers from the set of las ver which a Language stom is dined. Suppose we deine Language Custom LC, fo te ‘Miles, B,C, D. Filet B changes to BY, thea hese resuks a ‘hang ia Cy alent, ile Bs emoved Frm these (68 through the death fits, oc anil Bis aed (through ‘ound ofthe ct of ies over which «Language Com Aied have no theoretical foundation, and since anges in La gage Cato cmp dete (p19), is ce wii Tunas in hess of communication bres among spss ot ‘omits of peers. p40). ‘What couses changes ina ile? There ce two enchanis in ‘volved: spontionss change, and adaptation tothe diols of ohee speakers (p. 54). On the itsindiidal,spontuacous mechaaisa eal bas ite ela ost, he eer jut once mot othe role ofan "Bagong wit th view of hing ome ih yt hk of staing fr oS Ware areape tet Bat ape of be open Cis Sits cipe ganar” ff ret fg “wich oof Sof ramon oe andrea cree nt pec common at ste inn wat caste eegone vlog detec ad She lie ge 2) es aindividu’ “personal patois and the peculiar stimlatins (Enegungen) of his orn mental apd bly makeup” (p. 38), but it does not ecu to hint instante any sch palaces, otha a serous propos of caeltion between lavideal tana idole ‘hang roa ofthe question, The other mechani of ile change, we have si, the selective adoption of fentues fom the ioe fon sinterlactors, One suspects hat fe Pa th, the soil ech ‘im, is she more important snc; ts be ays summarily in ance usage that i "slely through intercourse (Verebr) thatthe la (pape of thendivideal cet” (p39) 1s view af the elation between idles snd Language Cust, which we have sleady dicased, we can Se Ht Language Castor Changes "though the mation of a erie of shits in ile ‘moving nthe sue dation 2 sew Language Costs formed fom accumulation of pul anges inte lets for which iis de fined. Now its er tt this theory sys nothing about two eter ns of change which cia be conceived of with eal eszonablenes: (1) qualitative, aogradal anges in idole, and (2) nonpralll behavior of idole. IF the changes are nongraua, they can hae Field tos “sammation and the lee are ot changing in parallel ‘vhs wll the reat nthe overall Language Cato? Butt would be meaningless to pres the quston inthe content of Pal hay, beeute for him Languege Castor with respect to nongradient phe mena (Le, in ee, with spect othe lk of Language) is not & onstrutto be tke sell, Chiood and Adntboad. Given te to mechanisms of iinet ange (and by extensog, of Language Catom chnge), we may sop 0 conser whether an individual is equally ble to ide Saye dumgnos asi ki pichle geek pen" ie. "ble o designate «pin inthe life ofan did at which coal be sid the language Iering his cease.” On the other han, he rat bale of language Iering(dilect changing) takes pce ia thildhood, and the difernce in pre in enaemous (p. 34). Aste ‘al, Pal Fas usted in cancun “hat he proces of nage Tearing ae of supreme aporunce forthe explanation of ange in Langeage Custom, tht ey eepesent the mos import ause of these changes” (ii). ‘afertuately Paul des not develop this iden ato any concrete hy pothess and 2 sume of questions enaia unanswered. For example, "fe mechanism of language earing works ficial and uniorly, ‘we would expec the et of young chiles deviant diols to make the same sal, sable cotribation to every Language Cason i would then he ante that guage lering explain changes in Language CCastom. If onthe otbee hand the leasing mechanism works nei ciety, then we are etd to know why cldren' mleraing dos fot have endo, matllycncling eft. In ther words, woog, Childe’ incomplete language lesring a an expansion of language ‘hangs ruewos nle ggets athe se tine a alle of ato ing lures, This Pal has fled oer Unauareness. We may now go overt the disusion of + pale ‘which aries rom 2 combination of Bsc tenets in Paul's theory. the Sigicnt locus language change sin teil, andi the cet ies pacologclrepresetnton (the speakers Specie abl), why ie ha apr are nt swat of changing hi ical? Foran a ‘ez, Pal looks to the supposition that dolat change aes place by ‘nfniceimal steps (p19). But how cn there be inftesimal tps song dicras, quantized phenome? How could cae, let ws st, ‘ove Fram diced wo doe, o from pop to sad by its ss? Posie slatins came to mind, and we will ce Below ow other theodats bave del with the question, Paul's ewa way out was ati tual to atrow the discussion fram language in general to wich a= pats of language as aze continuous (ether than dst) inthe de ign. He hassimply voided the genoa gestion, which mas of pce ‘iy del wih noaontnuous apes of language aswel "The comin sdeof langage design with which Pel dele is That cage is fat anno fs Pal nei ting. hugh he ne hat tn goalysknowdge a wat donc itl in dee (pn) He wth cote fhe nea”. ‘no angus otto! rely nee ich aye Tima nen nh oun Ins scounfSeamictge (Cp. 1), nba fe dtingues hte atonay meaning (sel eel) ‘neta meng pen sere tle Pas th ly ete a ngage dei, he pt ave oth enlarged on et ale teeren pac semaine so el th ey‘ow dot bya farther etue: vale peformance. A speaker's Phonetic peace, we ae told, varies around am (idalaally ode) goal ia the way 2 arama’ shot scatter aoand bal'sye (p. 5). The mentl representations of he speich sand avlve bal a nsstiess (Beeganergefls p49) and sound image (Lextld) foe audio ositoring (Knee pp. 53,58) leis an empiia fut for Paul ta hte epresecatiosaeinsuliinly pee to gurttee svolately comistent performance; for example, what i coed a6 3 ‘ingle Kiesthes and sound image (today we would sy: sage ‘honee) i manifested a the physiology disriniaale pu of Sounds [a] and {0} is German Land, Anger: simlay, sngle sy ology coded unit pene at (2 in Felder and ae (0) in Fel “lence, where we can coocie of continuous dimensions of phonetic space “there is slaps continuo sever of infiely ume round” (pp. 31-52). "This, the, expan custo in petformance which snot coded in (eile and snot even percived bythe eater ofthe ile. Canes of Change, From bere we move tothe reel crac why does lhe meas ofthe ser pecfrmancer if? That tan shift thot ‘ing aie bythe performers due ys Paul to the fact tha he sound image fr monitoring moves in pull withthe nets tht ‘earls production (p. 61). Bu, grating tat they shift together ‘wy do dey shift a all? Oa thi cecal quetion Pls answer bas ‘pete anda specie pat In gene, language develops subject to ents of wit: Ia he development of Larguge Cason, purposive (de Zack) pas ‘hese ross ht which Darwin sted tin ogi tte. the ste oc leu unfulee (Zee) ofthe ring pene (Gebide) ie dain forth persion seinen. (p32) IBeiy ox neon ofthe rt of language cans. a charac Fe Ge lg wy of cate peo ‘antec Wc fom stele cota ten tee Slee et A Thar of Lengua Chane us [Now sace an explaniion by natural section is varoot unless a Independent terion for marvin postulated, Pl invokes, a2 5p ily ings ator, the pale of greet confor: 1 hry posible to dee any thereat fo teint deine toto on de tan fo the cert the ut hat dein in oo ‘ecto asa pet th ora he pens ter (Beemer) 39) a cass such a5 assimilation in consonant ses (ot > To), the factor of es i bios. Sometimes length and acct may a0 ‘beinwoled Even the fac tht “al languages display cert harmony ofthe soand rte” (preamably elated to diferent postions ‘of che orga among thee spekert) rm explain. OF couse there ‘sce any addoal Kinds of change, opel of the “unconditioned” ‘ind, at Pl sv to elie that Ue more transparent nance do fot yt yield geen explanation, Bute els tht farther psyeo- psc sar is heey, "he iavesttion ofthe enence of 8s rato leer comfort a tak fr physoogy” (p37). Tat he tut of confor by infitesimal sift in phone petoemance i lndod the explinatin—of that Pale ein, Corelition af sound change with cist, sol coadins, way of ifs ad tbe environmental factors are unpoven and ns ivolving Aierences inthe anatomy of spe organs at often corte and in ‘ny ene indecisive (p60). Huse, adasitely, "depends on s variety fof cicumsances which maybe diferent fo eich niviua” bt they “an loa large groups” (p. 57). When thy do, a sound sift ‘shes place (p.59)° "Bu if the purt of ete edhe cause of sound change in ile, the fundameaal questions aie: why donot speakers po boat it more ‘uly, td why do Language Custos plitin that same speakers set futon pustular eae seeking pth wheres others ua thee es ‘ovaftable pate? This fundamental question wil as epeatdly in our discution; we have already allude toi the aration probs Benet 227), Pal sn ces he notin of orp aetna spor only: lsum th to ond einer paloJem. For eica whan the cous of language change his boa fll Aescibed ad is biiy explained the qustion always rons 3 10 vy the dange was ot austed scone, oe wy is ot ima sly acusted wherever data funcional conditions prevailed, The ‘sored action ri ihe peice pd by ay face and indie valsic explanation of language change. It eats the oppaste prob Jemof explaining why language fl tounge “Latex now Pal copes wit the action ide Conformity. Ae all ties, be say, the performance of «sper i under the presse of diferent forces to change in dierent ietions. Dang stuble periods of an idiot the Forces ae inexact ance snd cause the spoatannss deviations from the target to cancel ich Other Fo example, daring a sable period of anisole, the seater of peformances of the sound maybe under egal preset