Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Everyday Practical Electronics - 2000 - 05
Everyday Practical Electronics - 2000 - 05
Everyday Practical Electronics - 2000 - 05
May 2000
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, Febuary 1999 - www.epemag.com - XXX
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Copyright 2000, Wimborne Publishing Ltd
and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc.,
PO Box 857, Madison, Alabama 35758, USA
All rights reserved.
WARNING!
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best efforts in preparing these materials and works. However, Maxfield & Montrose
Interactive Inc and Wimborne Publishing Ltd make no warranties of any kind, expressed
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disclaim any responsibility for the safe and proper functioning of reader-constructed
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Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 334
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Established 1990
QUASAR ELECTRONICS
Unit 14 Sunningdale, BISHOPS STORTFORD, Herts. CM23 2PA
SURVEILLANCE
High performance surveillance bugs. Room transmitters supplied with sensitive electret microphone & battery holder/clip. All trans-
TEL: 01279 306504 FAX: 0870 7064222 mitters can be received on an ordinary VHF/FM radio between 88-108MHz. Available in Kit Form (KT) or Assembled & Tested (AS).
ADD £2.00 P&P to all orders (or 1st Class Recorded £4, Next day ROOM SURVEILLANCE TELEPHONE SURVEILLANCE
* MTX - MINIATURE 3V TRANSMITTER * MTTX - MINIATURE TELEPHONE TRANSMITTER
(Insured £250) £7, Europe £4.00, Rest of World £6.00). We accept all Easy to build & guaranteed to transmit 300m @ 3V. Long bat- Attaches anywhere to phone line. Transmits only when phone
major credit cards. Make cheques/PO's payable to Quasar Electronics. tery life. 3-5V operation. Only 45x18mm. * 3007KT £5.95 is used! Tune-in your radio and hear both parties. 300m range.
Prices include 17.5% VAT. MAIL ORDER ONLY AS3007 £10.95 Uses line as aerial & power source. 20x45mm. 3016KT £7.95
FREE CATALOGUE with order or send 2 x 1st class stamps MRTX - MINIATURE 9V TRANSMITTER AS3016 £13.95
(refundable) for details of over 150 kits & publications. Our best selling bug. Super sensitive, high power - 500m range * TRI - TELEPHONE RECORDING INTERFACE
@ 9V (over 1km with 18V supply and better aerial). 45x19mm. Automatically record all conversations. Connects between
3018KT £6.95 AS3018 £11.95 phone line & tape recorder (not supplied). Operates recorders
PROJECT KITS
OUR PROJECT KITS COME COMPLETE WITH ALL COMPONENTS,
HPTX - HIGH POWER TRANSMITTER
High performance, 2 stage
transmitter gives greater
with 1.5-12V battery systems. Powered from line. 50x33mm.
3033KT £7.95 AS3033 £16.95
* TPA - TELEPHONE PICK-UP AMPLIFIER/WIRELESS
stability & higher quality PHONE BUG
HIGH QUALITY PCBs, DETAILED ASSEMBLY/OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS reception. 1000m range 6- Place pick-up coil on the phone line or near phone earpiece
12V DC operation. Size and hear both sides of the conversation. 3055KT £10.95
* 2 x 25W CAR BOOSTER AMPLIFIER Connects to SPEED CONTROLLER for any common DC motor up 70x15mm. 3032KT £8.95 AS3055 £19.95
the output of an existing car stereo cassette player, to 100V/5A. Pulse width modulation gives maximum AS3032 £17.95 * 1 WATT FM TRANSMITTER Easy to construct. Delivers a
CD player or radio. Heatsinks provided. PCB torque at all speeds. 5-15VDC. Box provided. 3067KT * MMTX - MICRO-MINIATURE 9V TRANSMITTER crisp, clear signal. Two-stage circuit. Kit includes microphone
76x75mm. 1046KT. £24.95 £10.95 The ultimate bug for its size, performance and price. Just and requires a simple open dipole aerial. 8-30VDC. PCB
* 1W+1W STEREO AMPLIFIER MODULE Uses * 3 x 8 CHANNEL IR RELAY BOARD Control eight 12V/1A 15x25mm. 500m range @ 9V. Good stability. 6-18V operation. 42x45mm. 1009KT £14.95
Samsung KA2209 IC (equivalent to the TDA2822) relays by Infra Red (IR) remote control over a 20m range in 3051KT £7.95 AS3051 £13.95 * 4 WATT FM TRANSMITTER Comprises three RF
designed for portable cassette players & radios. 1.8- sunlight. 6 relays turn on only, the other 2 toggle on/off. 3 oper- * VTX - VOICE ACTIVATED TRANSMITTER stages and an audio preamplifier stage. Piezoelectric
9VDC. PCB 35x50mm. 3087KT £4.25 ation ranges determined by jumpers. Transmitter case & all Operates only when sounds detected. Low standby current. microphone supplied or you can use a separate pream-
* 10W+10W STEREO AMPLIFIER MODULE Uses components provided. Receiver PCB 76x89mm. 3072KT Variable trigger sensitivity. 500m range. Peaking circuit sup- plifier circuit. Antenna can be an open dipole or Ground
TDA2009 class audio power amp IC designed for high £44.95 plied for maximum RF output. On/off switch. 6V operation. Only Plane. Ideal project for those who wish to get started in
quality stereo applications. 8-28VDC. PCB 45x80mm. * PC CONTROLLED RELAY BOARD 63x38mm. 3028KT £9.95 AS3028 £22.95 the fascinating world of FM broadcasting and want a
Convert any 286 upward PC into a dedicated HARD-WIRED BUG/TWO STATION INTERCOM good basic circuit to experiment with. 12-18VDC. PCB
3088KT £9.95
Each station has its own amplifier, speaker and mic. Can be 44x146mm. 1028KT. £23.95
* 18W BTL AUDIO AMPLIFIER MODULE Low volt- automatic controller to independently turn on/off
up to eight lights, motors & other devices around set up as either a hard-wired bug or two-station intercom. 10m * 15 WATT FM TRANSMITTER (PRE-ASSEMBLED &
age, high power mono 18W BTL amp using HA13118 x 2-core cable supplied. 9V operation. 3021KT £13.95 (kit
the home, office, laboratory or factory using 8 TESTED) Four transistor based stages with Philips BLY
IC. Delivers 14W into 4 Ohm’s (1% THD) with 13.2V form only)
240VAC/12A onboard relays. DOS utilities, sample 88 in final stage. 15 Watts RF power on the air. 88-
supply. Thermal/surge protection. 8-18VDC. Heatsink * TRVS - TAPE RECORDER VOX SWITCH 108MHz. Accepts open dipole, Ground Plane, 5/8, J, or
provided. PCB 57x55mm. 3105KT £8.95 test program, full-featured Windows utility & all Used to automatically operate a tape recorder (not supplied) YAGI configuration antennas. 12-18VDC. PCB
* 3-CHANNEL WIRELESS LIGHT MODULATOR components (except cable) provided. 12VDC. PCB via its REMOTE socket when sounds are detected. All conver- 70x220mm. SWS meter needed for alignment. 1021KT
No electrical connection with amplifier. Light modula- 70x200mm. 3074KT £29.95 sations recorded. Adjustable sensitivity & turn-off delay. £69.95
tion achieved via a sensitive electret microphone. * 2 CHANNEL UHF RELAY SWITCH Contains the 115x19mm. 3013KT £7.95 AS3013 £19.95 * SIMILAR TO ABOVE BUT 25W Output. 1028KT £79.95
Separate sensitivity control per channel. Power hand- same transmitter/receiver pair as 30A15 below plus
ing 400W/channel. PCB 54x112mm. Mains powered. the components and PCB to control two
Box provided. 6014KT £24.90 240VAC/10A relays (also supplied). Ultra bright * STEREO VU METER shows peak music power * 3V/1·5V TO 9V BATTERY CONVERTER Replace
* 12 RUNNING LIGHT EFFECT Exciting 12 LED LEDs used to indicate relay status. 3082KT £26.95 using 2 rows of 10 LED’s (mixed green & red) expensive 9V batteries with economic 1.5V batter-
light effect ideal for parties, discos, shop-windows & * TRANSMITTER RECEIVER PAIR 2-button keyfob moving bar display. 0-30db. 3089KT £10.95 ies. IC based circuit steps up 1 or 2 ‘AA’ batteries to
eye-catching signs. PCB design allows replacement style 300-375MHz Tx with 30m range. Receiver * AM RADIO KIT 1 Tuned Radio Frequency front- give 9V/18mA. 3035KT £4.95
of LEDs with 220V bulbs by inserting 3 TRIACs. encoder module with matched decoder IC. end, single chip AM radio IC & 2 stages of audio * STABILISED POWER SUPPLY 3-30V/2.5A Ideal
Adjustable rotation speed & direction. PCB Components must be built into a circuit like kit 3082 amplification. All components inc. speaker provid- for hobbyist & professional laboratory. Very reliable
54x112mm. 1026KT £16.95; BOX (for mains opera- above. 30A15 £13.95 ed. PCB 32x102mm. 3063KT £9.95 & versatile design at an extremely reasonable price.
tion) 2026KT £8.50 * TELEPHONE LINE RELAY SWITCH Turn on/off 4 * DRILL SPEED CONTROLLER Adjust the speed Short circuit protection. Variable DC voltages (3-
* DISCO STROBE LIGHT Probably the most excit- relays over your phone line from anywhere in the world. 4- of your electric drill according to the job at hand. 30V). Rated output 2.5 Amps. Large heatsink sup-
ing of all light effects. Very bright strobe tube. digit security code. Line protection circuitry built-in (non- Suitable for 240V AC mains powered drills up to plied. You just supply a 24VAC/3A transformer. PCB
Adjustable strobe frequency: 1-60Hz. Mains powered. approved). PCB 78x105mm. 3086KT £39.95 700W power. PCB: 48mm x 65mm. Box provided. 55x112mm. Mains operation. 1007KT £17.50.
PCB: 60x68mm. Box provided. 6037KT £29.90 * PC DATA ACQUISITION/CONTROL UNIT Use your 6074KT £17.90 Custom Designed Box 2007 £34.95
* SOUND EFFECTS GENERATOR Easy to build. PC to monitor physical variables (e.g. pressure, tem- * 3 INPUT MONO MIXER Independent level con- * STABILISED POWER SUPPLY 2-30V/5A As kit
Create an almost infinite variety of interesting/unusu- perature, light, weight, switch state, movement, relays, trol for each input and separate bass/treble controls. 1007 above but rated at 5Amp. Requires a
al sound effects from birds chirping to sirens. 9VDC. etc.), process the information & use results to control Input sensitivity: 240mV. 18V DC. PCB: 60mm x 24VAC/5A transformer. 1096KT £29.95. Custom
PCB 54x85mm. 1045KT £8.95 physical devices like motors, sirens, relays, servo & 185mm 1052KT £16.95 Designed Box 2096 £34.95
* ROBOT VOICE EFFECT Make your voice sound stepper motors. Inputs: 16 digital & 11 analogue. * ELECTRONIC SIREN 5 Watt. Impressive 5W * RFI POWER SUPPLY Designed to power RF
similar to a robot or Darlek. Great fun for discos, Outputs: 8 digital & 1 analogue. Plastic case with print- power output. Suitable for alarm systems, car, transmitters/receivers. Blocks high frequencies &
school plays, theatre productions, radio stations & ed front/rear panels, software utilities, programming motorbikes, etc. Output frequency 1·2kHz. 6-12V eliminates problems like noise, overheating, stand-
playing jokes on your friends when answering the examples & all components (except sensors & cable) DC. PCB: 37mm x 71mm. Siren not provided ing waves, etc. Output: 12-14VDC/3A.
phone! PCB 42x71mm. 1131KT £8.95 provided. 12VDC. 3093KT £79.95 1003KT £5.95 Thermal/short circuit protection & electronic stabili-
* AUDIO TO LIGHT MODULATOR Controls intensi- * PIC 16C71 FOUR SERVO MOTOR DRIVER * NEGATIVE\POSITIVE ION GENERATOR sation. You just supply a 18VAC/3A transformer.
ty of one or more lights in response to an audio input. Simultaneously control up to 4 servo motors. Software & Standard Cockcroft-Walton multiplier circuit. Mains PCB 72x82mm. 1171KT £24.95
Safe, modern opto-coupler design. Mains voltage all components (except servos/control pots) supplied. voltage experience required. 3057KT £9.95 * MOTORBIKE ALARM Uses a reliable vibration sen-
experience required. 3012KT £7.95 5VDC. PCB 50x70mm. 3102KT £14.95 sor (adjustable sensitivity) to detect movement of the
* MUSIC BOX Activated by light. Plays 8 Christmas bike to trigger the alarm & switch the output relay to
songs and 5 other tunes. 3104KT £6.95 which a siren, bikes horn, indicators or other warning
* 20 SECOND VOICE RECORDER Uses non-
volatile memory - no battery backup needed.
Record/replay messages over & over. Playback as
required to greet customers etc. Volume control &
GAIN
BARUY!!
30-in-ONE device can be attached. Auto-reset. 6-12VDC. PCB
57x64mm. 1011KT £11.95 Box £5.95
* CAR ALARM SYSTEM Protect your car from
theft. Features vibration sensor, courtesy/boot light
built-in mic. 6VDC. PCB 50x73mm.
3131KT £11.95 B Electronic Projects Lab voltage drop sensor and bonnet/boot earth switch
sensor. Entry/exit delays, auto-reset and adjustable
* TRAIN SOUNDS 4 selectable sounds : whistle Great introduction to electronics. Ideal for the budding elec- alarm duration. 6-12V DC. PCB: 47mm x 55mm
blowing, level crossing bell, ‘clickety-clack’ & 4 in 1019KT £11.95 Box £6.50
tronics expert! Build a radio, burglar alarm, water detector, * LIGHT ALARM Protect your valuables. Alarm
sequence. SG01M £4.95
* ANIMAL SOUNDS Cat, dog, chicken & cow. Ideal morse code practice circuit, simple computer circuits, and sounds if circuit detects smallest amount of light.
for kids farmyard toys & schools. SG10M £4.50 much more! NO soldering, tools or previous electronics Place in cash box etc. 3008KT £4.50
* 3 1/2 DIGIT LED PANEL METER Use for basic knowledge required. Circuits can be built and unassembled * PIEZO SCREAMER 110dB of ear piercing
voltage/current displays or customise to measure repeatedly. Comprehensive 68-page manual with explana- noise. Fits in box with 2 x 35mm piezo elements
temperature, light, weight, movement, sound lev- tions, schematics and assembly diagrams. Suitable for age built into their own resonant cavity. Use as an
els, etc. with appropriate sensors (not supplied). alarm siren or just for fun! 6-9VDC. 3015KT £9.95
Various input circuit designs provided. 3061KT 10+. Excellent for schools. Requires 2 x AA batteries. * COMBINATION LOCK Versatile electronic lock
£12.95 ONLY £14.95 (phone for bulk discounts). comprising main circuit & separate keypad for
* IR REMOTE TOGGLE SWITCH Use any TV/VCR remote opening of lock. Relay supplied. 3029KT
remote control unit to switch onboard 12V/1A relay * PC SERIAL PORT ISOLATED I/O BOARD * LED DICE Classic intro to electronics & circuit £9.95
on/off. 3058KT £9.95 Provides eight 240VAC/10A relay outputs & 4 opti- analysis. 7 LED’s simulate dice roll, slow down & land * ULTRASONIC MOVEMENT DETECTOR Crystal
cally isolated inputs. Designed for use in various con- on a number at random. 555 IC circuit. 3003KT £7.95 locked detector frequency for stability & reliability. PCB
trol & sensing applications e.g. load switching, exter- * STAIRWAY TO HEAVEN Tests hand-eye co-ordination. 75x40mm houses all components. 4-7m range.
nal switch input sensing, contact closure & external Press switch when green segment of LED lights to climb Adjustable sensitivity. Output will drive external
FACTOR
X PUBLICATIONS
voltage sensing. Controlled via serial port & a termi-
nal emulator program (built into Windows). Can be
used with ANY computer/operating system. Plastic
case with printed front/rear panels & all components
the stairway - miss & start again! Good intro to several
basic circuits. 3005KT £7.95
* ROULETTE LED ‘Ball’ spins round the wheel,
slows down & drops into a slot. 10 LED’s. Good intro
relay/circuits. 9VDC. 3049KT £12.95
PIR DETECTOR MODULE 3-lead assembled unit
just 25x35mm as used in commercial burglar alarm
systems. 3076KT £7.95
THE EXPERTS IN RARE & (except cable) provided. 3108KT £49.95 to CMOS decade counters & Op-Amps. 3006KT * INFRARED SECURITY BEAM When the invisi-
* UNIPOLAR STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER for any £9.95 ble IR beam is broken a relay is tripped that can be
UNUSUAL INFORMATION! 5/6/8 lead motor. Fast/slow & single step rates. * DUAL LED DICE PIC 16C54 circuit performs sim- used to sound a bell or alarm. 25 metre range.