sit toward and tovatd ‘Yet iis very ipa tat thi shuld ete ce tall point ada sis. Gace lone can ey bring i tou eat in a el (tier by putty inset oe teen tou where pond oer abate Thi my happen een he cone ofthe "joy on ooooe! by any pra one coerce io he Indivduls remiing obi th rap and even if case wich ng het it para diction we psp lteter for erent indians The prendre of tendency ina lie ide of ts pes onigho oven the okey tendeces (p31) 1 this passage Paul sums to atcbute the actuation of « change nce. However if the begonings of anges were anda procs, ‘casio! les of balance would alte wth estortons of bl ance, an beginnings of infitsimal haage Would alcmate wih ce Sstoas of intemal change. Ths, case ba invoked ei ‘nat since wear att expla a spi not rad proces, The Substasive theoreti praciple which Pal ae covet slipped in i Alierent—i is what we might cll the "valance secant” Ba Jn the cas ofsealanche, the stickies of so expliewy a oling mas atts sional sow; and in explaining svlance, we my Inded atte ther atation to nce (orf some uninteresting vents ass shi lemarking in a parila oetion: cf, Mate A Thar of Langage Chants ns 1935:36) Inthe cae of sound changes described by asl, however, no indepedeat reson for beliving ino valance mechs Bed “Therein fact, one more hypothesis covery iaolted ia Paul's hoor the hypothe tht pesker ike to confom to the diets of thei itecortors Bt whether aot his ia te ei, let us eab- lh tht conte nothing whatever t the explanation of sound ‘ange Ths x bene env ad orto expla bh ini re ‘stance o change and abieqont ieingto cunge. Ase sa eal, aul bois tat speakers adap fetes fom the les of hers eal, bathe fers acne whatever of hi slit. Tn dexaing the difison of change from iil to iol, al makes eu of his confor hype ‘One defi shift in the Knees [oe sy ahr iiien fnte) hasan lice ugh th clinton ofthe inition xed by on ‘uncatin (ce, see dee to conform f te itt so ete, fuer al hit mde ple by he coring oe of tendeny, Mesowle, howe, whole mir Ir rept bythe move ret The very fics which prevent the minty foe ating oo Tat tend of the gees cust an pret fom cemsning ic) lehind the prope ofthe major The morement proce in Sch ‘all datsoce fat liom opecton aver wes tng nds Saodingincloeintecounewheachoter (62) “Two important empirical csi ace introduced hee: (1) Ua whe progres ofa language change trough a community follows lst ou, an Scurve® from minor to majority ttliy (2) that fe ‘quency ofa form guarantor exerplarinet for specs commu ‘Wel hive acasin tert daca hse dis Fre a —LCLrertrtrt—— ieee eres ret — —r— nrharains ohh Tract a iy Res miners erent‘The Scurved socal tsjectory of « ange may in pale belo cated anywhere in cxmmunity. Buti acquis spec interest iit fan be coelatd with the universal dlfleentiation of speech conus ite by age. Acordia to Paul, we mut distingulsh between nea: ‘enentional and crowpneitional changes, Scurved changes within 2 generation, he fees, ae poste bat aecessly minute. They teach ‘major proportions only when the curse oinces witha hi Ingen" erations If the change has sendy cagulfed the maori, then the young people will “naturally” follow suit (i, they become the til Cau ofthe Scare). Bat even i maori etl oling ox, will, ently die ut. Moreover, the sme seca which dive the olde gene to devi fom Kine "hse led fred at sto the fort oft Keer ee ‘he younger grein Inu href eld it he es eae (Vr Jest} of Sound chaoge sth asso of sounds one indie For ths proces thn, he en “eng isnt appopeate fone wits toe competely wane; ii ether + devi new formation (Seer sme) (0:8) In ater words: what for entre speakers peformance that dvi ster from the coding of the iilet becomes, forthe cides, an ilileecontrolled (soadvian!) perfoemence eis easy tose shy the nsion of generations appeted to Paul, and to many oer scholars, a ase haven in «dangerous coca se ehonologial changes in language abe superposed on the tar over of population, te need fora theory of change as such canceled, Siac ane cn then imply thin of the sper of one dnt replacing thos of asater. (Ia geographic terme ifuron of language atria by spake nigation fers smi, apically ex cae) Bt fal fledged theory mast be accountable sls for changer at diferent tes snd in diferent diets, oer Una the zepacement of fathers by ons (see § 241 below). Moreover, Paul's theory appeis to take ‘ofr fom an untelisic den that the difernce between gene tions is dicotinoas. To be sure, geoctions are discste witha & fay bat nthe commanity hey form a cootiaaum. A slid theory thats based on age difereces est be prepared to ex hem a5 a uniserpted gradient Ahir of Lenape Change us Regulrtyof Change, When we cone, nxt, othe question of ee ay of sound change, wea Paul fllowing not the extreme positon ofthe Neogrammarian maifesto,* bat a moderate point of view i Tomine by the cians of Krusewski. Since the hry of O55 materi unly presente iaccuttly* a slight digression acs ay, “Te portulate of completely regular sound laws (Le, thot ex ception a are themselves acountable by nomad bo phonetic com texts) received its mui momentum from Ostho and Bragmann’s reading of Wintelers 1876 monograph on the German dialect of Kerenan, Switerland, In the dexiptive part of his moaogrph— hich we honor today av plowing efor in phonenc analysis ‘Wiateler stated the ditchition of allopkanes ia tani process terms. (Ara Sasksisie—the Saket in fat, who put the fxm sand Bato clin Wht ad of che sed or without exceptions, Osboll nd Brugmane resrtd to Wintel phonology: lok at Kereazen Geman, they sid, where eveyn for ‘example changes to 7 before, ¢—vwithout soy exception whatever Fiori thet they wet, Osthof and Brug did aot otic that thy we taping fem sacs pre oa dco etter “ih Mean To ok ble ene scons Ue ing ‘ny of wet on suotingpois of te vt pti kc (ist) ferred esl sere by sy fe tN aoa, Sas re 8 Pees eden contin one ate cate ests 166), o's won che 5 te goa ofthe Negra sian Cl oo poly dopo fr tient ‘GuealEecane tan of ta rt oft tie song even ail to Ona apd ragmenn (ie Wines enopo ey hae tena sen appt 9 Jovsgae the oats eons ‘Sond lew "npains" tl 19 atte Ont ont Braga? mi Sie he edi, egg, eelic shifts, watson aterm pice oat by Keseewsi (1881) fhe difernce was lo, however, on the mote onhodox Neogrm’ ‘maias, t was not ondentoad by Pelewen, and waforunatey abo ‘went uneedad by Bloor, for wham syacheoaie process did at Paul di uadesand Kesaewsi’s pat (cf. his efetecs to Kr sors’ papers ia Teche’ Zech [ls 1, 23,33, p49), a0 ‘ase ad o tem and-aeangeeat prejudices in ponology, eas Ded the dsiocon easily He ths distinguishes between sound tift (Lettre ad "ales" (Lanteebel. Te former are sits in teams of syebyone process ony, and ae ikea 3 cm pletely regula, The ater are remnants of eater sycronic process ‘whic (ry) have cise to function and which have lft ireglar, Feds that mast be lene a ists (p. 69). To aoid confusion, we il bereisater render Puls Latwenel by “phonetic rl,” roughly Jn the sense of Halle (1959). The probes for Pal the, no the absolute ela of pone ules, butte regular redistibation of sands among lexi elemeat. nother words, how does a profane phonetic ule of an ils get snagged? Can thi eal fom eter ‘ure with other seers? Heres al sane: ‘The only yin which hit olde vale ie ht an nia wld simaanculy td ole eines fave rope offerte which Ind borane diferente by dee! coud deepest (sey denne specie powcr] and tat he wld lnxn sane war rm one ‘lp thr fem te tBu his peppy exception fates. Noval thr ae not [itll ier of cis nd in communion community within which 2 idl gow ‘up and wi which be abd nad nor atin Ws tas th de ‘onder envionment. Withia the sue dls, therefor, no ica Sites develop ol a cosoence of die mire, owe sal have econo ptt tne pes consmence of te bortning of ‘ord frm fosgn net» the formulation of rund lms (i, acco phone rile], we heed ot of coe ron mh ih ion Stead. (pp. 7-72) “The meskes in ths argpren ithe noton “singe dale,” be: ‘5 coi phoma of Keene Geant Ngan de det Tove vale noupptieial amples af tapes sod Te A Thar of Langs Chane w caus, 8 we have se, it as no thee tannin Pa’ thinking Ted, Pal shows same oorern about this wakes, fore prose to consider ater “the extent to which, andthe conton under which” ‘word borrowing fom ater dikes taker place (P72). Actually homers, inthe chapter oa ngage mitre, only shot scion devoted to inet intenernce (pp. 402-403), andthe question of ‘coditions for word borrowing soot ven aed Phonology and Uiolect Grosping. We tock. note above of the ‘manner in which Pal slipped fram «theory of language change in ‘ener toa theory of sound change in paisa, Wermay now examine the paradox tat emerges asa ensequence ofthis mated nerowing of dicssion, Infra langutge change i genera is concerned, we Inve lene, ile are subj to adam development, To be see Sntecurse may eine parallel shits in group ile bat they need ‘oan ss Pal knew fom dilesologi eset, donot a fa sulin hiearchicaly sacred subdivision ofthe communiy (pp. 37 42). Tila 4 may Form alec grouping with iil B with spec to Fetute 1 grouping with ils C with spect to Fete 2 ‘There is for Pal ao end 2nd no organization to these ently in texting principles because (1) the ingust knows of o rounds for 1 hierarchy of linguistic Fetus, and (2) he hee