Full details of all X-FACTOR PUBLICATIONS can be found in Direction control & on/off switch. Wave, 2-phase & ilar function to 3003KT above but two dice. Good Mains rated relays provided. 12VDC operation.
our catalogue. N.B. Minimum order charge for reports and half-wave step modes. 4 LED indicators. PCB intro to micro-controllers. 3071KT £11.95 3130KT £11.95
plans is £5.00 PLUS normal P.&P. 50x65mm. 3109KT £14.95 * 9V XENON TUBE FLASHER Transformer circuit * FUNCTION GENERATOR Quad Op-Amp oscilla-
* SUPER-EAR LISTENING DEVICE Complete plans to * PC CONTROLLED STEPPER MOTOR DRIVER steps up 9V battery to flash a 25mm Xenon tube. tor & wave shaper circuit generates audio range
build your own parabolic dish microphone. Listen to distant Control two unipolar stepper motors (3A max. each) Adjustable flash rate (0·25-2 Sec’s). 3022KT £10.95 square waves (6Hz-6KHz), triangle & pseudo sine
voices and sounds through open windows and even walls! via PC printer port. Wave, 2-phase & half-wave step * LED FLASHER 1 5 ultra bright red LED’s flash in outputs. 9VDC. 3023KT £3.95
Made from readily available parts. R002 £3.50 modes. Software accepts 4 digital inputs from exter- 7 selectable patterns. 3037MKT £4.50 * LOGIC PROBE tests CMOS & TTL circuits &
* TELEPHONE BUG PLANS Build you own micro-beetle nal switches & will single step motors. PCB fits in D- * LED FLASHER 2 Similar to above but flash in detects fast pulses. Visual & audio indication of
telephone bug. Suitable for any phone. Transmits over 250 shell case provided. 3113KT £16.95 sequence or randomly. Ideal for model railways. logic state. Full instructions supplied. 3024KT
metres - more with good receiver. Made from easy to * 12-BIT PC DATA ACQUISITION/CONTROL UNIT 3052MKT £4.50 £6.95
obtain, cheap components. R006 £2.50 Similar to kit 3093 above but uses a 12 bit Analogue- * INTRODUCTION TO PIC PROGRAMMING. * SQUARE WAVE OSCILLATOR Generates
* LOCKS - How they work and how to pick them. This fact to-Digital Converter (ADC) with internal analogue mul- Learn programming from scratch. Programming square waves at 6 preset frequencies in factors of
filled report will teach you more about locks and the art of tiplexor. Reads 8 single ended channels or 4 differen- hardware, a P16F84 chip and a two-part, practical, 10 from 1Hz-100KHz. Visual output indicator. 5-
lock picking than many books we have seen at 4 times the tial inputs or a mixture of both. Analogue inputs read 0- hands-on tutorial series are provided. 3081KT 18VDC. Box provided. 3111KT £7.95
price. Packed with information and illustrations. R008 £3.50
* RADIO & TV JOKER PLANS 4V. Four TTL/CMOS compatible digital input/outputs. £21.95 * PC DRIVEN POCKET SAMPLER/DATA LOG-
We show you how to build three different circuits for dis- ADC conversion time <10uS. Software (C, QB & Win), * SERIAL PIC PROGRAMMER for all 8/18/28/40 GER Analogue voltage sampler records voltages
rupting TV picture and sound plus FM radio! May upset extended D shell case & all components (except sen- pin DIP serial programmed PICs. 3rd party software up to 2V or 20V over periods from milli-seconds to
your neighbours & the authorities!! DISCRETION sors & cable) provided. 3118KT £47.95 supplied expires after 21 days (costs US$25 to reg- months. Can also be used as a simple digital
REQUIRED. R017 £3.50 * LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR/RAIN ALARM Will indi- ister). 3096KT £14.95 scope to examine audio & other signals up to
* INFINITY TRANSMITTER PLANS Complete plans for cate fluid levels or simply the presence of fluid. Relay * ‘PICALL’ SERIAL & PARALLEL PIC PRO- about 5KHz. Software & D-shell case provided.
building the famous Infinity Transmitter. Once installed on output to control a pump to add/remove water when it GRAMMER for all 8/18/28/40 pin DIP parallel AND 3112KT £19.95
the target phone, device acts like a room bug. Just call the reaches a certain level. 1080KT £6.95 serial PICs. Includes fully functional & registered * 20 MHz FUNCTION GENERATOR Square, tri-
target phone & activate the unit to hear all room sounds. * UNIVERSAL TIMER Seven crystal controlled tim- software (DOS, W3.1, W95/8). 3117KT £54.95 angular and sine waveform up to 20MHz over 3
Great for home/office security! R019 £3.50 ing operations in steps of 0.1s from 0.1-6553.6s or 1 * ATMEL 89Cx051 PROGRAMMER Simple-to-use ranges using ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ frequency adjust-
* THE ETHER BOX CALL INTERCEPTOR PLANS Grabs second steps from 0.1-65536s. Allows 4 signal input yet powerful programmer for the Atmel 89C1051, ment controls. Adjustable output from 0-2V p-p. A
telephone calls out of thin air! No need to wire-in a phone 89C2051 & 89C4051 uC’s. Programmer does NOT
bug. Simply place this device near the phone lines to hear types from push button to electrically isolated volt- TTL output is also provided for connection to a
the conversations taking place! R025 £3.00 age switching sources. On-board relay will switch require special software other than a terminal emu- frequency meter. Uses MAX038 IC. Plastic case
* CASH CREATOR BUSINESS REPORTS Need ideas 240V/5A. Box, software & all components provided. lator program (built into Windows). Can be used with with printed front/rear panels & all components
for making some cash? Well this could be just what you PCB 56 x 97mm. 3054KT £24.95 ANY computer/operating system. 3121KT £34.95 provided. 7-12VAC. 3101KT £49.95
need! You get 40 reports (approx. 800 pages) on floppy
disk that give you information on setting up different busi-
nesses. You also get valuable reproduction and duplication WEB: http://www.QuasarElectronics.com Secure Online Ordering Facilities
Full Kit Listing, Descriptions & Photos
rights so that you can sell the manuals as you like. R030
£7.50 email: epesales@QuasarElectronics.coms Kit Documentation & Software Downloads
Copyright © 1999
2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online,
EPE Online,
February
May1999
2000--www.epemag.com
www.epemag.com--XXX
335
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
CHIPPER
Every so often a new chip comes along that looks like it will be very popular for a wide range
of applications. Just such a chip forms the basis of our main cover subject this month – the
Versatile Microphone/Audio Preamplifier. The problem with specialized chips of this nature is
that sometimes they don’t stay in production for a long period. This can obviously cause
headaches for hobbyists, who seem to like to build projects years after they have been
published. This is why we advise readers to check that all components are still available before
commencing any project in a back dated issue. Whilst it is sometimes possible to find old chips
(particularly via the internet) they are often highly priced and obviously supplies do eventually get
exhausted.
We do, however, have high hopes that this chip will be around for some time as it appears to
have been designed to cover a very wide range of applications, including use for microphone
inputs to PCs. This fact alone will ensure high demand and therefore longevity, should it be
taken up by the computer manufacturers. Let’s hope it is. However, that in itself does not entirely
get us out of the woods – the PC makers will no doubt use a surface mount device which does
not necessarily guarantee continuing availability of the DIL version. Once development has taken
place, the industrial requirement for DIL versions often falls dramatically so they can sometimes
be discontinued.
NO WAY
We suppose the answer is to build it now and hope for the best. There seems to be no way
of knowing which chips will hang around and also no way of knowing of all the chips that have
been discontinued. We usually only find this out when readers ring us with buying problems.
Thankfully we can often help them out, but we have an ever-increasing list of past projects that
are no longer viable because of obsolete components. Unfortunately it is not a problem we
expect will improve as time goes by.
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ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY
The ionized layers of the atmosphere extend from about 40km to 200km (25 to 125 miles) above the Earth.
This ionization is caused by the “Solar Wind” passing the Earth and leaves the upper atmosphere positively
charged.
There is thus an electric field between the upper atmosphere and the Earth and, given suitable instruments,
this field can be detected as it results in a miniscule current through the atmosphere.
A potential of around 100 volts is often present just one meter off the ground. In other words, there may be
a potential of 200 volts or more between your nose and toes! Of course, nobody gets electrocuted because the
resistance of the air is so high that only a very tiny current is present. And this is why the actual values are gen-
erally considered to be so difficult to measure. But in fact they can be measured quite easily and we will show
you how.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 337
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
EE213 135 Hunter Street, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs. DE14 2ST
Tel 01283 565435 Fax 546932
http://www.magenta2000.co.uk
E-mail: sales@magenta2000.co.uk
All Prices include V.A.T. Add £3.00 per order p&p. £6.99 next day
MAIL ORDER ONLY • CALLERS BY APPOINTMENT
EPE MICROCONTROLLER PIC PIPE DESCALER
P.I. TREASURE HUNTER
The latest MAGENTA DESIGN – highly
• SIMPLE TO BUILD
• HIGH POWER OUTPUT
• SWEPT
FREQUENCY
EPE
stable & sensitive – with I.C. control
of all timing functions and advanced
pulse separation techniques.
• AUDIO & VISUAL MONITORING
An affordable circuit which sweeps
the incoming water supply with
TEACH-IN
• High stability
drift cancelling
variable frequency electromagnetic
signals. May reduce scale formation,
dissolve existing scale and improve
2000
• Easy to build lathering ability by altering the way Full set of top quality NEW
salts in the water behave.
& use Kit includes case, P.C.B, coupling components for this educational
• No ground coil and all components. series. All parts as specified by
effect, works High coil current ensures maximum
effect. L.E.D. monitor EPE. Kit includes breadboard,
in seawater
KIT 868 .........£22.95 POWER UNIT.........£3.99 wire, croc clips, pins and all
components for experiments, as
• Detects gold, listed in Introduction to Part 1.
silver, ferrous & MICRO PEsT *Batteries and tools not included.
non-ferrous
metals SCARER
• Efficient quartz controlled Our latest design – The ultimate TEACH-IN 2000 –
scarer for the garden. Uses
microcontroller pulse generation. special microchip to give random KIT 879 £44.95
• Full kit with headphones & all delay and pulse time. Easy to
hardware build reliable circuit. Keeps pets/ MULTIMETER £14.45
pests away from newly sown areas,
KIT 847......................£63.95 play areas, etc. Uses power source
from 9 to 24 volts.
PORTABLE ULTRASONIC • RANDOM PULSES
SPACEWRITER
An innovative and exciting
PEsT SCARER • HIGH POWER project. Wave the wand through
A powerful 23kHz ultrasound generator in • DUAL OPTION Plug-in power supply £4.99 the air and your message appears.
Programmable to hold any message
a compact hand-held case. MOSFET output KIT 867................................£19.99 up to 16 digits long. Comes pre-loaded
drives a special sealed transducer with in- with ‘‘MERRY XMAS’’. Kit includes
tense pulses via a special tuned transformer. KIT+SLAVE UNIT...................£32.50 PCB, all components & tube plus
Sweeping frequency output is designed to instructions for message loading.
give maximum output without any special
setting up.
WINDICATOR KIT 849.......................£16.99
A novel wind speed indicator with LED readout. Kit comes
KIT 842........................£22.56 complete with sensor cups, and weatherproof sensing 12V EPROM ERASER
head. Mains power unit £5.99 extra. A safe low cost eraser for up to 4 EPROMS at a time
in less than 20 minutes. Operates from a 12V supply
KIT 856...........................................£28.00 (400mA). Used extensively for mobile work – up-
dating equipment in the field etc. Also in educa-
TENS UNIT
tional situations where mains supplies are not al-
lowed. Safety interlock prevents contact with UV.
KIT 790............................£29.90
SEE ICEBREAK AD DUAL OUTPUT TENS UNIT Set of
Use one of the latest chips on the block to produce an audio pre-amp with AGC
compression, limiting, and noise reduction.
Intended primarily as a require a signal-strength meter.
means of processing microphone THE CHIP AMPLIFIERS
inputs to computers, the The various amplifying and
SSM2166P integrated circuit (IC) The input impedance of
control stages built into the buffer amplifier, A, is 180
– manufactured by Analog SSM2166 chip are shown in
Devices – has a wider range of kilohms (180k) and its gain can
Fig.1. be set, by external feedback
possible applications. Public
address and surveillance systems Signal inputs are buffered resistors, between 0dB and
immediately spring to mind, and by opamp A, internally 20dB. There is a standing DC
the device will be of particular connected to a rectifier stage, voltage on the input, and a
interest to radio enthusiasts, B, which produces a DC voltage blocking capacitor must be
especially now that the popular which varies in proportion to used.
Plessey 6270 IC mic/pre-amp, signal strength. The input and output
with voice gain, is no longer After processing by the impedances of the controlled
available. control circuit, C, the DC amplifier, D, are 1k, and 75
This article describes how the voltage is used to fix the large ohms, respectively. A standing
new IC can be used for a variety and small signal gain of a DC voltage necessitates the use
of signal inputs, and additional second opamp, D. of a blocking capacitor at the
circuitry is given for readers who output.
VOLTAGE
BUFFER CONTROLLED SIGNAL OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER AMP INPUTS
OUTPUT +5V LIMITING IS IMPOSED IN THIS REGION IN
5 3 4 14 ORDER TO HOLD THE OUTPUT BELOW A
PRE-DETERMINED LEVEL
CONTROLLED
BUFFER AMPLIFIER THRESHOLD OF
AMPLIFIER LIMITING SET
BUFFER 6 BY VR4
AMP PROCESSED
INPUTS A D 13 OUTPUT
(AUDIO IN) + +
7
IN THIS REGION GAIN REDUCES AS
2 SET
GAIN SIGNAL STRENGTH INCREASES IN
ORDER TO COMPRESS THE DYNAMIC
RANGE. COMPRESSION IS SET BY VR3
Fig.1. Internal block schematic for the Fig.2. Relationship between limiting, com-
SSM2166P microphone preamplifier, with pression, and downward expansion or
variable compression and noise gating. “squelch”.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 338
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
Provision is made for
setting the nominal gain of the
controlled stage between 0dB
and 20dB, but AGC action will
increase amplification, at the
lowest signal levels, to as much
as 60dB. The output can be
muted.
Interestingly, the noise
generated by the controlled
stage is designed to be at a
minimum when its gain is at a
maximum, and this significantly
improves the overall signal-to-
noise ratio of the system.
R1 C5
1k 4µ7
R4 R5 C8
1k 1k 100n
AUDIO
INPUT 1 R2
10k 5 3 9 11 14
6 12 R9
15k
C1
4µ7 C2
IC1
SSM2166P VR7 VR8
100n 10k
7 13 10k
+
R7
2M2 TR1 ME1
BC547 50µA TO 1mA
AUDIO 4 8 10 1 2 c
INPUT 2 SIGNAL
b STRENGTH
METER
VR1 R3 COMPRESSION R6 C9 e (SEE TEXT)
4k7 10k 1k 1µ R8
SEE TEXT R10
INPUT 4k7
SIGNAL VR3 OUTPUT (TABLE 2)
LEVEL 100k SIGNAL
GAIN LEVEL AUDIO
SCREEN OUTPUT
0V C3 C4 C6 C7 VR5 VR6
10n 1µ 4µ7 22µ 22k 10k
SCREEN
0V
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 341
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
the output by less than 6dB. noted that, under a light load, a Transistor TR1, configured
fresh 9V alkaline battery will as a DC amplifier, ensures that
The onset of limiting is
usually deliver a higher voltage IC1’s AGC line is only lightly
controlled by preset VR4.
than this. loaded, even when a 1mA
Setting this potentiometer to
However, in order to ensure meter is used. It forms one arm
maximum resistance fixes it at
the correct operation of the of a bridge circuit, the other
30mV. With VR4 at minimum
device, and provide a high three being its collector load,
resistance, it is around 1V RMS.
degree of isolation from other R9, and the potential divider
Above the threshold of limiting,
equipment sharing the same chain comprising preset VR8
a 15:1 compression ratio is
power supply, a 5V 100mA and resistor R10. The bridge is
imposed, irrespective of the
voltage regulator, IC2, is balanced, and the meter set at
setting of compression control
included in the circuit. This zero under no-signal conditions,
VR3.
enables supplies with outputs by preset potentiometer VR8.
ranging from 8V to 18V (or When a signal is being
NOISE REDUCTION more, depending on IC2 rating) processed, the rising AGC
Preset potentiometer VR2 to be used. voltage on the base (b) of TR1
sets the threshold below which Bypass capacitors C8 and increases its collector current
downward expansion (gain C10 shunt the noise in the and, hence, the voltage drop
reduces as the signals become regulator output to ground. Note across resistor R9. This
weaker) is applied. With that C8 is essential to the unbalances the bridge and
maximum resistance, downward stability of IC1 and it must be drives the meter pointer over.
expansion starts at signal levels located as close as possible to Preset VR7 adjusts the
in the region of 250mV. Turned pin 14, even when the unit is sensitivity of the meter so that
to zero resistance, the threshold battery powered. the pointer can be set just short
is raised to around 20mV. of full-scale deflection (FSD)
when registering a strong signal.
Gain rises to a maximum
under no-signal conditions with
SIGNAL STRENGTH The circuit can be made to
all conventional AGC systems, METER accommodate meters with full-
and the amplification of external scale deflections ranging from
Some readers, especially
and internally generated noise 50mA to 1mA by adjusting the
those wishing to incorporate the
produces a loud and tiresome value of resistor R8. This
unit into a radio receiver, may
hiss in the speaker or ‘phones. resistor controls the flow of
welcome the provision of a
The IC’s noise reduction facility, current through the base-emitter
signal strength meter. This is
which operates as a “squelch” junction of transistor TR1, and
included in the circuit diagram
control, is very effective in values to suit a range of meter
of Fig.1 and consists of
overcoming this. It can reduce FSDs are given in Table 2. Bias
transistor TR1, meter ME1 and
output noise below the level of resistor R7 provides a measure
associated components.
audibility when signal levels fall of negative feedback which
to zero. The AGC control voltage helps to stabilize the operation
appears on pin 8 of IC1. It of the circuit.
With any squelch system, a ranges from 290mV under no-
need to resolve very weak Almost any small-signal npn
signal conditions to
signals overlaid by noise transistor should prove suitable
approximately 720mV with high
compromises the usefulness of for TR1, and a 2N5827 or
level inputs.
the feature. Radio enthusiasts 2N5828 could be used in
with a particular interest in it addition to the types listed in the
Table 2: Signal Strength
could mount VR2 as a panel Components list. These devices
Meter ( Values of R8 for differ- have different case styles and
control so that the threshold
could be adjusted to suit
ent meter sensitivities) the base connections must be
reception conditions. checked.
Meter FSD R8
+
smallest components first COM
IN C4 6 C8 + SIGNAL OUT
OUT
working up to the largest, but fit R
LM78L05ACZ
+ VR3
IC1, IC2, and TR1 last (see R3
5
SPOT-CHECKS 9 VR7
SET METER
AT ZERO
–
R7
When all the components e b c SIGNAL
STRENGTH
have been soldered in position TR1 METER
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 343
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
+5V
R1, C1 AND VR1 ARE LOCATED ON
THE PREAMPLIFIER P.C.B.
R1
MICROPHONE CASE
SCREENED CABLE
g C1
s
VR1
2M2
10µ 1k
0V
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 345
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
ROLL-UP, ROLL-UP! Win a Pico PC-Based Oscilloscope
Ingenuity is our regular round-up of readers' own • 50MSPS Dual Channel Storage
circuits. We pay between $16 and $80 for all material Oscilloscope
published, depending on length and technical merit. • 25MHz Spectrum Analyzer
We're looking for novel applications and circuit tips, not
simply mechanical or electrical ideas. Ideas must be the • Multimeter
reader's own work and must not have been submitted • Frequency Meter
for publication elsewhere. The circuits shown have • Signal Generator
NOT been proven by us. Ingenuity Unlimited is open to
ALL abilities, but items for consideration in this column If you have a novel circuit idea which
should preferably be typed or word-processed, with a would be of use to other readers, then a Pico
brief circuit description (between 100 and 500 words Technology PC based oscilloscope could be
maximum) and full circuit diagram showing all relevant
component values. Please draw all circuit schematics
as clearly as possible.
Send your circuit ideas to: Alan Winstanley,
Ingenuity Unlimited, Wimborne Publishing Ltd., Allen
House, East Borough, Wimborne, Dorset BH21 1PF.
They could earn you some real cash and a prize!
yours.
Sensitive Hall Effect Switch – Feel the Field
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 346
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Ingenuity Unlimited
bounce-free switching action. Infra-Red Remote Tester – Sounds Good
With the values shown this a
circuit can detect the approach LOW
CURRENT D3 IC1c IC1d
C3 R4
of a small bar magnet of the D1
k L.E.D. k
7
4049BE
6
22p 10M
5
4049BE
4
I.R.
type commonly used for operat- PHOTO a R3
DIODE 4k7
ing reed switches, at a range of R5
IC1a IC1b IC1e 1M
about 25mm. Sensitivity could +
1 4049BE C2
100n
4049BE D2
1N4148 4049BE B1
be adjusted by altering the gain C1
22m
14 15 11 12
a k
3 2 9V
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 347
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Ingenuity Unlimited
TL431C
Fig.4. Experimenter’s Power Supply circuit using the 723 variable voltage regulator.
ference plus two VBE drops the 6××2V requires a larger therefore, a three terminal regu-
gives sufficient headroom at pin source from the transformer at lator, 78L05ACZ (IC1) was
13 for the amplifier stage when maximum output, 25V. Even added to maintain 30V.
Vout = 0. with this precaution it is possible As constructed, a single
The 723’s internal Zener to exceed the 723’s absolute mains transformer with two, iso-
diode at pin 9 was not used, as maximum voltage at pins 11 lated 12VA windings allowed
dual, floating DC sources of 0V
to 25V magnitude, a conve-
nience if both positive and neg-
ative voltages or their sum is
desired.
John A. Haas
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 348
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
LOW-COST CAPACITANCE METER
by ROBERT PENFOLD
A simple starter project that will let you get the measure of most capacitors.
Five switched ranges: 1nF to 10uF.
A typical multimeter can testing the vast majority of under test.
measure voltage, current and capacitors used in everyday The duration of the output
resistance over a wide range of electronics. pulse is proportional to the
values, and usually has a few values of both components in
“tricks up its sleeve” such as SYSTEM OPERATION the CR network. If a 1nF
continuity tester and transistor capacitor produces an output
checker facilities. Some The block diagram for the pulse of one millisecond in
multimeters have capacitance Low-Cost Capacitance Meter is duration, components having
measuring ranges, but this shown in Fig.1. Like most values of 2××2nF and 4××7nF would
feature remains something of a simple capacitance meter respectively produce pulse
rarity. This is a pity, because designs, this unit is based on a lengths of 2××2ms and 4××7ms.
anyone undertaking electronic monostable circuit. When
triggered by an input pulse a Each output pulse must be
faultfinding will soon need to
monostable produces an output converted into a voltage that is
check suspect capacitors and a
pulse having a duration that is proportional to the pulse
ready-made capacitance meter is
controlled by a CR network. In duration. A moving coil panel
an expensive item of equipment.
this case the monostable is meter can then read this
The unit featured here offers voltage, and with everything set
triggered manually using a
a low-cost solution to the problem up correctly it will provide
pushbutton switch each time a
of testing capacitors. It is an accurate capacitance readings.
reading is required.
analog capacitance meter that
The resistor in the timing If we extend the example
has five switched ranges with full-
network is one of five resistors given previously, with a
scale values of 1nF; 10nF;
selected via a switch, and these potential of one volt per
100nF; 1uF; and 10uF. It cannot
resistors provide the unit with its millisecond being produced, a
measure very high or low value
five ranges. The capacitor in the meter having a full-scale value
components, but it is suitable for
CR network is the capacitor of 10V would actually read 0 to
10nF. This time-to-voltage
conversion is actually quite
simple to achieve, and is
provided by a constant current
generator and a charge storage
MEASURE
METER
CURRENT BUFFER
MONOSTABLE
GENERATOR AMPLIFIER
CHARGE
RESET STORAGE
TEST CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR
0V RAIL
U
TR1 e
CAPACITANCE
SK1 SK2 S2 S3
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 34
U
T
S
R
Q
P
O
N
M
L
K
J
I
H
G
F
E
D
C
B
A
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 352
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
Layout of components inside the metal case of the completed Low-Cost Capacitance Meter.
The circuit board is mounted to one side to leave space for the battery
Try to complete the 100mm long. Each lead is fitted 32mm sides, and the same
soldered joints reasonably with a 2mm plug at one end and center as the main cutout. Once
swiftly so that the resistors do a small crocodile clip at the again though, it would be
not overheat. It takes quite a lot other. prudent to check this by making
of heat to destroy resistors, but Fitting the meter on the measurements on the meter
relatively small amounts can front panel is potentially prior to drilling the holes.
impair their accuracy. awkward because a large round The circuit board is
cutout is required. For most mounted on the base panel of
CASING UP meters a cutout of 38mm the case towards the left-hand
diameter is required, but it is side of the unit, leaving
A medium size metal advisable to check this point by sufficient space for the battery
instrument case is probably the actually measuring the diameter to the right of the board. The
best choice for a project of this of the meter’s rear section. DIY component panel is mounted
type, but a plastic box is also superstores sell adjustable hole using either 6BA or metric M2××5
suitable. The exact layout is not cutters that will do the job bolts, and spacers or nuts are
critical, but mount SK1 and SK2 quickly and easily, or the cutout used to ensure that the
close together. can be made using a coping underside of the board is held
Many capacitors will then saw, Abrafile, etc. well clear of the case bottom.
connect directly into the sockets Four 3mm diameter holes To complete the unit the hard
without too much difficulty, but are required for the meter’s wiring is added. This offers
a set of test leads will also be threaded mounting rods. nothing out of the ordinary, but
needed to accommodate some Marking the positions of these is be careful to connect the battery
capacitors. All that is required quite easy as they are usually at clip and meter ME1 with the
are two insulated leads about the corners of a square having correct polarity.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 353
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
significant on this range, deflection of the meter, and
although this factor seems to VR1 is then adjusted for
CALIBRATION have very little affect on precisely full-scale reading on
Preset potentiometer (wired accuracy. Probably the best meter ME1. The unit should
as a “variable resistor”) VR1 option is to calibrate the unit on then provide accurate readings
must be given the correct the 10nF range using a 10nF on all five ranges.
setting in order to obtain good polystyrene capacitor having a
accuracy from the unit, and a tolerance of one percent.
close tolerance capacitor is
It is possible that a large
IN USE
needed for calibration. For The Meter is suitable for
reading will be produced on the
optimum accuracy this capacitor use with polarized capacitors
meter when the unit is first
should have a value equal to such as electrolytic and
switched on, but pressing Reset
the full-scale value of the range tantalum types. However, it is
switch S3 should reset the
used during calibration. essential that they are
meter to zero. If it is not
In theory it does not matter possible to zero the meter connected to SK1 and SK2 with
which range is used when properly, switch off at once and the correct polarity. The positive
calibrating the unit, but in recheck the entire wiring, etc. (+) lead connects to SK1 and
practice either the 1nF or 10nF the negative lead connects to
If all is well, set preset VR1
range has to be used. Suitable SK2.
at maximum resistance
capacitors for the other ranges Especially when using the
(adjusted full clockwise). Then
are either unavailable or 1nF and 10nF ranges, avoid
with the unit set to the correct
extremely expensive. touching the lead that connects
range and the calibration
The 10nF range is the capacitor connected to SK1 and to SK1 when a reading is being
better choice as the small self- SK2, operate pushswitch S2. taken. Otherwise electrical
capacitance of IC1 is less This should produce a strong noise might be introduced into
the system producing
inaccurate results.
Avoid connecting a charged
capacitor to this or any other
capacitance meter, since doing
so could result in damage to the
semiconductors in the meter
circuit. If in doubt always
discharge a capacitor before
testing it.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 354
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
MULTI-CHANNEL TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM by ANDY FLIND
A PIC-based 8 to 16-Channel 2-wire on-off signaling communication link. An add-
on Interface (next month) will extend possible options to internal private telephone
and intercom systems.
HOSPITAL CALL
Like many designs, this one
began with a request from a
friend, who on this occasion is the
volunteer engineer for the local
“Hospital Radio”. Although
operated by amateurs, this
service manages to maintain
The three modules: Receiver board; Interface (next month)
and, foreground, Transmitter board.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 355
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
CLOCK
PULSE
DATA
PULSE
individual constructor’s needs. START
0 5ms
2ms
SENDING A SIGNAL INITIALISE:
ALL PORT B AS INPUT
WITH WEAK PULL-UPS ON
The method of signal
transmission used is relatively
INPUT INPUT INPUT
simple. A total of sixteen “clock” DELAY - 5ms OR 10ms
OFF ACTIVE OFF pulses are sent and for each
Fig.1. Transmission method there is a following “signal” pulse
if the associated input is active.
Part of the resulting waveform is HAS LINE BEEN NO
INACTIVE FOR MORE
shown in Fig.1. THAN 1 8ms?
1k OUTPUT
RA2 (A) It can be seen that the
pulses are negative-going, with YES
PIC-TO-PIC
From time to time readers
IS INPUT TO
PORT A
NO RECEIVER
have asked how communication
BIT 2 LOW?