no explnation for the seltive difasion of ioe features (Le, sae of dif lity) aa elns that ere ate reals nthe intercourse eter —spsily absolute Beds cused by migration —a dale epi will csnepebu this completly "exert te language and we might {Md that isin any aes highly unusual phenomenon (even if in he history ofthe ancient Indo-European langues tay bare important role). Nts in the ease of sound change; here tte a linge bass foe growpng two ioe ito a dae, nately, te sharing ofa (complete?) set ofphoostiruls. dolcte aad would be asgned to he sme dil if they shared the same phonetic rls snd a word adopted by from B woul be asta seen 0 ‘ese phonetic tata It woul appa, then, Gai ou goal were asitcaton of ix lectl phonoloies, Paul's they would ofer wr = resoned lings Gtson for ita est for singlelevdallsae-oralieret ae‘ction of ile, Bat f we ate seking + Aasifation not fio etal phonology, bt of ils in thi ier, Paul's theay is of 0 ws, ecze does at guntntce (and could d 3 oly costiary to fecal evidence) tht nonponologial diferenistion gos bund ia hand with phonological diferentton. le woald be peer sutra for example to find eof islets 4B, and C sh tht and B share phonoogies while jointly difering in ther phonslogis fom C; bot and Bima have numerous lexi and grant difeences inpointson which Bares fully with C Paul weiter, "Theta chairs fate in the decal atts ‘ion of scotia areas the phone conditions.” The rex 4 forth thinks Pai that isn the formation of phonetic con Aions tht eveything depends on diet personal itecourse “In ‘vocabulary and in word meting, a morpaogy andi sje, mei sted teanmision offers odie,” By contest, according fo Pal, Phonetic infuene (Ae, dfwsion of phonlogal rule) depends oo {ntnte nd intensive ietercouse. Ths, he oto, smh gets diferences develop in phonic than in vty, oe Pllog, or ayt, sad the former It more snfomly though Long Ped chante nter Lest pal fl sth way md ise te tanatsons fs Go dal to ster motte place (in the ‘Se me] fm one lnguge to athe He thee ae mor ods ‘dal diference than in nyo domain. Here ete may ala be evs ee profi! ctl] which have etn do wit le dere ad whichintere hem (p47) Tats psagemeace the conceptual icy of contin snd weigh ing phonological aginst other inorations. Ate thee not perhaps ‘more lexi innovation spy becne there are more worse? And ‘wit i the theoretical tsi for disegarding highly stable dale “eretiations in volar snd graminar? One suspects tht Pal Was rally decsving himself, The poy he was ivng to phoalogal criteria filet casicaton was based, at onthe emily ene onstrated manner of this ansmison (Fo his he had no exdenc) foc on thee bility (for this the evidence was quite inoausive) tut simply case ponlogy, inthe sense of «consent applied set of phonetic ule, was the uly domain of language which ge any They of Lagnas Change 1 hope of qusntising (imposing diceenes upon) the contnaum of the peed emma, ie etd et sii peso ‘While we would digre with bth procedures, we would consider them as legitimate proposal meri dissin, What makes Paul's spproah illegitimate, 0 the ther band sits use ofa theoesal s ‘snp nthe igus fa fata cie—and, oma twos, on =‘ factulcain which incor Summary. Let now ater to estat Paul's position on the ewe points “The sole theetlly grounded object of lnguic snd the itil ad withia the dale, the ony demain in which age s related fo sable perfozmaace is phology (in vew fe nondicee ‘ature, Am individual's ug in prinple onsite, nl conforms {0 his mental represeottion of i, except that phonetic perfomance are steed domly a5 abou 4 tegen inv my, by i Sinitesimal unconscious tp, sew the dsibation of his (phonetic) perfrmances ashe seeks more confortable behave pater (NO Cxpluntion is oer forthe slownest wih which allegedly more “comforble” behavior is achieve; i, the aduation side stands ‘unsoied and even unformlited) Dist ae conceived group of (phooolgially) ideal iiolecs consequent, dil cunge ie simply idole changing i parallel, and dnl sling eo more ‘han diols chang dive. “An idect ot dlet ay ls change by “borrowing” forms from ter idiots or dle. Such Lovrowing sce, bt no expan tion is feed for partcalr seers. Oppatunity to boron from ‘ths idols depends on exposure to thn; however, bth borowing snd sonborowing are atte to confouniy either with thei ‘oro ore corres, 1.2, Tie Neogkasoeanian Haarrace Pa’ Pinion may be sid to tet the bet achievements of Neogeanmaran linguistic, With his Neogeamumasan predaesre snd contemporaries Pal shared the vues of axa igor of formtion, an intensive interes in ecaret replat, «Feng for he typical of standardized langage mong he totality of langues, {concen with phonetic deta anda dese to view language ia he feting of is functioning inorder to undertand tr develpcnt, to "porta as randy a possible the conditions ofthe fe of lan sige [Spracleon (p. 6). Writen and revised afer the dst Mad feted over the spun Iw controversy, Pals back hs dhe farther merit of recognizing the dileeogial pat of view on lnguage Change, It is therfore at surprising da it Became enemas in ena, and tough treaty may have served 5 tage of at [engaanmaran oppotion it futons asthe basi ext for more than a peeation of linguist 1.21, Sausune ‘The revolutionary ef of Seuss thought i ot elit if we asset that i the qietion ofthe individuality of lnguage, he ones & rest del to the Nengranmarin doctne. Foe Susie, the ste sti of Language (sr § 20) depends on the exseace, within he Indiv of fail of socaton and one of eoexdton (p29). ‘The relations berween elements ofa language ate lated i the com -eiganes of sper. The following quotation is pica: Synch knows only one pepe, ht ofthe peak, apd whole ‘tho cosy ating the tenon: in oder to know the cel tows tng irl it wil be ecard fice aarp (he dee to whch it ex nthe conscious ofthe spe. (P. 128) sof dichroic nd diseoiog 2s be wes, “ha nothing in common withthe diacroae Ts the connection herwen simultane emt, te others hess stitution of oe element for another nine event” (P. 129). AS a consnenee, nook ing, in onto (pening, wl tay he ‘lations conneting tarcnine tame hu are nat pried 3 ingle A Toor Lean Cheng im investigation, Saussure fuer regres tat sch an objet be horn geneous The object of synchronic inguiic, he agus ak evety thing which i simulans, baton those slaneous fs which balongto single langsge. The separtion of legitimate, th on geneous, objects of sty mat proce, "othe extent tha thi nay be ecesary all he way down to dale snd sublets” (pp. 128 12) nee, lings ae pt on notice tha thee ae no oat dis Texs—"there ate as suny dale as there ae leaiies"(P. 276) ‘And Saussare adds: "Bascly the term zyacbronie is ook preie ‘enough; i shouldbe eeplaced by the (admitedlylngih) ior throne: On the her hat, sbi inguie does ot oq, bt repels ach breailowa,” TE has often boo sessed that by distinguishing speech fom la nage, Sausure broke amy from the paychologim caraceritic of [Neogeumnasian thinking’ he sw language associa td pech a i ce. In paral, ther nothing i is heey which cou ace ‘moda a heterogenous lenguage while saving i legitimate abject of synchronic investigation. “A language « . i of bomogeneos rture (p32). Aad Sgusare echoes Pal when be wie: "Ami the invidal ths Linked bythe we of lange lenge ft fi Fotne nthe sue con cops” (p29). Cle, Saute hee views heteropenty within the Taaguage atom of x cmmniy aot e sujet of tematic dsr tio, but ind of tolerable impecson of peformance His iw is thus again ia fal conformity with Paul's, who lad sid thatthe grat unoenity ofall lnguage poets inthe oot dives oa ‘viduals isthe esata Bass for an exact sinc Knowle of atch process" (Pulp 19). Wesee no evidence thi Susu propia ‘jon Pao in is aby to deal with language social fc fori the precondition of dealing with language at oa phenomenon was sills complete homogeneity. In broscing the cuse of sound change, Susur rejetd all ex planation which ad bee advanced (pp. 202-208). Although be wat Convinced Gt all chngeseriginte in spech he nveteles Id nosuggestions for disogushng, other an a potrioi, betwee ni ‘ila innovation wiih eter the lnguage sod thas which do ot {pp 138-139). Altiaugh he paste two confiting forests of imercre and that of provincalin (clocher)—to describe 20 i Alvida’ nation and noniziaton, respectively, of the speech of ‘thers, the balance of thew forces remained a vacuous explanation, Since Sausure could aot show (pp. 284-285) tt the prealeace of ‘ne foe ve the oterovaid with anything. ‘We can today cosy stent to Saar’ aegumet that Okt High ‘German go uct dd not coexist inte consousesf any sake. srt the Molen German counterpart, Gi, withthe rel th these Henshave tga —_ sic, What i ising poerettpcn, however, isthe povabiy ofa mommies Pore schaic pit anda ote innovating vain, get HTT fn th minds of some very tal speakers of the Inngage Sil) tthen Suusue cations apt gathering pail remote dikes {et the beading ofa sgl synchronic descrpsin, we cn age wth cas, bt be segttaly omits fom consideration the cg to us, yas to equ the jmtaposton of remote ages of language ‘vith te jotapston of stages in general» I is this unjustied ge ‘ait whi ly ae Base of his antioomy betwen the ste id the historia, an aninomy which has been accepted by the funda Incas ofthe Geneva Schoo bu which vrtally alter lings Ive sn tying to overcome 1.22, Bhooxsnetais Descnirive LIvousmcs 1 the works of American destiptive linguists we finda varying (pp. 00) Wo te soerence of several diets a hese Egeographich Bhan ele hen bt oe nd he ae pester) and ete 2 Ste ens a dace corning wah ay agune ( sot ‘uel usec tcah ker tpe (pp 3133). Neampa Scene 00 0 Prat A Thar of Langue Chee a devel of interest ia language versity within apeech community; what ‘ns his proup with hl of ts Neogrammariz acer ithe lak of Inte inthe stem charter of he heterogensos langage of curity. Blood writes ‘spec comuniye a rp of people wh ote by ments of speech Tie eave onl cough, me ld Sd tat oe psa ‘in, etapy m0 oe pron x Seren tine—speke excl ake ‘These dfeene ply 1 sey ipa pa in he sor of langage ‘he ling ecto conte hem sey caval ere hog tse ‘fbr nak be i fred prvi t gore the. When be oe tis fe is musycoploing te tof aston, math eet ‘eter nveaipain, ut he es una het be cone be For thy cm ed in ma id of furter work. (1935-02-15) ‘As prciminry of guidelines, thi aement would be unobjes tional; wht is import, bowerer, tat Bloome'd has o se ‘getion o make a othe may fm which the "abstraction" isto be de fed from the dexiption of individual usages, or bow it i to be "coreced" Refetng assur’ anplusis oa langue aa socal phe omenon, Blomfield concedes tat ve concerned oto ah wth exh ind With th le on Truly, We do ao ine note int eroos proces of = Fs ‘Tho ater ay te wend pple bat cont ones ater weit dee Inning tn, bp and ng, oral th xb ofthe comma the word pple eas tin nd of fra» However (he medal a eles at ona awe ey desc ith hs ate, ht ‘hegemony i fC pte, a that very peso wer opnd foomsnsaniue (P75) ‘Wing before the major developments i dacnonic phonemic, ‘loo ido je spond the posit that the stat ofa an qage may itl fonctions 2 determinant of changes whi it Like Paul he therefore pts the whole burden of explaining change ea the ‘mechanism of imitating the specs Its of one's fellows. The dire tion of imitation, BlemBeldbalives, determine etirely by the Buhrman th sme quis 46 tse which wee eel by Palsprestige" of the model (p. 476). Alehouh this now koowa to BO few ince i sa lest a step beyond Pals and Seuss ans alc td intl of ct oes ke Pal Bory AE pocests then selves rarely escape our observation” (p. 481). “Ie wseles to sk ‘whut peson or eof penn ist favored [stan] vats. By the tine a sound-change became observable, eft has been di tube bythe leveling proces that goes on win ech community” (pp. 480-481). The diinction baween the oiin of language ‘ange and is difasion, andthe pei aboot observing the agi of langue change, sered Blomfeldian thinking abot Inguage ‘Gang into an atienpiral dieton. "An import! alestone inthe sltion of he individual's Ianguage as the lgtinate bjt of linguistic design par excellence wat Bloc’ "Set of Posts fae Phone Amy” in whic the tera tile was is inoduce. (Whether bis tease ote pei sctaly echoes Saussure’ idaryocbroni i hs mare cl 10 Aleermin.) Bloch wits ‘The tm of the posle terns fone sera oo ine ning x langage intent wth oe er seer saa As oe he words Honetine” th inerpertain may fly ty win we a Sey may sen it one ptr momen” of "on one patie dy" ot “ing one pas "= The pre “wth oe te spake" 8 Ieoded to eidade the psy dat ap Hilt might entre mare than oe STYLE of sping i at lest ally Ut piven spaker, vil ue woof more hs ie adesing a single peso... Pooologl alia «ven ile dos not reve he pong yen a ny [alt longings diert dale (1948°7-9) ‘We se Bloch ore exutng Paul's ad Seuss’ atomic principle of reducing the langue of community to its ultimate homogenes pts. But we cannot refan from nota that even this redaction ad ‘hard ised on coutetaoal sumption that psi of spake es alas sick to the same syle. (For evidence othe eontay, Labor 1966:90-135.) A Toy of Langoag Change ‘Te ogc ofthe Noogsummarian theory, a inbred thug Sas sre nod Blomfield, was developed os fully by some of Bloom's szudets. We mil tur to stasis el (§ 21), afer des ing the folton of sacra factor in lngaagefanoing. 1.25, Ths Practice oF Gewznarive GRAMMAMANS Although genera Linguistic basso far touched on sori problems in nly 4 marginal fasion, there are several thecal Pronouncements on record suggesting that the Neogrmmacan: ‘eciptv conception of «homogenens stem asthe ol legitnte ‘bjs of analyses been adopted by thi schol of tought. Thus (Gros wre: Lins hoy concer withan ie spelen, comply bamopencnrseechcomnany, who knows i ngage pert and i smaeced by ach prea inlva conto 95 xno ins ions, dtcton sil of attenton aod lotr, and cr (dem ‘daratertc) fa applying bis knowlege of the Langage ia acta pee Foxe. (1965-4 ls suppl) “The reuiement of homage is ace made cota: the Hingsisie coenptence which is the cbt of lage anal is the posesion fap indiidanl,inguistic theo concerns the commanty only i ‘ofa the eur homogeneous and insofar a the individ Infocaot ia peste representative fi rocolres for orem, the acl obuerved divert of eptch behavior are not seggsed 2 ‘more than inthe work of aul or Blorel in harmoay with Sus ‘ue but move explcily, Qos declares sich diversity to be theo reilly inelevat Thus be que right in sing: "Thies toe to have been the postion ofthe founders of modem geaeal line suit; but we cant agree with his father sttemest tat “ao gent reson for moifvng hasbeen Ofer" As we wll show be lm, we find cogent restons for modifying his postin ia the cn rmsd fact that cevitions from a homogeneous stem ae ot all crite vagaries of performance, bat ae to high degee coded and put of ssalticdecrption of the competence of # membet oF @ pech communi2, PROBLEMS OF CHANGING STRUCTURE 20, Tyresor Reaevane Tazone For Paul the theory of language (Piaipenuisescaft) was at les filly, xeeminos withthe ery of language change. Aer ‘he development ofthe Saussucananionmy betwen the diachronic and thesychroai however, there arose place fore bodies of prin iple—theores of language change aod theodesoflnguage rare “Therefor ached in the ater ares, irs at em a poi of view, fn inevitable and important implications fr the istry of lguagecren wher th orginal motivation of the conceal advance vs ater than histori Tn reation to lnguage change, exch enement i the theory of la page sractre (andthe sme cold e sid abot referents in he (hear of speech commons) had the folowing potential eects (4) arectaifeton of observed changes acting to ew pein pes (4) propo of Fes contain on change od (6) propos of new camer of cing ct (2) sass to visualize. For example, when 2 sepration be tween ditinive and relundant fates was introduced ito pn Jogi analysis all sound changes could be divided according to sete they id odd aot involve disticive estes. Sal he Aisicion batween prestigious and presigeles dle edd Fresh tlassifation of innovations depending on whether they moved up ot Aloe the prestige ape” In he wake of mort ew theories ofl [pega we indeed Bnd paper eting forth the implication ofthe ‘as forhistry. Hower, in len mere redactions of changes previously buerved or cbserable, this ype of advance is of limited Interest fra theory of lagnage cage ch Far more signa is the post uta seiement in igus or sociolinguistic theory mayalfow (b) the hypothcation of ona fn change. Ths, «crude theory of spec Sounds doesnot make it posible ease very much abot he act phonological makeup of Tanguages, bat as the theory becomes more fefine, the posse gen- A Thar of Language Change ws elitias about how linguges are consisted become sicher and fiber Even ina comply indie spr, hermes possible to ‘ake highly specie tatisalgeeralnions shot exising langage; ‘tbecames posible, acon, to show whether «given change pro ‘doce laigage Sate that Wolates o, more significantly, conforms vith the sisal nom, f one's ebverations of languages are, in tion, tied ogee by a reader thera structure, sill restr signictnce can be atcha to interconnected sre of changes nd all the more challenging end mening baomes the search fo opti zation” tedeacies in language change (OF masimam importance is () the peoposal of pew cases of chang, bed oma theory of language ats 0 fly etablbod at tne dange ina language sat nce imple another change ‘spate that evet A canbe desigated x cae of change Ba ‘longer forts, a they of age would identify 38 the sae use of Br in weaker foam, eveot A would appara let asthe estar eof BI aly aly that hited nga as had limps of suc causal theo, even ofthe wees (necessary cause) ‘ui, but from such achievements ap are on ead we may draw hope of further advances, “The lace of ur dissin organised as fllons: Tate pest chapter we consider te implications for language dung of the soc tur theory tha views languages sytem of oppestonal reins. “The phonological problems hee receive spl prominence, ice his isan are where cntasive and noncotestive Factions ofthe ame subetnce hve ben disinged with omsidrable succes. We hen then (S24) to the Rito iplitins of the factorial analysis ‘which saczonic theory has apled to ingustic stems. The notion of dntincive feature n phoonogy ere ties the bulk of cura fenton, The theories cused in Sections 2 1-1 repeeseot important tavancs over Pal, bat thy sate with him and ht sucassoes io “American dexcgive and penetive linguistics the