SOFTWARE
between PICs can be achieved YES
Continuing with the
so a detailed description of the WAIT 500ms
Receiver, the flow diagram for
method used may be helpful. In this is shown in Fig.6. The
this circuit two PIC connections program begins by looking for a
(RA1 and RA2) are linked as IS INPUT TO
PORT A
NO
falling edge in the input signal
shown in Fig.5. A 1k resistor is BIT 2 HIGH?
from the line. When it locates
used in case both pins become YES one it clears the two input
outputs simultaneously, WAIT 500ms registers named SW1 and SW2
although this should never be which will contain the sixteen
the case. switch states.
Initially, both connections YES IS INPUT TO
PORT A It then waits for 100us,
are configured as inputs and the BIT 2 HIGH?
which should take it into the low
10k resistor pulls them both portion of a pulse if this was the
NO
high. When IC1 requires data origin of the edge. It checks the
SET FIRST BIT OF SW1
from IC2, it’s pin becomes an input is still low, if not it returns
output and is pulsed low for to the program start. Otherwise,
about 400us before returning to WAIT 1ms
it waits for 500us and checks
the input state. that the input is now high, as it
REPEAT FOR REMAINING SEVEN BITS
Meanwhile, IC2 has been OF SW1 AND EIGHT BITS OF SW2 will be if a pulse is present.
waiting for the low pulse. On Again, if it isn’t the program
seeing this it stores its input returns to the start.
states in a register and waits for YES IS PORT A
After another 500us, which
BIT 4 LOW?
the input to return to the high takes it to the point where the
state. When this happens it NO
input will be low or high
makes its pin an output and COPY SW1 TO PORT B
depending on the input state
sends the eight input states being transmitted, it samples the
serially at intervals of 100us. COPY SW2 TO PORT B state of the line and stores it in
Following this the pin returns to the first bit of register SW1. A
the input state and the program further delay of 1ms takes it to
returns to the start to wait for the the next clock pulse, where the
Fig.6. Flow diagram for the
next pulse from IC1. process is repeated until all
Receiver.
In the meanatime, 50us sixteen pulses have been
after restoring its connection to process takes just over a checked and their associated
input, IC1 commences taking millisecond and is easy to data bits read.
eight readings from it at 100us implement, both in hardware Both low and high states of
intervals and storing the results and software. This is serial all sixteen clock pulses are
in register SW2. The whole communication at its simplest checked and if any are missing
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 358
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
* D1
1N4148
+ 5V OUT
* IC3 IN
OUTPUT 1
a k 78L05 +12V
R2 R9 COM
R6
220k 14 R8 14 4k7
4k7
10k
17 VDD 4 VDD 4 +5V
SENSE
RA0 MCLR MCLR
/MUTE
3
OUTPUT 2 RA4
* R3
1k
R7
1 1k
OUTPUT 3 RA2 18 1
RA1 RA2
* R4
1k
2
* TR1 RA3
IC2
BC184L C3
c * R5 PIC16F84
b
22k IC1 100n
PIC16F84
e PL1 PL1
13 13
8 RB7 16 RB7
12 12
7 RB6 15 RB6
11 11
6
10
RB5 14
10
RB5 *OPTIONAL
*R1 5
9
RB4 13
9
RB4 - SEE TEXT
* OPTIONAL 22k 4
8
RB3 15 12 RB3
- SEE TEXT OSC OUT 8
3 RB2 11 RB2
7 7
2 RB1 16 10 RB1 16
6 OSC IN OSC IN
6
1 RB0 9 RB0
VSS X1 VSS C5 *C6
INPUTS 4MHz INPUTS 100n 100n
5 5
+ *C7 +
C1 C2 C4
22p 22p 10m 100m
0V (GND)
COMMON
Fig.7. Full circuit diagram for the Transmitter section. Note the items marked
with an asterisk are optional – see text.
the program immediately returns be received before output takes port A bit 4. This is wired “high”
to the start. This provides rapid place. for IC1 and “low” for IC2, so the
synchronization to the Assuming a complete PIC knows which socket it is in
transmitter and good protection sequence is received, the and sends the appropriate eight
against data corruption as a program now checks the input to bits of data to port B, SW1 in the
complete valid sequence must case of IC1 and SW2 for IC2.
+5V OUTPUT OUT IN
IC3
7805
+12V
COM
14 14
INPUT R9 *R10 R19
1 VDD 4k7 220W VDD 4k7
RA2
4
MCLR 1 4
RA2 MCLR
IC1
OUTPUTS PIC16F84
RA4
3 OUTPUTS IC2
13 13
8 RB7 16 RB7 PIC16F84
12 C3 12
7 RB6 15 RB6
11 100n 11
6 RB5 17 14 RB5
10 RA0 10
5 RB4 13 RB4 3
9 RA4
9
4 RB3 15 12 RB3
8 OSC OUT 8
3 RB2 11 RB2
*OPTIONAL 7
16 7 16
- SEE TEXT 2 RB1 10 RB1
6 OSC IN OSC IN
6
1 RB0 9 RB0
VSS X1 VSS
PL1 4MHz PL1
5 5
R1 TO R8 R11 TO R18 C5 C6
680W 680W 100n 100n
a a
D1 TO D8 + +
D9 TO D16 C4 C7
2mA RED C1 C2
2mA RED 10m 470m
k 22p 22p k
COMMON 0V (GND)
Fig.8. Complete circuit diagram for the Receiver section of the Multi-Channel
Transmission System.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 359
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Pro-
COM IN +5V
+
R10
C4 OUT IN
C1
R R
9 19
X1 COM
C C
3 IC1 IC2 5
IC3
C2
C
+
C7
6
PL1
+12V Complete Receiver module, including
0V (GND) the LEDs. The LEDs, together with
their associated resistors, can be omit-
ted if you wish – see text.
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
COMPONENTS
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
RECEIVER
Resistors
R1 to R8, R11 to R18 680 ohms (16 off)
R9, R19 4k7 (2 off)
*R10 220 ohms
All 0.6W 1% metal film
Capacitors
C1, C2 22p resin-dipped ceramic (2 off)
C3, C5, C6 100n resin-dipped ceramic (3 off)
C4 10u radial electrolytic, 63V
C7 470u radial electrolytic, 25V
Semiconductors
D1 to D16 red LEDs, 2mA type (16 off)
IC1, IC2 PIC16F84 pre-programmed
microcontroller (2 off)
IC3 7805 5V 1A voltage regulator
Miscellaneous
X1 4MHz crystal
PL1 20-way IDC header plug
Printed circuit board available from the EPE Online Store,
code 7000265 (Receiver) at www.epemag.com; 18-pin
DIL socket (2 off); small heatsink for IC3; multistrand
connecting wire; solder pins, solder, etc.
*Note: Resistor R10 is optional (see text).
Approx. Cost
Guidance Only $32
Fig.9. Receiver printed circuit board component
layout and (approximately) full-size copper
foil master pattern.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 360
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
COMPONENTS
+
TRANSMITTER OUTPUT 3 R2
C4
+5 VOLTS
R7
SENSE R R R R
Resistors /MUTE 3 4 6
R8
9
*R1, R5 22k (2 off) OUT GND (0V)
C C
OUTPUT 2 X1
R2 220k k 3 IC1 IC2 5
*R3, *R4, R7 1k (3 off) OUTPUT 1 D1
COM
R6, R9 4k7 (2 off) R IC3 IN +12 VOLTS
5 a C
R8 10k COMMON C1 C2
6
All 0.6W 1% metal film
R
b +
Capacitors 1
c TR1 C7
e PL1
C1, C2 22p resin-dipped
ceramic (2 off)
C3, C5, *C6 100n resin-dipped
ceramic (3 off)
C4 10u radial electrolytic, 63V
*C7 100u radial electrolytic, 25V
Semiconductors
COMMON
*D1 1N4148 signal diode 1 INPUTS 16
Approx. Cost
Guidance Only $26 Fig.10. Printed circuit board topside component layout and
(approximately) full-size under-side copper foil master pattern
In contrast to the for the Transmitter.
Transmitter there is no
communication between the two
simply repeated the appropriate where the various methods of
ICs which both simply check
number of times in preference to use make some of the
and store all sixteen bits and
using loop techniques. This components optional.
output the appropriate set. This
tends to improve reliability and is These options will be
allows them to use identical
easy to follow, even though it is explained in more detail next
software and, as with the
more tedious to write. month. For now the simplest
Transmitter, if just eight
channels are required the method will be described so that
second IC can be simply TRANSMITTER construction and testing can be
omitted. carried out.
CIRCUIT The full circuit diagram of
An examination of the
software of this project will As with many PIC projects, the Transmitter is shown in
reveal that it is written in the circuits are relatively simple Fig.7. The two 16F84 PICs, IC1
straightforward “top-down” style as so much of the work is done and IC2, share a common clock
with most repetitive operations by the software. The only using the oscillator of IC1 with a
complexity is in the Transmitter
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 361
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
RECEIVER CIRCUIT
IN The Receiver circuit
OUTPUT 3
+5V
COM +5V diagram shown in Fig.8 is even
SENSE/MUTE
OUTPUT 2 0V simpler. As with the Transmitter,
OUTPUT 1
the two PIC16F84s, IC1 and
COMMON
IC2, share a common 4MHz
SUPPLY crystal clock. However, there is
+12V no communication between
0V
them. Instead the input signal is
INPUTS connected to RA2 (at pin 1) of
both PICs. Each of the sixteen
outputs is provided with a
resistor supplying a LED (light-
OUTPUTS
emitting diode). These can be
Fig.11. Test set-up for checking out the two PCBs. omitted if not required although
they are useful when testing. For
4MHz crystal X1 and capacitors Other optional bits are clarity only one resistor and one
C1 and C2. resistors R3 and R4 which are LED are shown for each IC in
only required if the unit is used Fig.8, since the others are
Both IC1 and IC2 have all identical. The supply regulator
eight inputs of port B pulled high with the Interface circuit to be
described next month, and IC3 is a robust 1A type mounted
internally so these are simply on a small heatsink as is has to
brought out to pins to which resistors R1, R5, transistor TR1
and diode D1, are needed if it is supply the LEDs and probably
external connections can be also some output circuits and a
made. The communication to be powered through a 2-wire
connection from the distant Transmitter. The only optional
between them is through component is resistor R10 which
resistor R7 with pull-up resistor Receiver. The principle here is
that one of the two wires is a is needed if 2-wire operation
R8. A digital output is taken from with the Transmitter powered
IC1 port A bit 2 (at pin 1), which common ground (0V), or
negative, whilst the other is from the line is intended.
is normally high and goes low
for clock and data pulses. energized from +5V through a
The sensing and muting
220 ohm resistor (an option in CONSTRUCTION
the Receiver) and charges
function, only required for capacitor C4 via diode D1 whilst Construction of this project
synchronized bi-directional use, the line is high. Then C4 is straightforward. The
is performed with port A bit 1 (at supplies the circuit whilst the line Transmitter and Receiver
pin 18) and operates as follows. is pulled low for pulses by circuits, that make up the Multi-
When used in this way the transistor TR1. channel Transmission System,
signal is coupled to the local are both built up on single-sided
receiver through a 10k resistor, Finally, there is an optional printed circuit boards (PCBs).
and the sense/mute pin is also on-board 5V supply regulator, These boards are available from
connected to the receiver side of IC3. In most cases the the EPE Online Store (codes
this resistor. Transmitter will be supplied with 7000264 (Transmitter) and
+5V from a Receiver, either 7000265 (Receiver)). The
Initially it is an input, and local for a bi-directional system
listens for a continuous “high” Interface PCB (next month) is
or remote. However, if an also available (code 7000266),
signal to confirm that the other application requires that it
transmitter is not sending. Once all from the EPE Online Store at
should be self-powered for any www.epemag.com
this is detected it is converted to reason, regulator IC3 can be
an output and set high for the fitted together with input Starting with the Receiver,
duration of transmission, so the decoupling capacitors C6 and all the components except
local receiver effectively sees a C7. In most cases these three resistor R10, just above IC1,
continuous inactive line. Where components will not be needed. should be fitted as shown in
this facility is not required, Also, of course, where only eight Fig.9. The use of DIL sockets is
resistor R2 holds this pin high so channels are needed IC2 may recommended for the two PICs,
that transmission will take place be omitted. IC1 and IC2.
anyway.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 362
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
Solder pins are suggested current at all since the only Ready-programmed PICs
for the external connections, as components bridging the supply are also available and full
these will then be more robust are the three decoupling details, including the above
and can be made from the capacitors. However, short options, can be found in the
component side of the board. A circuits do occasionally occur in Shoptalk page in this issue.
degree of force is sometimes construction and electrolytic Next Month: Details of the
required to insert such pins so it capacitors have been known to various ways in which these
may be best to fit them first. be fitted the wrong way round! units can be used will be given,
The LEDs, which should be together with the construction of
2mA types, and their associated TESTING an Interface board for use with
resistors are optional. Where internal telephone circuits or
fitted it is not too difficult to bend If all seems well IC1, similar long lines. This is
their leads in the required programmed with TXIC1_5 effective in reducing or
manner, and a little “Blu-Tack” (5ms delay) or TXIC1_10 (10ms eliminating the radiated
or “Play-Do” may be helpful for delay) software, can be inserted. interference sometimes caused
holding them in position during This should raise the supply by high-level digital signals in
soldering. current to about 2mA and the transmission circuits.
average voltage measured with
Not mentioned so far is the
a meter at Output 2 should be
plug PL1. A requirement for the
about 4V, indicating that IC1 is
original application was a means
operating and transmitting an
of rapid connection and removal
appropriate pulse sequence.
for testing and service purposes
so 20-way IDC header plugs Next, a PIC programmed
were included in the design. with receiver RX software
These are retained in this should be inserted into the
project but can be omitted if not Receiver board at IC1 position
required. and a connection made from
Output 2 of the Transmitter to
The two PICs should not be
“IN” of the Receiver as shown in
inserted yet. An initial test is to
Fig.11. Connecting any of the
supply the completed Receiver
first eight inputs (1 to 8) to
board with +9V to +12V which
ground (0V) should now
should result in a supply current
illuminate the corresponding
of about 4××8mA whilst the
output LEDs on the Receiver or
regulated output of +5V should take the appropriate outputs
be available from the solder pin, high if the LEDs are not fitted.
marked +5V, just above IC1.
Finally, if all sixteen
channels are required, a second
TRANSMITTER PIC with RX software can be
fitted to the Receiver and one
If the above test is
with TXIC2 software to the
satisfactory construction can
transmitter, after which the
continue with the Transmitter
remaining eight channels (9 to
PCB, the component layout,
16) can be tested. The two
together with an approximately
boards are now operational and
full-size copper foil master, is
ready for use.
shown in Fig.10. All the optional
components should be omitted
at this stage and the two PICs RESOURCES
should not be inserted.
Software for the Multi-
Once the board has been Channel Transmission System
completed, it is worth checking Transmitter and Receiver
initially by powering it with a 5V modules is available for free
supply taken from the Receiver. download from the EPE Online
It should draw virtually no
Library at www.epemag.com
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
PIR LIGHT CHECKER
by TERRY DE VAUX-BALBIRNIE
Be trigger happy with your outdoor security light on a filament bulb. In the larger
system security-type lamp, the bulb will
be a halogen unit of some 150W
Passive infrared (PIR) lamps, certain range. to 500W rating. Smaller PIR
of the type that may be bought in Normally, the lamps operate lamps use an ordinary 60W
any DIY store, are now very only when the ambient light falls household bulb.
popular with householders. below a certain level so that they
Mounted on an outside wall, they will not switch on during daylight BLOWING IN THE
may be used to improve security hours. Again, the point at which
or simply to illuminate dark areas this happens is often adjustable WIND
when a member of the family using a control on the unit. When the PIR unit is
passes by. The working part of a PIR properly installed, the lamp does
lamp is a sensor, which detects its job well and rarely causes
the infrared radiation that is problems. However, when it is
JUST PASSING not properly set up it may be
naturally emitted by a warm
THROUGH body. The detector may be activated by animals such as
These lamps are designed to contained in a separate unit dogs and cats passing by.
switch on for a certain time when connected remotely to the lamp. Any warm object moving in
someone walks in the detection In most DIY units, however, it is (and especially across) the
field. This extends fan-shaped attached to the lamp itself detection field is likely to cause
from a “window” in the front of the because this makes for simpler the unit to trigger – even warm
detector. In simple units, the installation. air from a nearby central heating
operating time is fixed at When a warm object moves flue. Tree branches and other
manufacture. However, it is more in the sensitive zone, a signal is objects moving in the wind
usual to provide a control, which given which, after processing, sometimes activate it –
may be used to adjust it over a operates a relay and switches presumably because they reflect
infrared from somewhere else.
Any cause of false triggering
may be difficult to track down. It
can occur even when the user
has taken every precaution
detailed in the installation guide.
After supposedly “correct”
setting-up, there is often a
tendency towards occasional
false triggering. This will require
further adjustment on a “trial and
error” basis to eliminate it
completely.
Most PIR lamps have a
“test” facility, which enables
them to operate in daylight and
this helps with the initial
adjustment process. However, it
will miss any false triggering
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 364
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
which happens only occasionally. There could be considerable difficulty
6V
B1
ON/OFF
when the lamp is mounted in a position that cannot be seen from the
S2
house.
1N4001
a
Normally, the only way to check for correct operation would be to
D1
k
stand outside and watch it for a long period of time! Unnecessary
220µ
operation of the lamp can be a nuisance to neighbors as well as
C8
wasting electricity and reducing the life of the bulb. With this PIR Light
13
12
Checker, however, you can leave the monitoring to automatic
DIS
TRIG THRES
IC2b
electronics!
556
RESET
OUT
10
9
8
CLOCKED
2M2
100n
R19
270Ω
C7
R20
This self-contained battery-operated unit will automatically monitor
5
a PIR lamp over a
DP
DISPLAY
period of several
COMPONENTS
ga cb
GND
X1
hours overnight. A
X2
ef d
3
LED (light-emitting
S1
Resistors
b
g
c
f
R1 56k diode) display
10
6
R2 sub-miniature light-dependent resistor registers the number
R12 TO R18
(LDR), dark resistance 5M ohms of times it has been
270Ω
approximately (see text) triggered, up to nine.
R3, R4 470k (2 off)
If the count exceeds
12
13
14
15
10
100n
3
R5 3M3
C6
this, the display will
GND
R6, R7, R9 to R11 1M (5 off)
8
return to zero but the
40110
R8, R19 2M2 (2 off)
LATCH
+VE
IC3
CLOCK UP
16
6
EN
R12 to R18, R20 270 ohms (8 off) decimal point will light
RESET
TAG
EN
4
All 0.25W 5% carbon film up. This shows the
5
Potentiometer “overflow” – that is, a
VR1 2M2 miniature enclosed carbon preset, number greater than
R11
C5
1µ
1M
horizontal nine. When the unit is
Capacitors
100n
switched off then on
C3
C1 47n metallised polyester, 2.5mm pitch
C2 100n metalised polyester, 2.5mm pitch again, the count is
100n
R10
1M
C4
C3, C4, C6, C7 100n metalised polyester, 5mm pitch reset to zero, ready
5
2
DIS
OUT
(4 off) for a further test.
THRES
IC2a
+VE
GND
C5 1u radial electrolytic, 63V
556
14
7
RESET
TRIG
C2
47n
C1
e
2N3903
Miscellaneous
1M
be easily monitored.
R7
TR1
display, 12.7mm
Multiple causes of
1M
R6
IC1
470k
R4
internal;
PCB supports (2 off);See also the
connecting wire; solder, etc. at dawn and this will
need to be subtracted
DARK)
2M2
56k
R1
(2M
R2
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 365
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
night with the PIR lamp in HOW IT WORKS A BIT DIM
“normal” mode. There must be
no other bright sources of light The full circuit diagram for the With preset VR1 suitably
nearby which could result in PIR Light Checker is shown in adjusted, under dim conditions
false counts. Fig.1. Power is derived from a 6V the voltage at the opamp
battery pack (4 x 1××5V cell) B1 via inverting input will exceed that at
on-off switch S2 and diode D1. the non-inverting one, so the
BATTERY SAVING The diode prevents possible device will be off with the output
The circuit is housed in a damage if the supply were to be (pin 6) low. When the LDR is
small plastic box. This has a connected in the opposite sense. sufficiently illuminated, the
seven-segment LED display If this were done, the diode would conditions will reverse with the
showing through a hole in the be reverse-biased so no current inverting input voltage falling
lid. There are also two switches would flow. below the non-inverting one.
(see photograph). One of these The opamp will then switch on
It will be found that the actual
is simply an on-off switch while and output pin 6 will go high.
nominal supply voltage is 5××3V
the other activates the display. Resistor R5 applies some
taking into account the forward
This latter switch is operated positive feedback to the system,
voltage drop of the diode (0××7V
only when a reading needs to be which sharpens the switching
approximately). Capacitor C8 action at the critical light level.
taken and so saves battery charges up almost instantly and
power. A hole in the side of the helps to provide a smooth and Transistor TR1 inverts the
box allows light from the lamp stable supply. output state of the opamp.
being monitored to reach a When the output is high, current
sensor on the printed circuit The light-sensing section of flows into TR1 base (b) through
board (PCB) inside. the circuit is centered on IC1 and current-limiting resistor R6. This
associated components. The light switches the transistor on and
The unit draws power from detector itself is a light-dependent
a 6V battery pack consisting of its collector (c) goes low. When
resistor (LDR), R2. The resistance the opamp output is low, no
four AA-size alkaline cells. of this device rises as the
Under standby conditions, the current will enter the base and
illumination of its sensitive surface the transistor will remain off. The
current requirement of the falls.
prototype unit is some 400uA. collector will then take on a high
The LDR works in conjunction logic state via load resistor R7.
When the display is with fixed resistor R1 and preset The state of the collector is
operated, the current rises to a potentiometer VR1 to form a therefore in the opposite sense
value that depends on the potential divider connected across to that of the opamp output.
number being displayed. This is the supply. Thus, as the
because each digit is formed by resistance of the LDR increases,
lighting up the appropriate the voltage across it will rise. This MONOSTABLE
segments in the display. The voltage will therefore be greater Transistor TR1’s collector is
most current-hungry case is when the LDR is dark than when it connected to the trigger input
when the number “8” is involved is illuminated. The actual “dark” (pin 6) of a monostable based
(since this uses all seven and “light” voltages can be varied on IC2a, which is one half of
segments) together with the within certain limits by adjusting dual integrated circuit timer, IC2.
“over-flow” decimal point. VR1. The voltage appearing
When TR1 collector goes
Since each segment and across the LDR is applied to the
from high to low (that is, the
the decimal point require 12mA inverting input (pin 2) of
LDR is illuminated), the trigger
approximately, the total current operational amplifier (opamp) IC1.
input receives a low pulse
will be about 100mA. However, The non-inverting input (pin 3) is
through capacitor C1. The
this will only be needed for a few connected to the mid-point of a
monostable output (pin 5) then
seconds during each test and, further potential divider consisting
goes high for a time dependent
as stated earlier, it is the “worst” of fixed resistors R3 and R4.
on the values of resistor R10
case. In practice, the battery Since these have the same value,
and capacitor C4. With the
pack should last for at least a the voltage here will be equal to
values specified, the timed
year under normal conditions. one-half that of the supply – that
period is 0××1s, approximately.
is, 2××6V approximately.
While the opamp output
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 366
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
a The seven segments of the
LED display are identified by off state, no current is drawn by
letters a to g as shown in Fig.2. the display.
f b Note that the unit used in this At the instant of switching
circuit is a common cathode
g type. In this, all the LED
on, IC3’s reset input (pin 5) is
b maintained in a high state while
cathodes (including that of the capacitor C5 charges up
decimal point) are connected through R11. During this time,
e c together and taken to pin 3 the counter is reset so the
(GND).
d display will always begin at zero.
Each segment requires a After a short time, C5 will charge
current-limiting resistor (R12 to sufficiently, pin 5 will go low and
R18) as with a conventional the counter will function
Fig.2. The seven segments LED. With the value specified, normally. Capacitor C6
of the display are identified each one will draw 12mA decouples this section of the
approximately when using a new circuit.
by letters (a to g)
battery. When the count passes
remains low (the LDR dimly The display, however, will from 9 to 0, IC3’s carry output,
illuminated), the high state of do nothing until push-to-make pin 10, goes low momentarily.
TR1’s collector has no effect. In “Display” switch S1 is operated. This would normally be used to
fact, in the absence of a low This allows current to flow feed the clock input of a second
pulse, IC2a trigger input is kept through any active segments counter/driver IC and a further
high through resistor R9 and this and complete the circuit via pin display would provide a readout
prevents possible false 3 to the 0V line. With S1 in the up to 99.
triggering. Capacitor C3
decouples this section of the
circuit.
At the instant of powering-
up, capacitor C2 keeps IC2a
reset input (pin 4) low and this
disables the monostable. The
capacitor soon charges up
through resistor R8, pin 4 goes
high and the monostable then
functions normally. The purpose
of this is to allow time for the
power supply to settle down to a
steady state since, otherwise,
the monostable could self-
trigger and a false count would
be registered.
COUNTING PULSES
When the monostable
outputs a pulse, this is
transferred to the “clock up”
input (pin 9) of counter and 7-
segment driver IC3. This
registers the number of pulses
received and decodes the result The PCB removed from the case lid to show wiring to the dis-
into a form which will directly play and on/off toggle switches. The display switch needs to be
drive the 7-segment LED display a “biased” off type. Note the 7-segment display chip must be
X1.
the highest component on the PCB.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 367
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
VR1 + R R
R 14 12
R R R 10 C5 R13
3 7 TR1 8 X1
R c
R R18
R2 1 b R9
6 R R17
e 19 Xg2a cb
ef d
R R C1 R16
4 5 C7 R15
R
11
C2
C6
C4 C3 R k
+
20 C8
D1
CONSTRUCTION
The PIR Light Checker Omit display X1 for the mount them flat on the PCB so
circuit is built on a single-sided moment. Note that it must end that they will not be higher than
printed circuit board (PCB). The up as the highest component on the display.
topside component layout and the PCB. Checks should be
(approximately) full-size Cut the LDR leads to a
made at intervals during the length of about 10mm and
underside copper foil master other assembly by inserting it
pattern are shown in Fig.3. This solder them to the R2 position
into its holes in the PCB (but do on the PCB. Bend them through
board is available from the EPE not solder it yet).
Online Store (code 7000263) right-angles so that the “window”
www.epemag.com Follow with all resistors points to the left. Note that the
(including preset VR1 but not specified LDR is a sub-miniature
In the prototype, one corner LDR R2). Note that many of the type having a body diameter of
of the PCB had to be cut off to resistors are mounted vertically 5mm approximately. If one of
avoid a bush in the box, see (see photo). these is not readily available, it
photograph. Begin construction would be possible to use a
by drilling the two fixing holes Solder electrolytic
capacitors C5 and C8 in position standard ORP12 device, but
and soldering the three IC some adjustment may be
sockets and four link wires into taking care over their polarity. If
they are not of the sub-miniature needed to the end leads to
place. prevent the body getting in the
type, it may be necessary to
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 368
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
point should also be off. If it
shows some other number, or
the decimal point is on, the
connection was probably not
done “cleanly”, so disconnect
the battery, wait for 30 seconds
and try again!
Cover the LDR with the
hand then remove it to allow
light to reach its window. The
display should advance to a
count of 1. If this does not work,
it is likely that the LDR has not
been properly covered. Try
working in a dark cupboard and
Layout of components on the completed circuit board. open the door slightly to give the
Note, one corner of the board has been trimmed off so it will fit flash of light. If this still does not
in the case. work, re-adjust preset VR1 and
try again.
way of anything else. be resolved more easily. By allowing repeated flashes
Add the diode and transistor To do this, bare the end few of light to reach the LDR, the
to the PCB, taking care over millimeters of the wires for counter should increment to 9
their orientation. The flat face of display switch S1 and connect and the next flash should return
transistor TR1 should face to the them together. Similarly, bare it to zero. However, the decimal
right as viewed in Fig.3. the end of the +6V wire. Insert point should now be seen to be
the cells for battery B1 into their lit up. If you wish to reset the
Solder the display to the
holder and apply the connector. display, you will need to wait for
PCB (with the decimal point at
Twist the battery connector up to thirty seconds between
bottom right, as shown in the
positive (red) wire to the +6V disconnecting the battery and
photo) using minimum heat from
wire from the PCB. re-connecting it again.
the soldering iron to prevent
possible damage. The display should light up
Solder 10cm pieces of light- and read zero. The decimal
duty stranded connecting wire to
the points labeled +6V and S1.
Solder the negative (black)
battery connector lead to the 0V
point. Adjust VR1 to
approximately mid-track
position.
TESTING
Immediately before handling
the pins of IC1, IC2 and IC3,
touch something which is
“earthed” (such as a metal water
tap). This will remove any static
charge, which may be present
on the body. Insert the ICs in
their sockets with the correct
orientation.
Before mounting the PCB in Completed PIR Light Checker front panel layout.
its case, perform a basic check The display cutout has been backed with a piece of translucent
so that any minor problems may filter material.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 369
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Constructional Project
window and VR1 on the top. internal wiring.
ENCLOSURE
Mark the position of the In the prototype, a piece of
If all is well, the PCB may switches. Remove the PCB and red plastic filter was glued over
now be mounted in the box. drill all these holes. the display hole on the inside of
Note that when using the the box. This gives a
The hole for the LDR should
specified unit, everything may professional appearance and
have a diameter of
be attached to the lid section. also improves the contrast of the
approximately 4mm (about twice
This method places least strain display. If a piece of real filter is
as large if the ORP12 type LDR
on the battery connecting wires. not available, perhaps suitable
is used). The hole above the
First, disconnect the positive preset VR1 position should be material could be obtained from
supply wire and detach the large enough to allow it to be a sweet wrapper or something
battery connector. Decide on adjusted using a thin similar.
positions for the PCB, battery screwdriver or trimming tool.
pack and switches, checking
that there is sufficient space for
The easiest way to make INTO SERVICE
the hole for the display is to drill
everything to fit. Arrange for the With switch S2 off, connect
small holes within its outline
LDR to lie between 5mm and the battery and attach the lid.
then remove the plastic using a
10mm from the side of the box. Find a suitable place for the unit
small hacksaw blade, or sharp
In the prototype, a miniature chisel. Finally, smooth the edges so that light from the PIR lamp
toggle switch with “make” up to the line using a small file. will reach the LDR directly
contacts was used for the on-off through the hole in the side of
Attach the PCB temporarily the box. The fact that the LDR is
switch and a matching biased
using nylon fixings and with some distance behind the hole
toggle switch was used for the
short plastic stand-off insulators makes the response directional.
display. A biased switch is one
on the bolt shanks. Adjust the This is useful because it tends
that springs back to the off
length of the stand-off insulators to discriminate against other
position when pressure is
so that the display will end up sources of light, which could
removed from the actuating
1mm approximately below the result in false counting.
lever. It is best to use either a
inside face of the box. When
biased toggle switch or a push- Make some tests at night.
satisfied, re-attach the PCB.
to-make switch to activate the For initial trials, you may find it
display so that it cannot be left Check that the LDR window helpful to use an elastic band or
on accidentally. lies directly in line with the hole PVC tape to hold the display
drilled for it. If not, adjust the switch (S1) on, so that the count
Mark through the PCB fixing
position of its end leads so that it may be observed over a period
holes. Measure the position of
is. Attach the switches. Secure of time. Remember that this
the display and mark around its
the battery pack using a small wastes the batteries so don’t do
outline. Mark also the position
bracket or adhesive pads. Refer it for too long.
directly in line with the LDR
to Fig.3 and complete the
Adjust preset VR1 for best
effect. Remember to protect the
unit against rain entering if this
is a possibility.