apprich to lan _guge a homogeneous, dedicated objec subsystems 3, fe posed within» language ae viewed a noncompting, but oat ‘pecesuy sad complementary (Phonology, grammar, lexicon). In Sc tion 3 we ura to wok ht Us withthe omogendty postulate aad ‘rapes with guage as «tematic ciferceiatd ster,2.1. Conmasnve Fenenon oF Puowners ‘As we sw above, Pal, the Neogrumarian, hed no partic pre Alon for atomis ia inguistics we ated the octed way in ‘hid he thought of a Speacefabl s+ generative device, But twa Susur win ae ose hppa ray ofan tonsa ag Seu ited on dng ht atl deniers of pies (seit) ne Pes orga pe (Oat we meh rg san invesiaton noe deg Protcabe sedation of thored changes. The segue infer ces were fist drawn by Jkabson (1951), who showed how sound changes may be grouped isto poner merges ( deponologietion of vanants) and Splits (shonologiation of ariants) A very silat taulye was independealy provide in Areva by Hill (1936) © “Acoring to cu shee, these cstions i themesives cont tute ony the fwest evel histo consequences oft nem theory of Innguage. But before we esamine thee explanatory apabilies, let #1 ho Jang (928) who mB rel wh the ad step 0 prc ah lag ot red i ae " Dlooofeld imal! a 1933 had now ee que asad is prephooe art ea langage iste sate ated acerca fo de ‘nas tt geen ani ee a dnt es ae Se Ca ih ade ‘ii dit (eel Stal chalet once, sos sng ten 2 aan: "econ pe of and ‘emt npr Sw igi ean ny hd ay Be A Thar of Lanna Change 19 ‘ot ta they also edo frm ica, Te straightforward spi Cation of phonemic quan tothe coninum of language ange ‘oon tutnsd up 4 dale pusle: how do gradsl,rondnesve ‘hangs suddenly maketh les nto a new disintive xtegoy? Com Sider Hocket’ aquest balled account Sud chicg uel icons and slow, A phonemic etc 20 be ‘her iad st nse be soaely sen No mater bow eda fre the appich fey Mle) Bgl} /8/ 94 / ena Sher, we cont inane the aca clesene af he two thera 3 ‘en ett on sich nih 4 dap for cand nach aspen ig {up of spk the two fll together a5 and the we opstem of Stel nui fo the pie lao las, we ese. Ye there sna eon fo line hat we mold eer tle to dts Kd of sadn erent dn bvereainn- 19565486-457) Refcted in Hockt’sdsesion isthe sptbesis of the Neogene maria and Sausutan potions ht Iangoage of tedilc sres tthe loos of strict tht, inguisticly relevant, and legitiate facts But the ace reat of thie cnsitet athe ea a they af language change becomes removed from empirical foundations alas etely. It rift to scrpt an explanation teoagh sheaomiena ‘which not oly unobserved bat undbserable Elewhere wehave disued the consequences ofthe ci thatsound hangin progres cannot be cbrerved (Weineich 1960; Lbov 1963, 1963) Is ou ie, this self-defeating denna poceods fo 20 ur tenable distinction etwern the origin of «ange andthe roppation ofthe cage which Sauce and Bloaeld adopted from Pal” Tt stands to reton thatthe tesion problem cannot be sored nles intervening stages inthe propagation af «change ae ded nthe ‘ustton given above, Hodkt fries on the bere prblen the ‘nbserablity of iniiesinal sound change is coupled mith thew bsereabity of instantaneous strocural change. or scholars who feel uncomforable with ich an appa, seve sltrative solitons come to mind, One it dey that ae takes pce within a apt and to ater ised that ee stan (@g. the {ile has borrowed the sew phenomenon fom anther let (6, We eer dicted te place of hi inion a Pas isla The ini na doped viata by Sere (Co 7.283),Hoenig 1960:72-75). If his Formation il onsingdanges of conceptual mystery (6, a which precise moment dor the bo {owing of the sew phenoaenon became “tlal?), an be revised fuer to envisage evo coexisting dlets—one withthe eppostin ia ‘usstion, the ler withoot (cf Blood 1953-328)—and speakers ‘ho fuuste between the two sje of spec, favoring the "ose et dlc in ncresing messue* We reconsider spol a Seton 3.2 asoneaproich toa more adequate view of lngusic su “Anather soliton ito asset tat cootouous vastion exist within cach dialect ata stictul lemert, otelated wth sae othe in _uiticornolinguisic Foe, and tha the eady movercat of tokens From one cntegrial cs oaboter is pat ofthe undedyng structure (aber 1966). Thus change woald nocmaly occur as eae variable ‘moved frm a postion tin a given phoneme, to 4 position art phoneme boundaties, to postion bina exond phoneme an ich 1 vail would Be Sic defined by covariation with otber Estar. (See $3.1 below.) ‘A second problem which roe ia grafting ponemic theory oto he Neogrnmarian theory of und change arte temptation ¢ identify the new analyte stictin, sibphonemic/phonei, wth the Listeria (mutaly coterminous) diinons ifitesimal/ dace, fucuting/table, iregular/eglar, tnd ‘naomi concious, lool, for ample (193523658), thoyph that annie ages ar berable oly by the phoneiian who bas at hit dispose an eaomnoas mass of mechanical rcrd, reaching through seve everson of speaken” But the Hentcation of the dichotomies ass at eet heel dies (2) Granting (fo the moment) that nondintive changes ase ot observed by ait language uses, Why mus the ing ccessaly have "an enormous mass of mechani fonds to dering, lt ut say, a subgeoaps ofa spech commuaity difer coset in he tof alopiones such a {x verse [2 o [] verus[R]? Inter ‘words, whit deductive resons ate thet to belive tat aondtncine ‘ariation i eecesarlyinconsiseat oe infnitesial, so hat phone + Webi (96:52). Carpeoingreeumlaoscold be whet A Ther of Lagoa Change am returns of enormaue mass of recordings ate requted for is detection (b) If the explanation of changes in phoneme stare sets ‘he disincton between continuous phonetic behavior and dxcentins ‘oe phonemes, how enn we eisge + ied theory which would 0 encom grammar, where the nondistintive elements (mars) a ‘ot continua?” ‘But ceprlesof whether or not thes torts die an be ironed ot, we ae blige to take note of emt eidence which Alsronfie the idetfcton ofthe analaly dice wih he ‘isorialydveret andthe pptholosely conscious, Ths the gly sbponemie repacent of lingaal by wala rn many European Tnngunger mt have taken plc y dice tps (Hoergsvald 1960 73); moreover, the daribton ofthe two aia is ao mau the table one tat their noniaintvense would ply. Ast awa fs we dnd tha spears in many puts ofthe Ud Stes ate ‘euzencly seastive 10 sbphosemic vara of /8/ and // and qui to sige the nonstandard age of others. Siniuly, the b> pMhoemie rising of the vowels of of, lat in New York Ciy is + [ner of eteme selvity anda subject of auch overt comment and cowtecion informal styl. On the ostary, the sweeping change in the repertory of phonemes which resulted from this proces—the los of datz baween iae~sbore, lipe—lare—is quite unnaied nd scams to evke ao sol evaluation (Labov 1965, 196). When ‘ee see compare shnce of soil avatens ofthe olecece af poemes ilstated by the rstve merger of cot~eanpl, Back ~ ‘2h tects cd ave ben ae grin Pra. Nonitintne inn ea Ee Shc En, (48185 hh fis fart orate es lingiet have lite formation atau‘awk thoghost large sections ofthe Waited Sates, we are forced 0 ‘conclude th there is no corzltion between social pecepton and Sacra satus ‘A serous wesnest in the empl foundations ofthe various theories of gait change cansdeed hee stems from ther auto mati rellance upon cognitive function a6 the pre dteminant of linguistic Bevin. The ssumlion Oat petefion was determined only by conse (morpdtingishiag) units was never based ‘po sound empirical foundation, bu eather pon alge umber of nconroled (asco) ebserations of cass where perception did ‘match phonemic tegci. A growing body of evidence fram con trolled soclingaiic nde inate at perception i indeed con trolled by nga strate; but ti a tecture shih includes nt nly units defined by conestine faction but also units dein by thei slic rol, and thei power to identify the speaker's member ship a's specie abgeoup ofthe community (Hes 1962; Labow 1966) Tatu sce next wht explanatory onsite were found by his focal linguists in the contstive fanction of phonemes which con teat fo the sluion of the endaton problem. This fancton mate itl, fr one thing, why phonemer shold be eadered 3 a part tu posible (de Groot 1931), and this in ar auggeted why asbiting nee shoud "repel its neighbor inthe system if mergers were fo be prevented (Hil 1936), inthis mater, Pal hed azgued the opposite [Nowhere is any texted forthe pusotion of + sunt ange. For how inated a ot re aa tht ef sything of the Kind pe set ater al hy candi i hi ah cht they Seedy 2 hy [poli ystsgalt h wlpa t ane way he nd of ha ye 38) ‘To the exten that Pal was doug the likelihood of anyone chang ing a spacoaie poetic ral, one may go along with hin; but of ‘cause a his concpval framework the asiertonastamatialy cried ‘over fo hisorel procaes a+ well, and ia so ding it became too seeping, Other obseres were beginning to see matters diferent Gilson understood he cash of homonyms st 3 eancinal pe A Thar of Lanes Coens ws nomenon for which language wers hid “Uherpentic™ consti sable to them. Marti iterate the views of eer foresanes witha tematic union in phonetic, and broadened the pats logy therpr oncpton fom individual words o whole ses of words Atingised by purtcla phonemic opposition. Out ainctent century predecessors woud have been hottied a this teleological way of thinking; Martie’ statement of "prophylactic" aversion fo pho nie merges appeared more plaushleto sacral ings, since he ula’ the cone ofthe morph distinguishing function of he pho remesaerthn speaker! cmos efforts tostid minndestandings (9s3:41-44), For all the dysfoncionaliy of homonym cashes and mass word merger the eofescrace of plage i lentil atte in the i toy of languages. To prevent the preseratin of cones mechs from explaicing too mach, Matinee adapted Mather concept (1931) of “fontonl yield” at a kindof vaiable contveness (1953:54-39).Tevashopad that the theory woud then permit op postions from lw functional yield to clase wi stil explaining {he peers of high ed oppositions ‘Ths, Martine pt forward one pesive explanation for the fact. ‘that many changer scr in gro osequener—a fat ht fas ted een ingus Fan Ras snd Grime om bt which wa quite bythe bes of them ou ofa wound mis of "abstractions oof mysticism in histor, Manne, morcone, solved «lage pat of the Dumle of "uncondtioneé” sound cnnges: the principle of sya Fai conteat sow fund a peed counterpart, na sya "exe (in P's tems) ould now be matched bys thoroghiy pau ‘ble notion of "paradigmatic ease” (Maine 1955:39-62). ‘Bue it would be unforvoste if Marie’ achiewerents wee tobe acre asdefining the overall famework forthe explanation of linguistic change. The week of Mouton (1961, 1962) and some find ings of Labow (1966) ave provided ental foundations for aay (of Martioe’s cacasions which stengben the les eld evident _Biven by Martie himself od his student, Bat even within Mactine' "amewor, there i 8 need for deal alse to eake important er ley eh or cama Mai ws teconcepts emore pie and slable, Th, the concept of functional Field nec 2 rent deal of rofement. There are few guantialive ‘tis easing om i and thy afer fom azther oacow conception (ofthe Fee in which conte important oe communication mist be tained, The take ether sinplied approach to language by cal- ‘using the vet of oppsions ang minimal irs tered a8 iso: Fated lsc tes, Ofer sti of fonesional ld hve lo ered by ‘tng to narrow an environmental fame (Following and preceding denen), making i inpordble to dea with sich phenomena 28 “peeing,” vowel barony, wat, of "preconsonantl." We have cre reso to expe! at tations peobiies among phonemes hd the sync context (et lone te siatonal cae) funsh vast nous of redundancy which variously dima the vale ofa on tes and we fel that ore cormles mesures offancional led will hve tobe worked out and vlad before thishighly steve ation is abandons Ferguson (1959) has suggestd that the grammatical stractare of. the lowers merber of two language inthe gloss” ration, ‘hat the vate of language sedi ss oral situations, wll lly show fener dinetions. As far as phonology is concerned, he indicate tat he lowerstts stem the asc oe, wh the higher sas spite best understood as» sabe or purse ofthe lower ‘Weaow have empire evidence to show tin ene specch omy the mot highly tematic phonology, which shows the pocees of linguistic evolution mot ley, the one asd in ema spec wth th minum umber of dininetions ad the maximam coatetul support Ta the lng and ingliiog system of vowels ia New York Girls ech, one can Sad examples to suppor seven membered Sere of contain he most frmal spec Thus we hae: earl /iy moored /oh/ bared /eh/ sted /ohy ad ah fared /sh/ Bored phy but he fms to suppor i tm are produced in mot regu 18 pecetng oi lowing spent sacs ore A Thor Langweg Chae ws snd unrdable manner, On the other hand, the mos spotencous Speech (among lowermiddleclat spears) wild avery teglar system the forms eas bard bad /ik/ mooted, bored /ub/ Sire fah/ fred /2h/ snd this stem the produc of «regular snd ronal ross of i _uistic evolution (Labov 1965: 9.565). Apparel there ate ot ‘tio forces i igi ange which ia tide roughshod ovr any ‘eodengj to preserve cngiivedisintions, “The consequence of tee findings mst eb ito the Fuatioa yield concep and lato a contest preserving explanation of seca ln- ‘age change “Another example: the ancestor ofthe Vidi dst of Central an Eastern Eutope dainguished lng and short high-eomt adi bck vowels 4, In Sothern Yad the bck ees was fronted to merge with the froat vowels; in Northeastern Yih the Jong vowels merged with hi covespundiag shor oes, Wet aver Proto Vidih s ney. - ain ee ee 7 “a (en) “it Now, it could ave been segue (in an amity ale manner) thatthe factional yield permite eadh two-way merger, but not 8 four-way merger (Weineich 1958). Even thi cla explsation," however, is now invalid by fresh enpisal eden, The met ‘ecet research (Herapg 1963:211 f, 1968) bas trod up two ares Jn which ll vowel ave merged ito a uniform i (se Fig 1): one in Now Central Pound heathen the Nother Uke. ns ut, fartes, ht ia the reson surrounding the second arena shit‘Figuc. Intncon of fa ~1/ ad loot tng noes iach Vidh of Norra Poland of $F in gropraphiccamplemeatary distsbution with the fall falls of xs and 7s, t would appese tht sill 6th source of # vowels (producing, eg, fuer hemenyn wih zn Yo sot < *22n) ‘would hve been foo much, Inthe theory of funcional ils 5 Ea Formulated, we fnd no basis For pediting that the merger en in [Notteen Polish Yih was pombe or tht the merger of Ukrainian ‘Yash was pose only on condition tat *# > Fd not also ake ce ‘The Vddsh Atlas, designed fom the begianig to bear on roby Jems of ths hind, suming up lange amounts of relevent merle from phoooogy wells grammar and lsc east, Fi alo worth ating tha the nya preven theory con tributes itl othe Slatin ofthe "actuation idle.” I sof couse, ceatily proper to leave room for “fate eee,” and coe i on tiled to hope tht in some (privileged) cae, deep sod of language ste wll expat only why 2 change tok place a cern tine ina cern direction, but luo why it id ne tle place sooner. Mart ‘eiscertaily right in aying(1955:62) ata inguist shoul ot be Alivented fom hs search for canes bythe complexity ofthe problems Inti soot ea thats theory bas upon the functonl yield of cop itv const aa provide the machinery for asesing the fll com ply of use eitions within phonological rune. We noe that the mechani of ordered rules developed within» generative fame ‘work, whichis aot dependent upon ast of contesting ut at any level Tower tan the lel level, does oe ich eld fr searching out such dep sated eaone between speccaly unconnected pe ‘omen, But seme to ue uniely tat the actuation problem will, teally yield to patly secur inveiptions and we expe that thei cotibton willbe conned wo the task of ating Littons and clocdatng-~in part—the mechani of langage change Sluoos {0 the actuation problem mat he expect from aie deco 22 Guanousniea: Sntcrene Revisions of anja gramamaticl theory hav, agin expel, led toa reclsitio of historia events on recor To take a a8 cuample the bestdened post Paulian astm of pranmaticl anl )--Blooneldin morphemir—we find the histor consquencsofthe etic ditions developed sytmatialy by Hoenisvald (1960). We may expect similar exteasins of gentative grammar to the desciption of hizoral evens. Among iavestiations aiming a fxplatation ther thn snp description, two Hines of theo ‘ron tes maybe led The it iecoonected wih the formulation icing byseteptcrs relying te search for uaiverls is the Homboitian vison U3 the langues of the woe, ia al thee morphological vay are de sige to perfor th ame syetctie gals. Thi sight gies athe steal foundation to eich dings the one thatthe loss of ease in ace Indo-European languages has ben compen fe syste. ‘A ccctbly ich i of grammatical univers as Ben proposed by Grenterg (19636); they aze mally concerned with word or der, Reel (1966), be has tare tothe examization of the ds ‘oa impiations of rich waives, wth promising eeu, Fur thermore, be has taken » major sepia testing certain sjcheonic ‘univers which Fai the tt of asst spchric application, by ‘caamining terol a determiaats of the dictions of change. Foe ‘cumple, he ha investigated the im that semsntcly marked ‘icgotes (nominative) wll end to be morphologically wacked, nd semutiallymatked categories morphologically macke. Although there are many dou counterexamples in Slavic oun decesins, his review of hisorial developments in Cech show tht any ches ‘which di take place i the last few centres were ia the detion ried by this ule, Two important modes of oweigation ae ind fated by Greenberg’ work: (1) the eaigcaton though empirical ‘mein ofthe absect chim that sychronie systems have "dynamic" tendencies (ese Matervs 1912), and (2) the use of quantatve maths to seplace anecdotal evidence and persuasive argument ‘Though Greenberg bas not prevented aay overall theory of langage structure ot linghage hangs bis woe sonehelss etrenely i ptt forte empiric foundations of sada theory ‘We are encouraged by Greenberg's use of quntitetive methods and hie abit tooo signet wens in stacue. Atte sme tne, Tyo Lanna Change one must admit at he s neces confined to surface truce at the lowest level of seliality which comma to the descriptions of Tunguages salle to hin, It ssometinesargoed that one ist are eas ‘ange scout PProalshave tobe ‘tremely cial of Greenergs workmanlike procedures But one right ave that sme of the more lating conto to inaistics hase heen in the Frm of pani explanatins of limited ses of