No more disturbed
neighbors with this “Trigger
Happy” circuit!
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
SURFING THE INTERNET
By Alan Winstanley
GOOGLE BOX FREE FOR ALL of the phone call, though obvi-
ously they still have to pay line
Eagle-eyed readers will In early March Alta Vista UK rental charges. Alta Vista UK’s
have noticed that I recently took the wind out of the sails of new service will not allow a per-
placed a Google search engine cable operator NTL manent 24 x 7 connection to the
in the 100 percent revalidated (www.askntl.com) as well as Internet, because it will time out
Net Work A-Z page on our web British Telecom, by announcing after five minutes of inactivity.
site, which contains many of the its new free Internet access ser- Furthermore, any attempt to
existing links I have highlighted vice for UK users. In fact it isn’t “ping” an open connection with a
in the past. Google is hugely fast entirely free – there will be a keep-alive utility such as
and easy to use. Instead of try- one-off set-up charge of any- WakeUp will be treated as an
ing to index every known web thing up to 50 UK pounds being abuse, presumably leading to
site, Google actually indexes on reported, and an annual cost of withdrawal of the service.
the basis of all the other links say 20 UK pounds. The new
made to those same web sites. service, to be called Al-
The search engine makes the taVista0800, will be rolled out at UNDER THE SURF
reasonable assumption that the a rate of 90,000 users per The new service announced
better a web site is, the greater month starting in June 2000. by Alta Vista UK wrong-footed
the number of links pointing to In the USA and Canada, a British Telecom into declaring its
that site. More importantly, service called AltaVista Free Ac- own revised plan for un-metered
Google keeps a cache of stored cess has been available since access. BT previously sug-
web pages, so that even if a August 1999 (see gested its SurfTime package
web site is taken down there is www.microav.com), offering (see Net Work Feb ’00) could
still a possibility that you can re- completely free Internet access cost anything up to 35 UK
trieve the content from Google’s to its users. There are no set-up pounds a month for always-on
cache. Give it a try. or subscription charges at all. access. I showed how this was
In March 2000 Net Work I Instead, AltaVista Free Access five times more than a user in
outlined the evolution of Alta employs a “Micro Portal” – a Dallas, Texas who pays just $12
Vista, Digital Equipment’s lead- window on the user’s computer (7 UK pounds a month) after
ing search engine and portal site screen which contains rotating loyalty discounts, with local In-
which was acquired by computer adverts and other customizable ternet and voice calls thrown in
manufacturer Compaq in early content. The technology behind for free.
1998. There is no doubt that Alta this is provided by 1stUp.com, a In light of Alta Vista UK’s
Vista is a first-rate search en- US developer specializing in new 0800 package, BT was
gine, offering further options to advert-supported dial-up ac- forced into firming up its own
non-English users courtesy of its counts. The advertising window position. They make much of the
Babel Fish language translator. must always remain open to en- fact that their SurfTime option
Alta Vista continues to roll out joy free Internet access, which is will be available to businesses
across Europe, starting out in a powerful incentive for many as well as home users, and they
Germany almost a year ago, fol- consumers already conditioned are attempting to cater for users’
lowed by Sweden and more re- to banner adverts to remain differing habits, given that many
cently the UK in December loyal. users are obviously at work dur-
1999. The Californian-based In the UK, by using an 0800 ing the day and only access the
company then launched into access number, subscribers are Internet during evenings and
France and the Netherlands last relieved of the worry of the cost weekends. The cheapest option
month.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 371
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Net Work
that BT now proposes is for oc- would be able to compete by re- ISP but makes you pay for the
casional users, paying 1 pence selling BT SurfTime. calls instead. It is hard to know
per minute daytimes, 0××6 pence As if BT’s convoluted phone what will happen to those free
evenings and 0××5 pence week- tariffs aren’t enough, don’t forget ISPs that also bundle your do-
ends, on top of line rental at the offerings over at BT Internet main name and technical sup-
9.26 UK pounds per month. (www.btinternet.com), the port in with the deal.
As usual, BT’s press re- telco’s Internet Service Provider It is not as though any of
lease is not entirely straightfor- arm. Un-metered 0800 evening these free ISPs can levy even a
ward, partly because they hint at and weekend access is now small monthly fee, as they don’t
an all-inclusive cost for Internet available at a new lower rate of have any billing mechanism in
access by bundling in rental fig- 9.99 UK pounds a month or place. Freeserve’s latest move
ures plus an estimate of monthly 109.98 UK pounds a year, and involves offering free Internet
ISP charges. For a service fee as a sign of their eagerness to access, provided customers
of 5.99 uk pounds a month ex- help novices getting to grips with make 10 UK pounds of calls per
cluding rental, BT customers the Internet, BT have actually month routed through Energis,
can choose the evening and increased the cost of support its parent telco. However, BT is
weekend package which allows calls to 50 pence a minute up now spending the intervening
for un-metered access plus up from local rate. months rolling out the intercon-
to 80 minutes’ voice calls. BT’s nect components, and ISPs
always-on package is likely to which adopt the 0844 SurfTime
cost 19.99 UK pounds per LOOKING AHEAD tariff are expected to be able to
month plus rental for home The UK Internet market re- charge their subscription fees to
users and 29.74 UK pounds ex- mains as volatile as ever, and their customer using the user’s
cluding VAT (including rental) further sweeping changes are BT phone bill. When there are
for business users. probable over the next 12 to 18 new offers springing up all the
months before the market finally time, it makes sense not to com-
Realizing that the rates will
settles down. For Freeserve, the mit to a long-term agreement
be scrutinized by an increasingly
18-month old pioneer of the free until all the players have made
impatient audience, BT has
ISP model, interesting times are their moves.
gone to extraordinary lengths to
emphasize how competitive they ahead. As with all free ISPs, You can E-mail me at
say their dial-up Internet pack- Freeserve makes its revenue alan@epemag.demon.co.uk.
ages are in comparison with from that all-important slice of My web site is at http://home-
similar ones in the USA. the cost of the BT 0845 phone pages.tcp.co.uk/~alanwin
call, plus advertising and the
The rates won’t be available cost of providing technical sup-
to end-users until June 2000, port.
and there is a further complica-
tion: BT SurfTime will require Consumers tend not to have
users to access their preferred much loyalty towards their ISP
ISP by using an 0844 04 num- and if they suddenly decide to
ber. If your preferred ISP doesn’t jump ship from the free ISPs
offer one, then you can’t use the and move to a service such as
SurfTime package. More prob- AltaVista0800, preferring to pay
lems in store include the fact an annual fee for free unlimited
that no wholesale pricing had calls, this is bound to have a
been offered, therefore no other profound impact on Freeserve
service provider (e.g. Freeserve) which charges nothing as an
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Part 4 – COMPUTERS 1900-1999
by Clive “Max” Maxfield and Alvin Brown
Boldly going behind the beyond, behind which no one University called Allan Marquand
has boldly gone behind, beyond, before! invented a graphical technique
of representing logical problems
using squares and rectangles.
The purpose of this series is by Babbage called a Difference
Marquand’s efforts set a number
to review how we came to be Engine, which could be used to
of people to pondering, including
where we are today (technology- generate certain mathematical
the Reverend Charles Lutwidge
wise), and where we look like tables.
Dodgson, who published his
ending up tomorrow. In Part 1 we However, this is not to say own diagrammatic technique in
cast our gaze into the depths of that nothing of interest a book called The Game of
time to consider the state-of-the- (computing-wise) was taking Logic in 1886. (The Reverend is
art in electronics, place, because there were a better known to most of us as
communications, and computing number of developments that Lewis Carroll, the author of
leading up to 11:59pm on 31 would prove to be extremely Alice’s Adventures in
December 1899, as the world was interesting to computer Wonderland.)
poised to enter the 20th Century. scientists in the 20th Century.
In the early 1890s, yet
Parts 2 and 3 covered First of all, the self-taught another approach was put
fundamental electronics and British mathematician George forward by the English logician
communications in the 20th Boole published two key papers John Venn, who was extremely
Century, respectively. Now, in in 1847 and 1854. These papers impressed by Boole’s work.
Part 4 we consider some of the described how logical Unlike earlier graphical
key discoveries in computing that expressions could be techniques, Venn’s diagrams
occurred during the 20th Century. represented in a mathematical were based on the use of circles
These developments have set the form that is now known as and ellipses, which could be
scene for what is to come as we Boolean Algebra. What Boole employed to represent Boolean
plunge forth into the third was trying to do was to create a equations.
millennium. But before we start, mathematical technique that
The rectangles and squares
let’s first consider logic diagrams could be used to represent and
of Marquand and Carroll
and logic machines, which usually rigorously test logical and
eventually led to Maurice
receive little mention … philosophical arguments.
Karnaugh inventing a graphical
We can only imagine what technique for both representing
LOGIC AND LOGIC Boole would have thought had and minimizing Boolean
he realized that his new expressions in the 1950s. These
DIAGRAMS mathematics would find techniques were to become
With the exception of Charles application in designing digital tremendously useful to
Babbage’s proposal for a computers 100 years in his designers of digital logic, and
mechanical computer called the future. But we digress … Karnaugh maps and Venn
Analytical Engine in 1832, very Diagrams are both still taught
little thought was given to and used to this day.
computing prior to 1900. Instead,
LOGIC
effort was focused on simple WONDERLAND
mechanical calculators, and also LOGIC MACHINES
In 1881, a lecturer in logic
on variations of another and ethics at John Hopkins In addition to speculating
mechanism put forward in 1882 about logic, it should come as
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be “half-baked” on a TIMELINES
good day.
1274: Spain. Theologian Ra-
The world’s first
mon Lull proposes a
real logic machine
“logic machine” consist-
(that is, one that
ing of a set of concentric,
could actually be
nested disks.
used to solve simple
logic problems, as 1777: Charles Stanhope in-
opposed to Lull’s vents a mechanical cal-
which tended to culating machine.
create more Late 1700s: Charles Stanhope
problems than it invents the Stanhope
solved) was invented Demonstrator.
in the late 1700s by
the British scientist 1822: England. Charles Bab-
Stanhope Square Demonstrator, late bage starts to build a me-
18th century. Courtesy Science Museum/ and statesman
Charles Stanhope chanical calculating ma-
Science and Society Picture Library. chine – the Difference
(third Earl of
no surprise to learn that people Stanhope). Engine.
have been experimenting with This device, the Stanhope 1832: England. Charles Bab-
so-called “logic machines” for Demonstrator, was a small box bage conceives the first
quite some time. Perhaps the with a window in the top, along mechanical computer –
earliest example is a set of with two different colored slides the Analytical Engine.
concentric, nested discs that the user pushed into slots in 1847: England. George Boole
revolving around a central axis the sides. Although this doesn’t publishes his first ideas
as proposed by the Spanish sound like much it was a start, on symbolic logic.
theologian Ramon Lull in 1274. but Stanhope wouldn’t publish
Each disc contained a number 1869: William Stanley Jevons
any details and instructed his
of different words or symbols, invents the Logic Piano.
friends not to say anything about
which could be combined in what he was doing. 1881: Alan Marquand invents a
different ways by rotating the graphical technique of
disks. In fact, it wasn’t until around
representing logic prob-
sixty years after his death that
Lull’s disks were followed by lems.
the Earl’s notes and one of his
a variety of other techniques devices fell into the hands of the 1886: Reverend Charles
over the centuries, most of Reverend Robert Harley, who Lutwidge Dodgson
which we would now consider to subsequently published an (Lewis Carroll) publishes
a diagramatic technique
for logic representation in
The Game of Logic.
1890s:John Venn proposes
logic representations us-
ing circles and ellipses.
1925: America. Scientist, engi-
neer, and politician Van-
nevar Bush designs an
analog computer called
the Product Intergraph.
1930: America. Vannevar Bush
designs an analog com-
puter called a Differential
Analyzer.
1936: America. Efficiency ex-
Stanhope’s calculating machine, 1777. Courtesy Science Mu- pert August Dvorak
seum/Science and Society Picture Library. patents his layout for
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article on the Stanhope the appropriate letters appeared keys on a typewriter
Demonstrator in 1879. to reveal the result. called the Dvorak Key-
Stanhope also invented a The next real advance in board.
circular demonstrator and a logic machines was made by 1936: America. Psychologist
mechanical calculating machine. Allan Marquand, whom we Benjamin Burack con-
previously met in connection structs the first electrical
with his work on logic diagrams. logic machine (but he
LOGIC PIANOS In 1881, by means of the didn’t publish anything
Working on a somewhat ingenious use of rods, levers, about it until 1949).
different approach was the and springs, Marquand
extended Jevons’ work to 1937: America. George Robert
British logician and economist
produce the Marquand Logic Stibitz, a scientist at Bell
William Stanley Jevons, who, in
Machine. Like Jevons’ device, Labs, builds a simple dig-
1869, produced the earliest
Marquand’s machine could only ital calculator machine
model of his famous Jevons’
handle four variables, but it was based on relays called
Logic Machine. This device is
smaller and significantly more the Model K.
notable because it was the first
machine that could solve a intuitive to use. 1937: England. Graduate stu-
logical problem faster than that dent Alan Turing (of
problem could be solved without Colossus fame) writes
using the machine! ROCKET-POWERED his ground-breaking pa-
Jevons was an aficionado of FRISBEES per: On Computable
Boolean logic, and his solution Numbers with an Appli-
Things continued to develop
was something of a cross cation to the Entschei-
apace. In 1936, the American
between a logical abacus and a dungsproblem.
psychologist Benjamin Burack
piano (in fact it was sometimes from Chicago constructed what 1937: England. Alan Turing in-
referred to as a “Logic Piano”). was probably the world’s first vents a theoretical
This device, which was about a electrical logic machine. (thought experiment)
meter (three feet) tall, consisted Burack’s device used light bulbs computer called the Tur-
of keys, levers and pulleys, to display the logical ing Machine.
along with letters that could be relationships between a 1938: America. Claude E.
either visible or hidden. When collection of switches, but for Shannon publishes an
the operator pressed keys some reason he didn’t publish article (based on his
representing logical operations, anything about his work until master’s thesis at MIT)
1949. that showed how
In fact, the Boolean algebra could be
connection used to design digital cir-
between cuits.
Boolean algebra 1938: Germany. Konrad Zuse
and circuits finishes the construction
based on of the first working me-
switches had chanical digital computer
been recognized (the Z1).
as early as 1886
by an educator 1939: America. George Robert
called Charles Stibitz builds a digital cal-
Pierce. culator called the Com-
However, plex Number Calculator.
nothing 1939: America. John Vincent
substantial Atanasoff (and Clifford
happened in this Berry) may or may not
Monroe’s “Full Automatic” calculating ma- area until 1938, have constructed the first
chine, 1922, the first machine to offer fully au- at which time the truly electronic special-
tomatic multiplication and division. Courtesy American purpose digital computer
Science Museum/Science and Society engineer Claude called the ABC (but it did
Picture Library. E. Shannon not work until 1942).
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1940: America. George Robert
Stibitz performs first ex-
ample of remote comput-
ing between New York
and New Hampshire.
1941: Germany. Konrad Zuse
finishes the first true
relay-based general-
purpose digital computer
(the Z3).
1942: Germany. Between 1942
and 1943 Konrad Zuse
builds the Z1 and Z2
computers for the Hen-
schel aircraft company.
1942: Germany, Between 1942
and 1945/6 Konrad Zuse
Hartree Differential Analyzer, 1935, based on that invented by develops the ideas for a
high-level computer pro-
Vannevar Bush. Courtesy Science Museum/Science and Soci-
gramming language
ety Picture Library. called Plankakul.
published an article based on 1943: England. Alan Turing and
ELECTROMECHANIC team build a special-
his master’s thesis at MIT.
Shannon’s thesis has been
AL COMPUTERS purpose electronic
(vacuum tube) computer
described as: “Possibly the most In 1927, with the assistance
called Colossus.
important Master’s thesis of the of two colleagues at MIT, the
twentieth century.” In his paper, American scientist, engineer 1944: America. Howard Aiken
which was widely circulated, and politician Vannevar Bush and team finish building
Shannon showed how Boole’s designed an analog computer an electromechanical
concepts of TRUE and FALSE that could solve simple computer called the Har-
could be used to represent the equations. This device, which vard Mark I (also known
functions of switches in Bush dubbed a Product as the IBM ASCC).
electronic circuits. (Shannon is Intergraph, was subsequently 1945: America. Hungarian/
also credited with the invention built by one of his students. American mathematician
of the rocket-powered Frisbee, Bush continued to develop Johann (John) Von Neu-
and is famous for riding down his ideas and, in 1930, built a mann publishes a paper
the corridors at Bell Laboratories bigger version, which he called a entitled First Draft of a
on a unicycle while Differential Analyzer. The report on the EDVAC.
simultaneously juggling four Differential Analyzer was based 1946: America. John William
balls.) on the use of mechanical Mauchly, J. Presper Eck-
Following Shannon’s paper, integrators that could be ert and team finish build-
a substantial amount of attention interconnected in any desired ing a general-purpose
was focused on developing manner. To provide electronic computer
electronic logic machines. amplification, Bush employed called ENIAC.
Unfortunately, interest in torque amplifiers, which were
based on the same principle as 1948: America. Work starts on
special-purpose logic machines
a ship’s capstan. The final the first commercial com-
waned in the 1940s with the
device used its integrators, puter, UNIVAC 1.
advent of general-purpose
computers, which proved to be torque amplifiers, drive belts, 1948: America. First commer-
much more powerful and for shafts, and gears to measure cial computer, UNIVAC
which programs could be written movements and distances (not 1, is completed.
to handle formal logic. dissimilar in concept to an
1949: England, Cambridge Uni-
automatic slide rule).
versity. Small experimen-
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tal computer called ED-
SAC performs its first
calculation.
1949: England. EDSAC com-
puter uses first assem-
bler called Initial Orders.
1949: America. MIT’s first real-
time computer, Whirl-
wind.
1950: America. Jay Forrester at
MIT invents magnetic
core store.
1951: America. Computers are
sold commercially.
1952: America. John William
Harvard Mark I, the first large-scale automatic digital computer. Mauchly, J. Presper Eck-
Courtesy of IBM. ert and team finish build-
ing a general-purpose
Although Bush’s first FLASHLIGHT BULBS (stored program) elec-
Differential Analyzer was driven tronic computer called
by electric motors, its internal AND TIN CANS EDVAC.
operations were purely However, not everyone was 1956: America. John Backus
mechanical. In 1935 Bush enamoured by analog and team at IBM intro-
developed a second version, in computing. In 1937, George duce the first widely used
which the gears were shifted Robert Stibitz, a scientist at Bell high-level computer lan-
electro-mechanically and which Laboratories built a digital guage, FORTRAN.
employed paper tapes to carry machine based on relays,
instructions and to set up the flashlight bulbs and metal strips 1956: America. John McCarthy
gears. cut from tin-cans, which he develops a computer lan-
called the Model K (because guage called LISP for
In our age, when computers
most of it was constructed on artificial intelligence ap-
can be constructed the size of
his kitchen table). plications.
postage stamps, it is difficult to
visualize the scale of the Stibitz’s machine worked on 1956: America. MANIAC 1 is
problems that these early the principle that if two relays the first computer pro-
pioneers faced. To provide were activated they caused a gram to beat a human in
some sense of perspective, third relay to become active, a game (a simplified ver-
Bush’s second Differential where this third relay sion of chess).
Analyzer weighed in at a represented the sum of the 1957: America. IBM 610 Auto-
whopping 100 tons! In addition operation. For example, if the Point computer is intro-
to all of the mechanical two relays representing the duced.
elements, it contained 2000 numbers 3 and 6 were
vacuum tubes, thousands of 1958: America. Computer data
activated, this would activate is transmitted over regu-
relays, 150 motors, and another relay representing the
approximately 200 miles of wire. lar telephone circuits.
number 9. (A replica of the
As well as being a major Model K is on display at the 1959: America. COBOL com-
achievement in its own right, the Smithsonian.) puter language is intro-
Differential Analyzer was also duced for business appli-
Stibitz went on to create a
significant because it focused cations.
machine called the Complex
attention on analogue computing Number Calculator, which, 1961: Time-sharing computing
techniques, and therefore although not tremendously is developed.
detracted from the investigation sophisticated by today’s 1963: In America, the LINC
and development of digital standards, was an important computer was designed
solutions for quite some time. step along the way. In 1940, at MIT.
Stibitz performed a spectacular
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and the device could only 1965: John Kemeny and
demonstration at a meeting in
perform operations in the Thomas Kurtz develop
New Hampshire.
sequence in which they were the BASIC computer pro-
Leaving his computer in received. This machine was gramming language.
New York City, he took a based on numbers that were 23
teleprinter to the meeting and 1968: First Static RAM IC
digits wide – it could add or reaches the market.
proceeded to connect it to his subtract two of these numbers in
computer via telephone. In the three-tenths of a second, 1970: First floppy disk (8.5
first example of remote multiply them in four seconds, inch) is used for storing
computing, Stibitz astounded the and divide them in ten seconds. computer data.
attendees by allowing them to 1970: America. Ethernet devel-
pose problems, which were oped at Palo Alto Re-
entered on the teleprinter; within KONRAD ZUSE search center by Bob
a short time the teleprinter In the aftermath of World Metcalfe and David
presented the answers War II, it was discovered that a Boggs.
generated by the computer. program controlled calculator
1971: America. Datapoint 2200
called the Z3 had been
computer introduced by
HARVARD MARK I completed in Germany in 1941,
CTC.
which means that the Z3 pre-
Many consider that the dated the Harvard Mark I. The 1971: CTC’s Kenbak-1 Com-
modern computer era Z3’s architect was a German puter is introduced.
commenced with the first large- engineer called Konrad Zuse, 1971: America. Ted Hoff de-
scale automatic digital who developed his first signs (and Intel releases)
computer, which was developed machine, the Z1, in his parents’ the first computer-on-a-
between 1939 and 1944. This living room in Berlin in 1938. chip, the 4004 micropro-
device, the brainchild of a cessor.
Although based on relays,
Harvard graduate, Howard H.
the Z3 was very sophisticated 1971: Niklaus Wirth develops
Aiken, was officially known as
for its time; for example, it PASCAL computer lan-
the IBM automatic sequence
utilized the binary number guage (named after
controlled calculator (ASCC),
system and could handle Blaise Pascal).
but is more commonly referred
floating-point arithmetic. (Zuse
to as the Harvard Mark I. 1972: November, America. Intel
had considered employing
The Mark I was constructed vacuum tubes, but he decided to introduce the 8008 mi-
out of switches, relays, rotating use relays because they were croprocessor.
shafts, and clutches, and was more readily available and also 1973: America. Xerox Alto
described as sounding like a because he feared that tubes Computer is introduced.
“roomful of ladies knitting.” The were unreliable).
machine contained more than 1973: May, France. 8008-
In 1943, Zuse started work based Micral microcom-
750,000 components, was 50
on a general-purpose relay puter is introduced.
feet long, 8 feet tall (15××2m x
computer called the Z4. Sadly,
2××4m), and weighed 1973: June, the term micro-
the original Z3 was destroyed by
approximately five tons computer first appears in
bombing in 1944 and therefore
(5080kg)! print in reference to the
didn’t survive the war (although
8008-based Micral micro-
Although the Mark I is a new Z3 was reconstructed in
computer.
considered to be the first digital the 1960s). However, the Z4 did
computer, its architecture was survive – in a cave in the 1973: America. Scelbi Com-
significantly different from Bavarian Alps – and by 1950 it puter Consulting Com-
modern machines. The device was up and running in a Zurich pany introduce the
consisted of many calculators, bank. Scelbi-8H
which worked on parts of the microcomputer-based
It is interesting to note that
same problem under the do-it-yourself computer
paper was in short supply in
guidance of a single control unit. kit.
Germany during the war, so
Instructions were read in on instead of using paper tape, 1973: PDP-8 becomes the first
paper tape, data was provided Zuse was obliged to punch popular microcomputer.
separately on punched cards, holes in old movie film to store 1974: America. Intel introduce
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Rebuilt version the 8080 microprocessor.
of Konrad 1974: August, America. Mo-
Zuse’s ZI com- torola introduce the 6800
puter. The microprocessor.
original was 1974: June, America. Radio
built in his par- Electronics magazine
ent’s living publishes an article by
room in Berlin Jonathan (Jon) Titus on
in 1938. Cour- building an 8008-based
tesy of Horst microcomputer called the
Mark-8.
Zuse.
1975: America. MOS Technol-
ogy introduce the 6502
microprocessor.
his programs and data. We may A lecturer at Iowa State 1975: January, America, Ed
only speculate as to the films College (now Iowa State Roberts and his MITs
Zuse used for his hole-punching University), Atanasoff was company introduce the
activities; for example, were any disgruntled with the 8080-based Altair 8800
first-edition Marlene Dietrich cumbersome and time- microcomputer.
classics on the list? (Marlene consuming process of solving
1975: April, America. Bill Gates
Dietrich fell out of favor with the complex equations by hand.
and Paul Allen found Mi-
Hitler regime when she Working alongside one of his
crosoft.
emigrated to America in the graduate students (the brilliant
early 1930s, but copies of her Clifford Berry), Atanasoff 1975: July, America. Microsoft
films would still have been commenced work on an release BASIC 2.0 for the
around during the war.) electronic computer in early Altair 8800 microcom-
Zuse was an amazing man 1939, and had a prototype puter.
who was well ahead of his time. machine by the autumn of that 1975: America. MOS Technol-
In fact there isn’t enough space year. ogy introduce the 6502-
to do him justice in this article, In the process of creating based KIM-1 microcom-
but you can find a “world- the device, Atanasoff and Berry puter.
exclusive” feature article on evolved a number of ingenious 1975: America. Sphere Corpo-
Zuse at the EPE Online web site and unique features. For ration introduce the
at www.epemag.com. This example, one of the biggest 6800-based Sphere 1
article, which was written by problems for computer microcomputer.
Konrad’s eldest son, Horst designers of the time was to be
Zuse, contains over 100 able to store numbers for use in 1975: America. Microcomputer
photographs from Horst’s the machine’s calculations. in kit form reaches US
private collection, many of which home market.
Atanasoff’s design utilized
have never been published capacitors to store electrical 1976: America. Zilog introduce
before! charge that could represent the Z80 microprocessor.
numbers in the form of logic 0s 1976: March, America. Steve
FIRST ELECTRONIC and logic 1s. The capacitors Wozniak and Steve Jobs
were mounted in rotating introduce the 6502-based
COMPUTERS Bakelite cylinders, which had Apple 1: microcomputer.
We now turn our attention to metal bands on their outer
1976: April 1st, America. Steve
an American mathematician and surface. These cylinders, each
Wozniak and Steve Jobs
physicist, John Vincent approximately 12 inches tall and
form the Apple computer
Atanasoff, who has the dubious 8 inches in diameter (30cm x
company.
honor of being known as the 20cm), could store thirty binary
man who either did or did not numbers, which could be read 1977: April, America. Apple in-
construct the first truly electronic off the metal bands as the troduces the Apple II mi-
special-purpose digital cylinders rotated. crocomputer.
computer. Input data was presented to 1977: April, America. Com-
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modore Business Ma-
chines present their
6502-based Commodore
PET microcomputer.
1977: August, America. Tandy/
Radio Shack announce
their Z80-based TRS-80
microcomputer.
1978: America. Apple introduce
the first hard disk drive
for use with personal
computers.
1979: America, the first true
commercial microcom-
puter program, the Visi-
Calc spreadsheet, is
available for the Apple II.
1979: ADA programming lan-
guage is named after Au-
The Colossus computer, Bletchley Park, 1943. Used to de-
gusta Ada Lovelace (now
cypher the German “ENIGMA” codes during WWII. Courtesy credited as being the first
Science Museum/Science and Society Picture library. computer programmer).
the machine in the form of GENIUSES AND 1981: America. First IBM PC is
punched cards, while intermediate launched.
results could be stored on other ECCENTRICS
1981: America. First mouse
cards. Once again, Atanasoff’s Many of the people who pointing device is intro-
solution to storing intermediate designed the early computers duced.
results was quite interesting – he were both geniuses and
used sparks to burn small spots eccentrics of the first order, and 1981: First laptop computer is
onto the cards. The presence or the English mathematician Alan introduced.
absence of these spots could be Turing was “first amongst 1983: Apple’s Lisa is the first
automatically determined by the equals.” In 1937, while a personal computer to use
machine later, because the graduate student, Turing wrote a mouse and pull-down
electrical resistance of a his ground-breaking paper On menus.
carbonized spot varied from that Computable Numbers with an
of the blank card. 1983: Time magazine names
Application to the the computer as Man of
Some references report that Entscheidungsproblem. the year.
Atanasoff and Berry had a fully Since Turing did not have
working model of their machine by 1984: 1 MB memory chips in-
access to a real computer (not troduced.
1942. However, while some unreasonably, because they
observers agreed that the didn’t exist at the time), he 1985: CD-ROMs are used to
machine was completed and did invented his own as an abstract store computer data for
work, others reported that it was “paper exercise”. This the first time.
almost completed and would have theoretical model, which
worked, while still others stated became known as a Turing
that it was just a collection of Machine, was both simple and
parts that never worked. So elegant, and subsequently
unless more definitive evidence inspired many “thought
comes to light, it’s a case of: “You experiments”.
pays your money and you takes
your choice”. During World War II, Turing
worked as a cryptographer,
decoding codes and ciphers at
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one of the British government’s
top-secret establishments One small sec-
located at Bletchley Park. During tion of the re-
this time Turing was a key ceiver unit for
player in the breaking of the ENIAC. Another
German’s now-famous code photo of ENIAC
generated by their ENIGMA was shown in
machine. However, in addition to Part 2. Courtesy
ENIGMA, the Germans had
another cipher that was
employed for their ultra-top-
Science Museum/Science and Society Picture Library.
secret communications. This
general-purpose electronic that approximately 19,000
cipher, which was vastly more
computer was the electronic vacuum tubes had to be replaced
complicated that ENIGMA, was
numerical integrator and in that year alone, which averages
generated by a machine called a
computer (ENIAC), which was out to about 50 tubes a day!
Geheimfernschreiber (secret constructed at the University of
telegraph), which the allies In August 1944, Mauchly and
Pennsylvania between 1943 and Eckert proposed the building of
referred to as the “Fish”.