ln _goge, wile comprehensive theories which attempted to acount for ‘sething have at shown the same longer. We might si turn ‘whee any allembracing theory an be erected at this tine witout ‘height which jes new dats and new methods, Fo tbe historian, {46 validated nivel boomer 2 constrait on pssblechnges fn language: However, tmnst be adit a far gemma nivale have provide language wih an overlong hori tether that is cerved to ste to raz ats, tbe univers especially ‘hove envisaged by Chay, ae wo baad that we ar ley ad ‘se of aging langage which age approaching a poible "vals ie.” Bat of course ths ype of Haus investigation ion in is infuey, andthe future poosbie are quteunsorepble “The second lie of work refeted to above stems from a dese to cece the vcs of the Nengrammarian doctrine of slog. lathe ‘oman offeregulse morphephnnemic alters, Pal 254 his con temporcseberved much unpredictable change, whidh they cls fad we "analogical." Bat asthe erica of Neogeunmarianiom were ‘ik to pot out, “analogy” san alternative to exceptonles sound Ins not only was self aa oe expeation bat als converted the sound lw itl nt an ad concept. (Ir amsing ad instcive to Sind Onto inthe very olume whore reac became th Neogan ‘marian qanifeso, “explo” some dunges in Grek numerals with the mot fancfl and aritary apps fo analogy) Paal was well are that "since «Form ci, by vite of spe, Belong seer lasses, it spol to derive the enaiing sacited fons fom i tccording to diferent peoportions” (p. 114). OF the vias posse Aevelopnenss, Pal therefore suis, a for follows that proportion svhich hs the grester “power” (Mart). Bat since he suggested 20tsa for independenly teting the “power” of = propotion, the frgomeot is completly cla the ce, ine wamatiate, an be known ony trough it fe looted, despite dhe beet of lscaer of addtional roar in bis disasion of analogical change ‘ld report no progres ove Pal ee aeopls fo tematic Linguist experince with snlogy ‘were made after Woeld War I by Kerlowice (1919) tad Maca (1988); they ate conveniently sammaszed by Lebnana (1962:188— 192), The genera ules ormulated by hese hoa, wth a consider able by of documented evidence, provide new framework whet previously here was mostly disorder “Another may out of the fre forall of analogy was sought by Frei (1529) and Baly (eg, 1944). Inthe paterning of mistakes co smite sist nome French grammar, the Geer scholars looked for evidence of dysfunctional ast nthe ase agrnt which the ‘waves of change had begun t ap. This material would be partly ‘worthy of reconsideration ft coal be extended cover 3 vay of alec in acl web agen poplin. 2.3, Ancunts ReLarzD 10 Lone‘Tens TRexos ‘We have sea that paris hioral datum changes tats when itis viewed inthe Framework of diferente of language ‘Thay, the footing of (a ia German unit) constates a signi icant change a 00 it appeat—ina theory inaoent of phonemic rom a phonemic peat of ew, tis Fontiog is overridden ini pone bythe los of the context conn (high front vowels i {he following lable). Esamples oul be nliplicd and eamied at wil, ‘A given datum may also acquie feshsignicance if views mot ‘hough a liferent theory of language scr, but as put of = Aifeentlong ange tend, As Mei pt Langue change pt hit meaning ei one ns the whale of the Arelpnt of hic they ate pts the same cna has am bolle ‘ier gee depeating ete pcs wh 8 ana i ‘eves eit try eli lead of» condensin of gee sem ofthe lngge a which apps (190611) “The concept of dif endows the ary of language with a mesingtl lt ta play enh the sane role a a rend iatadaced bya i ‘ovum into the retelling of 2 sequence of scopalita happenings. ‘Considered by tf for fstane, the ctstionberween cased jective wba and tbo in English is bu anothe case of llanoeph sles; ba on, Sapir sew i (1921), a5 8 confit betwen tuende—moverent of interogatives to iil postion verse spe ian woed onder for the seve ooun plies of etence—thi aca ston i comer ito Che asta ofa fong drama and endows it with feormoct pent. “Ar ile, log-enge trends have ben formelted for on laagunge oc language group st a ine. An example of sichly documented e plorton ofthis type i Malkin paper "Dachronic Hypentharce- tation in Romance” (1957-1938), i which polsemods entities ae Showa to have split again and agin nt pair of sgn wit seperate Signiants (eg Lat. 5 "on, ons ita French lion/ione) ‘Malkiel secs ow fo be quite right when he ocd thatthe say ofa tend such as lypecharaceiatio “endows with rch meaning proces which, view in ltion tv traitonall bee anissad St insignan (p36), and tht thre noting incompatible be trees the documentation of sch a trend and any scepted pecs Of Linguine thor. On snr grounds, we can appreciate Zen ‘kis work on long drm tends in Geran a i Germanic (1938), (One wonder, however, wheter the trends this died weal ot in in theoretical sgnfance i tey were dan fom sme independently smatvted "hell of poibe rend, ater tan dette eatately fareach group of languages hou dat pen tobe within the prep ofa gives historian (ao mater ow inspised). Tha is tos, despite ‘he stemtining vale ofthese long range tends did within thie separate Fld one has the feling hat they wll rain ara 10 2 tonphensve theory of laaguage unas we cas formula ete ‘ye of eas 2 arqnge Changs uw 2.4, Disrocrive Features a Ptowotocicat CHAN ‘The impestion of « putty funcional conception ofthe phoneme onto the history of sound change often led to tanger adel ‘hange like ta aafast qualify as» lnguiaic change bscane the repertory of po nemes (ne the "irate" had not bom fected fer the change, there wer sil tre phonemes, in one-one corespondence with he thee before the change (ef. ill 1936:15; Hockat 1958:380). Such 1 purl funtion view contended tha the phootic elation of he Ceodrstve anit wa indent strsure nt tery obser the Strudurl dnc ofthe mast tematic legal Sound Sil’ The ‘ica canbe eoidd, homever, if we follow instead the Page texion of understanding the phoneme not onlin tems of is more Altinihingfanetion, bat so in terme of ity distinctive fatte racer (Weise 1960:330) “Applied to the Mistry of languages, the sac understanding ‘F phoncnes again had, sis fist conequenee, «reclassification of tensa changer. In the paper aleady referred to, Jakobson (1931) foemulited a third ype of change in addition to phoneme merger and Phoneme splt—renterpeetaton of ponemes (sepboaoogiation). I ecime posible to show how an opposton remained invariant while the meats ofits implementation changed: for example, the sit of Indo-European tpt and nonatpires to a crtrpodig ple of series of voied and vise consonants, The very formulation sich ‘change was beyond the capbilty at ony of Pau’ thory, but lo OF + purly contrive phonemic meproented by Hock (1958), ‘where te phonetic raeation of the unite cated no actual ig fan, ‘More subaantaladvsocs inthe diachronic appiation of dn Livefeturethaoy were made, agai by Marine Fire, he enriched ‘he concept of "ephonologintion” by x more fully developed and mplyillastateddoctine of he preseration of wseful Features (6, 1935:186-187, 199-211), Eren mor important was is deveopeent of what had lng fcinated and pussed ngsist-—the sjmmety of ‘ound gptems. The Neopranmatins were miststfal of i=in {hey sev danger of mystieation aad could nt gute came to ers with the fact har “all nguages display cera harmony ofthe sound Sytem (Pal, p57), stil Severs ofered = physiological expan ns a diferent rot postion of the organ in speakers of diferent Iinguage. Sieve” contemporaie welcomed this empiial bas fr A They of Language Change 1 the paling ammeter anptal evidence ha ot sind the ai hg sch 2 rot postion enol wo proceed os seni decpenest nutes, and it mts Manet who stampted& maj explanaorS step by aguing thet the conic batwea he asymmetrical geomety of the sph ongens and the (presumably) peopl econo of ride aid sgarens for thse which ms be inlaed in any xplantion of linguistic cnge, even i til eaves the actuation ‘ddl untouched. ‘The development ofan fate theory so mae it possible forthe fist tine not el to characterize und pts in tens of presence or lek of eatin sounds (or oond classes), ut als to sug (Bet accestyimpliotions for example i laaguage as afte, it Til aio hare herorginic rare, The mest ambitions along these lines Jabvess (1941), aad inthe atmosphere ofa fvving intrest ia univers of language, the serch for impliaton seemed to be the en promising line of workin phonology (eg, Ferguson 1963). OF cout, the it of wali plications stil ext shay, ‘otha asp tows alleged universal constraints on recbastue oa (eg, Jkabson 1958) remain highly controversial (ct 8. W. Alles discson, hi.) Bat the posites along these lines a soe far From exe, 2.41, Gaivenative Prosovocy ano THe Econony oF Gaaancans Asinallthe caer previouly tet the development of anew format of linguistic dexripion—"genetive phonology” (Hille 1959, 1962)-implies a resttement snd eeaacaton of changes loog sco. aprticula, the formation of phonetic olundanciesintems of ordre rls makes it psi to drt the diferences Between ‘ome phonologial tes in tems ofthe sme males dierely oF dered! (Hille 1962; Keyser 1965; Saport 1963). Caetspondingy tnd prdiably, sme changes can aw Be dscebed as eeversls of‘onder among exiting rules. Thee was time when sound changes ‘ere being selasied under the hadigs of "addition of phones to the inventory, deletion of phonemes, snbtiaion of phere, ‘eaipontinn of phonemes” We presume tat «repetition ofthis si plist exercise in relation to ales (addin, eeion) is ant be ‘aken athe chef contrition of generative theory to histori lin ‘istics. For seazdes ofthe mars of generative phonology i the Aesciption of language changes, ts ar more important to sce whethee it oes any new pespctine inthe expleetion of changes, ‘Thesoat general statement ofthe application of generative phono ogy to histor explanation i il that of Hale (1962); ta served the point of departure fora sumer of recent dcusons of his torical change( eg, Coss 1985 on syotes)- Many of the ses eed ‘by Halle are bah onstictive and petting, yet esidertion of he ‘pirical foundations of Halles viewpoint revel serious casts fr ‘orern, We argue (§1.23 and elewbere) tt the generative model forthe description of language at homogeneos obj i esl unreal and we oatend tha tise pinto constrict they ‘of change which aceps as input descpions of language ats at te uae to fat and unneceaily elie! We nll ow tke up tine aspects of Halles argument which iltate these lations mos deny: (1) the aston ofthe india! paentto cid el ‘ioship from the speech commu, ad the eof this eltonhip 5 model of lingastic change; (2) the sation of pei hist developments fr thei socal contest; and (3) the application of Altice features to cancel examples of change in phoaclogial ue, (1) The prenrtoedild model of linguistic charge. Hale's ap roach to what we hve lle! the ation problem (se §3.1 ad 1) postulates “discontnitis ia the gramme of seve ea tations (1962-65) and cites Meile’s pall views on thi point. Halles coaception acai ites the individual spear lneer snd the individual pueatmodel fom the spc communi. The mechanism he proposed To guise change might be diagramed follows: Parcs gear Adkton of c Pacts tre bras Fart model gamut — cites sysem Chis cael renme ic yo inivihas (or of «homogeneous comma {ssp a individ ude «group labs) Furthermore i ‘ee tht eileen do retocare tt grammars 20k one, Dt times, a they mare (Miler na Evin 1964; Bell 1967). Batt model depends upon the uaczamisedasampion thatthe cig il is continually Being restated dung is redolent yas ‘on the mode of hi pee group, Care studies of preadolecent Feet [Eup show ha the child mally acquies his particular dialect Putter, including rset changes, from children only slightly olde than himself Ta the light ofthis cosiderstion, iis apse tht Hale's mode ‘Gt aglih—hat English ws not tee face aire nna ‘emacaae of New York Cy (Labo 1966). There ee two stuntions whet ett GS he net oes a brn he ad {oc stldng and coeeton (x ator 198)Jeeses many questions unanswered. Does the added cule oviinte sithin the community? Do al pens the comma athe ale? TE nt, what happens when a cul fram = ful tha assed the fale seas to chil from 5 family without i The altratve it ‘ions imple here would wndobtedy aft the couse of inguitic Change in dierent ways, which cannot be antiated within Halles framework. He, like Pal, pots « dicrtees of generations which ‘anee be supported unless one ignores the fc thst cen dere thei language inpt from many sears, I we now sappose tha he pledolecen cud can coseut and consi 2 snplest gramnae {bis experience grows ts apptene at secur changes profaced by his pares lt ule adton may neve ape inthe cl’ nal Mace grammar, The very far thatthe child can resraate his ‘rama means hatter i ite point i looking athe pata as fitge atthe model for change ia the cls grammar, Radial dit ferences between putt and child are then oot evidence ofthe ds. 1963, 1966). Thee investigations have devrbed changes tht continue a the sme de: tion over several genetins. Pesstence inthe dietion of dange sugges thet there changes ae vaabler which have been eralated the sume way by the ech commas ver «considerable period of tine (sce $3.3). A continaous proces of transfer within the pee ‘group, Hen cilsensighlly older to clea slighty young, oaten with sch midaleaage developments; bu propa forthe tom erating of the parent dt by the ld do nt show any sn my he pros weld be epee in mci gee A Theory of Largnee Cos Pa (2) Applicaion obit exmples, When Halle dels wi 30 cual Istecal example, the ilating character of his tsie mode merges cren more prominently, Hating seated the individual speaker from his group, Halle deve stucut angurments to relate sen individuals (idiolets), without eeatd for the historia idence ailableon the proces of change within the sesh com munity. He discs the case of Ely Modera English in metre ta an example of 2 mutation in the onder ofthe rales which op erate upoa aa undying stature peserved from calor ger Of thelingange 1st Ut stents of English have been purl for some tine bythe apparent reveal of a completed merge: in extly stent century London, the ward dase of mate and meet had apparent ‘merged and were oppose oth ls of meet bat in the seventeenth eatuy the stem emerged i its modern oe with nate oped 0 nea ad net 1 " (ast cetey) —< i ute Hille ss this example to argue thi merger at the (catativ orb unique) phen Leel ino reversible Bat his example—no mat ter how hypetscal lave foc in the ight ofthe ch erence broghe forward by Wyld (1936) and Kobe (1955), whic some thatthe Stems T and I allemst in Landon for * consider Pesid, and tht thesia sigacane ofthe cstersative ad innova ng role mast have Been well knowa t mst Londoner. In Shakes ‘ontinoas generations although this herd seems cmmtnt with Halle’ te ‘Ee thik of seve ee aamining haptic eae ocpeas teats, for sample, Kohat Gads ample support forthe notion ‘hat the conservative sts was identi with reed and atc ‘peas ell koowa tothe London comment, 20 debe, a Re ‘ved Pronuaiation of the BBC i o Londoaes today Such spake ts must master both the old snd the pew sites, a lens in thse Toth Tana I (Hale's eles [14) and [22-28]). Sarl an empl solution to the tistion problem mt take precedence ver arg ‘ments heed on the manipulation of isolated structures: 1 ignore (3) Application of dine fatre tery 10 09nd sits ob- served in progrtn, Stair of phoologcl changes in progress uae that Halle’ propo ape nado in ot being able to scout foe frequently obueved made of trnsion, We have coasderble quan titive evidence to show that there i cose coataon beween the movement of low vowels ins feat-and tuck decton sod mi vowels ‘ovig to hghce or lwer poston, Mouton (1962) showed that the psition ofthe low-cnter vowel ia Swi lets wa a Function fof the snictte of mide and lowid-vowels ia the Fro! nd Inde Seren, Labor (1986:529-535) esublished tat i single spech ecm he potion of /h/ we arom determined by thee: ative heights of mid-vowels /ch/ and fh. These qualitative ela ‘ions imply the steady movement of a vowel slag one dipenson ia ‘ordination with ther vowels moving along ober dmensions—over ‘evel genertioas. Quiltative evidence of any recently comple ‘hangs suggest the ime aterm in Yiddish dines, dhe silts > J [> sland > ware sstemataly related (Herzog 1965:170); in ‘many American dst, we God sina on-going pocesss of the fronting of /ab/ with secompanyiag raising of toward /eh/* eval ad Chg A ieonrald Besos pete for mpl we lod hat New Yara ay it foe ea CEC) aC Theory of Langer Change 1” “Tis evidence shows that the mechanism of change isa «sudden subtition or atin of higher-level rae, butter the applaton ‘ofa continsous function co phnolgia pace alee where con ingous values are pose. Furthermore it shows thatthe trod mensional model ofthe vowel quadrngle, based on aria po sions of the oagus, provides the framework within which such changes operate, and tt dict mautrements of ditance betwee Tow and midwowels are « factor ia the tle operating (20 §33 alow). However, the dtintivefestute framework in whch Halles ‘opening roles the phoooogial sac it independent dimensions [None ofthe dedntonr of gravity and compactness provided so far vill gir us a theoretical motion forthe ovation of enya onpactness among consonants, and no sch evidence Is spent. ‘Thus ifthe hstorzn of language soald ace the ditinive feature nats, he loses the possibly of describing i coherent way series of shifts moving around the periphery of the vel specail Despite the thee intaton disassed above, there emai a tong ime appl in Halle’ view ofthe role of cles ruleforming [vor in language change. We aaa ignore the cbioos pin that redolent dlden do consti pana independenty and may ‘esructure them maey tes, Bu the parent ld iypothes cca Inter thin dies de empiseal queion a to whether change scam tinvus or diseninans, Te eal pont fr examinations whee swe ean lonte aay linge dcontinlty in the sucesion of 350 soups given community, Sicha realistic investigation of dconinty can paced from & theotticl model which oasauets grammars for hetero genes speech omemuites. We argue that while linguist change isin proses fm arsic and an ia s (2 $3.3 blow). I we adopt a view sau to Stutean’s (1595 (Chap Vil), we would expert soil sgnifance tobe eventually a tsbutel to the opposition ofthe two fomns. A sme point the sol td linguists are reroll together, wen the opposition ing gi) ons of hing ca hi Trin seaized 5 Chem) .