1946. another machine called the
In January 1943, along with electronic discrete variable
ENIAC, which was the
a number of colleagues, Turing automatic computer (EDVAC).
brainchild of John William
began to construct an electronic
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert This new machine was intended
machine to decode the
Jr., was a monster – it was 10 to feature many improvements
Geheimfernschreiber cipher.
feet (3m) tall, occupied 1,000 over ENIAC, including a new form
This machine, which they
square feet (300m2) of floor- of memory based on pulses of
dubbed Colossus, comprised
space, weighed in at sound racing through mercury
1,800 vacuum tubes and was approximately 30 tons delay lines.
completed and working by (30480kg), and used more than
December of the same year! 70,000 resistors, 10,000
By any standards Colossus capacitors, 6,000 switches, and FIRST DRAFT
was one of the world’s earliest 18,000 vacuum tubes. The final In June 1944, the Hungarian-
working programmable machine required 150 kilowatts American mathematician Johann
electronic digital computers. But of power, which was enough to (John) von Neumann first became
it was a special-purpose light a small town. aware of ENIAC. Von Neumann,
machine that was really only One of the greatest who was a consultant on the
suited to a narrow range of problems with computers built Manhattan Project, immediately
tasks (for example, it was not from vacuum tubes was recognized the role that could be
capable of performing decimal reliability; 90 percent of ENIAC’s played by a computer like ENIAC
multiplications). Having said this, down-time was attributed to in solving the vast arrays of
although Colossus was built as locating and replacing burnt-out complex equations involved in
a special-purpose computer, it tubes. Records from 1952 show designing atomic weapons.
did prove flexible enough to be
programmed to execute a
variety of different routines.
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storage oscilloscopes, and integrated circuits for one-of-a- 200,000 operations per second,
mercury delay lines as kind tasks. was destined for fame as the
discussed earlier. However, during his early central processor of many of the
Around 1950, Jay Forrester ruminations on the project, Hoff early home computers.
at MIT came up with the idea of realized that rather than design Following the 8080, the
using ferromagnetic beads the special-purpose devices microprocessor field exploded
(“cores”) threaded onto wires to requested by Busicom, he could with devices such as the 6800
store logic 0s and 1s (depending create a single integrated circuit from Motorola in August 1974,
on which way they were with the attributes of a simple- the 6502 from MOS Technology
magnetized). Although unwieldy minded, stripped-down, general- in 1975, and the Z80 from Zilog
by today’s standards, these core purpose computer processor. in 1976 (to name but a few).
stores were incredibly useful at The result of Hoff’s Unfortunately, documenting
that time, and they paved the inspiration was the world’s first all of the different
way for bigger and better microprocessor, the 4004, microprocessors would require a
computers. where the ‘4’s were used to book in its own right, so we
Of course, the advent of the indicate that the device had a 4- won’t even attempt the task
transistor was revolutionary in bit data path (there is a photo in here. Instead, we’ll create a
computing circles, because Part 2). The 4004 was part of a cunning diversion that will allow
each transistor could replace a four-chip system which also us to leap gracefully into the
vacuum tube that was 100s of consisted of a 256-byte ROM, a next topic … Good grief! Did you
times larger, consumed 100s of 32-bit RAM, and a 10-bit shift see what just flew past your
times more power, and was register. window?
100s of times less reliable. The 4004 itself contained
However, transistors by approximately 2,300 transistors FIRST PERSONAL
themselves did not oust core and could execute 60,000
stores. This was due to the fact operations per second. The COMPUTERS (PCS)
that storing one bit of data advantage (as far as Hoff was Given that the 8008 was not
required a single core only 1mm concerned) was that by simply introduced until November 1972,
or less in diameter, but storing changing the external program, the resulting flurry of activity was
the same bit would require the same device could be used quite impressive. Only six
between four and six transistors. for a multitude of future projects. months later, in May 1973, the
Thus, it was not until the In November 1972, Intel first computer based on a
invention of the integrated circuit introduced the 8008, which was microprocessor was designed
that useful semiconductor essentially an 8-bit version of and built in France.
memory devices started to the 4004. The 8008 contained
appear in the early 1970s. (The Unfortunately the 8008-
approximately 3,300 transistors based Micral, as this device was
development of vacuum tubes, and was the first microprocessor
transistors, and integrated known, did not prove
to be supported by a high-level tremendously successful in
circuits were discussed in Part language compiler called PL/M.
2.) America. However, in June of
The 8008 was followed by the that year, the term
4040, which extended the “microcomputer” first appeared
FIRST 4004’s capabilities by adding in print in reference to the
logical and compare Micral.
MICROPROCESSORS instructions, and by supporting
subroutine nesting using a small In the same mid-1973 time-
In 1970, the Japanese frame, the Scelbi Computer
calculator company Busicom internal stack.
Consulting Company presented
approached Intel with a request However, the 4004, 4040, the 8008-based Scelbi-8H
to design a set of twelve and 8008 were all designed for microcomputer, which was the
integrated circuits for use in a specific applications, and it was first microprocessor-based
new calculator. The task was not until April 1974 that Intel computer kit to hit the market
presented to one Marcian “Ted” presented the first true general- (the Micral wasn’t a kit – it was
Hoff, a man who could foresee a purpose microprocessor, the only available in fully assembled
somewhat bleak and never- 8080. This 8-bit device, which form). The Scelbi-8H was
ending role for himself designing contained around 4,500 advertised at $565 and came
sets of special-purpose transistors and could perform
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Special Feature
advertised in Popular
Electronics magazine in January
1975 for the then unheard-of
price of $439 US. In fact, when
the first unit shipped in April of
that year, the price had fallen to
an amazingly low $375 US.
Even though it only
contained a miserly 256 bytes of
RAM and the only way to
program it was by means of a
switch panel, the Altair 8800
proved to be a tremendous
success. (These kits were
Altair 8800b microcomputer, 1975. Courtesy Science supplied with a steel cabinet
Museum/Science and Society Picture Library. sufficient to withstand most
natural disasters, which is why a
equipped with 1Kbyte of RAM. Jonathan Titus was penning his
remarkable number of them
In June 1974, Radio article on the Mark-8, a man
continue to lurk in their owner’s
Electronics magazine published called Ed Roberts was
garages to this day.)
an article by Jonathan Titus on pondering the future of his
building a microcomputer called failing calculator company
the Mark-8, which, like the known as MITS (which was next BASIC GATES
Micral and the Scelbi-8H, was door to a laundromat in
Albuquerque, New Mexico). Also in April 1975, Bill Gates
based on the 8008 and Paul Allen founded
microprocessor. The Mark-8 Roberts decided to take a
gamble with what little funds Microsoft (which was to achieve
received a lot of attention from a certain notoriety over the
hobbyists, and a number of user remained available to him, and
he started to design a computer coming years), and in July of
groups sprang up around the that year, MITS announced the
US to share hints and tips and called the Altair 8800 (the name
“Altair” originated in one of the availability of BASIC 2.0 on the
disseminate information. Altair 8800. This BASIC
early episodes of Star Trek).
interpreter, which was written by
Roberts based his system Gates and Allen, was the first
LAUNDROMATS IN on the newly-released 8080 reasonably high-level computer
ALBUQUERQUE microprocessor, and the language program to be made
resulting do-it-yourself kit was available on a home computer –
Around the same time that
A Commodore PET 32K computer, 1979. Cas- An early IBM PC. Its architecture became the
sette recorders provided external data stor- foundation that all PC-compatibles must emu-
age. Courtesy John Becker late. Courtesy of IBM.
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Special Feature
MITS sold 2,000 systems that
year, which certainly made Ed Two of the bal-
Roberts a happy camper, while listic track mon-
Microsoft had taken its first itors of SAGE,
tentative step on the path toward the massive US
world domination. military com-
In June 1975, MOS puter that
Technology introduced their helped defend
6502 microprocessor for only the Western
$25 US (an Intel 8080 would World during
deplete your bank account by the Cold War.
about $150 US at that time). A Courtesy of
short time later, MOS
Technology announced their
IBM.
6502-based KIM-1
microcomputer, which boasted
2K bytes of ROM (for the that was both affordable and themselves). In fact, it wasn’t
monitor program), 1K byte of usable. The Apple II, which until late in 1978 that
RAM, an octal keypad, a became available in April 1977 commercial software began to
flashing LED display, and a for $1,300 US, comprised 16K appear.
cassette recorder for storing bytes of ROM, 4K bytes of RAM, Possibly the most significant
programs. This unit, which was a keyboard and a color display. tool of that time was the VisiCalc
only available in fully-assembled Apple was one of the great spreadsheet program, which
form, was initially priced at $245 early success stories – in 1977 was written for the Apple II by a
US, but this soon fell to an they had an income of $700,000 student at the Harvard Business
astoundingly low $170 US. US (which was quite a lot of School and which appeared in
The introduction of new money in those days), and just 1979. It is difficult to overstate
microcomputers proceeded one year later this had soared the impact of this program, but it
apace. Sometime after the KIM- tenfold to $7 million US! (which is estimated that over a quarter
1 became available, the Sphere was a great deal of money in of the Apple machines sold in
Corporation introduced its those days). 1979 were purchased by
Sphere 1 kit, which comprised a Also in April 1977, businesses solely for the
6800 microprocessor, 4K bytes Commodore Business Machines purpose of running VisiCalc. In
of RAM, a QWERTY keyboard, presented their 6502-based addition to making Apple very
and a video interface (but no Commodore PET, which happy, the success of VisiCalc
monitor) for $650 US. contained 14K bytes of ROM, spurred the development of
4K bytes of RAM, a keyboard, a other applications such as word
processors.
JOBS AND WOZNIAK display and a cassette tape
drive for only $600. Similarly, in When home computers first
In March 1976, two guys August of that year, Tandy/ began to appear, existing
called Steve Wozniak and Steve Radio Shack announced their manufacturers of large
Jobs (who had been fired with Z80-based TRS-80, comprising computers tended to regard
enthusiasm by the Altair 8800) 4K bytes of ROM, 4K bytes of them with disdain (“It’s just a fad
finished work on a home-grown RAM, a keyboard and a cassette . .. it will never catch on”).
6502-based computer which tape drive for $600. However, it wasn’t too long
they called the Apple 1 (a few before the sound of money
weeks later they formed the changing hands began to
Apple Computer Company on WOT! NO awaken their interest. In 1981,
April Fools day). SOFTWARE? IBM launched their first PC for
Although it was not $1,365 US, which, if nothing
One aspect of computing else, sent a very powerful signal
tremendously sophisticated, the
that may seem strange today is to the world that personal
Apple 1 attracted sufficient
that there were practically no computers were here to stay.
interest for them to create the
programs available for these
Apple II, which many believe to The advent of the general-
early machines (apart from the
be the first personal computer purpose microprocessor
programs written by the users
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Special Feature
heralded a new era in computing digital computing and the NEXT MONTH
– microcomputer systems small personal computer have
enough to fit on a desk could be changed the world more In the fifth and final
endowed with more processing significantly than almost any installment of this series we
power than monsters weighing other human invention, and shall gird up our loins and
tens of tons only a decade many observers believe that pontificate on the future. Where
before. The effects of these we’ve only just begun our do you think the technology
developments are still unfolding, journey into the unknown! roller-coaster will take us in the
but it is not excessive to say that next 10, 100 or 1000 years?
Start pondering now and see if
EVER SO HUMBLE you agree with us in next
QUOTABLE QUOTES month’s exciting issue – same
We crave your indulgence
“Computers in the future and ask you to accept our time ... same place ... same
may weigh no more than 1·5 humblest apologies for all of the channel!
tons.” Popular Mechanics, fore- things we had to leave out.
casting the relentless march of Surely computer languages like
science, 1949. FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, C,
“I think there is a world mar- LISP, FORTH and … (the list
ket for about five computers.” goes on) deserve a mention?
Thomas Watson, Chairman of How could we neglect
IBM, 1943. microcomputers such as the
PDP and VAX from Digital
“I have traveled the length
Equipment Corporation (DEC)
and breadth of this country and
that had such an impact on the
talked with the best people, and
industry? Are operating systems
I can assure you that data pro-
like VMS, UNIX, and Windows
cessing is a fad that won’t last
to be ignored? What about
out the year.” The editor in behemoths like SAGE (which
charge of business books for
consumed a million watts of
Prentice Hall, 1957.
power) and CRAY
“There is no reason for any Supercomputers?
individual to have a computer in The problem is that one
their home.” Ken Olson, Presi- could go on forever, so we
dent of Digital Equipment Cor- chose to restrict ourselves only
poration (DEC), 1977 to those topics that we felt were
“So we went to Atari and particularly germane to this
said, ‘Hey, we’ve got this amaz- series. As usual you may of
ing thing, even built with some of course disagree (or you may
your parts, and what do you simply crave more once this
think about funding us? Or we’ll series is finished), in which case
give it to you. We just want to do please feel free to vent your
it. Pay our salary, we’ll come feelings by inundating the Editor
work for you.’ And they said, with your letters and emails.
‘No.’ So then we went to
Hewlett-Packard, and they said,
‘Hey, we don’t need you. You ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
haven’t got through college yet.’’ Portions of this article were
Apple Computer Inc. founder abstracted from our book,
Steve Jobs on attempts to get Bebop BYTES Back (An
Atari and HP interested in his Unconventional Guide to
and Steve Wozniak’s personal Computers), with the kind
computer. permission of its publisher,
“640K of memory ought to Doone Publications. (Bebop
be enough for anybody.” Bill BYTES Back is available from
Gates, CEO of Microsoft, 1981. the EPE Online Store at
www.epemag.com)
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
WHILST LOWER OPERATING VOLTAGES ENABLE MICROPROCESSORS TO RUN
FASTER, THE PROBLEM OF HEAT DISSIPATION BECOMES MORE SIGNIFICANT.
IAN POOLE REPORTS.
It is a commonly known fact and the trend of increasing additional power consumption
that microprocessor clock levels of power dissipation is from the leaky transistors raises
speeds are increasing all the likely to continue. With the the temperature and this
time. Only a few years ago, increasing levels of power reduces the electron mobility
clock speeds of 1GHz were dissipation, thermal control of because of the increased
thought to be many years away. chips is an integral part of the number of collisions that occur
Now a number of manufacturers design and it is every bit as as the electrons move around
have offerings with speeds important and challenging as the the crystal lattice.
around 1GHz that will shortly hit electrical performance. Accordingly, it makes the
the marketplace. IBM have a 64- It is interesting to note that methods and techniques used
bit Power PC chip. Compaq, when the first bipolar integrated for heat extraction from the IC a
have their 1GHz Alpha, and Intel circuits were introduced, limits of point of major importance if
a version of a Pentium III. These around 20 transistors were speeds are to increase at the
devices have been able to thought to be the limit of current rate. A company named
achieve their speed as a result integration as a result of thermal Kryotech is already marketing a
of a number of developments considerations. The introduction chip that is cooled, increasing its
that have been undertaken in of CMOS techniques enabled a performance by a half again. To
many research institutes and quantum leap to be made in the the same end, IBM are
development areas. levels of integration and the optimizing the performance of
All of the devices have trend towards ever-larger ICs their basic silicon designs for
geometries that are less than 0××2 has increased since then. low temperature operation with a
More recently, the reduction view to this being one of the
microns, and this means that the
of supply voltage has been of ways forward for the future.
operating voltages are low. For
example the Alpha operates on assistance as the thermal However, even though
a voltage of 1××65 volts. Not only boundaries have been speed generally increases with
is this low voltage required approached, because power cooling, it also increases the
because of the low breakdown levels are proportional to the threshold voltage for the
voltages associated with the square of the voltage. Even so individual devices, and this in
minute geometries, but it also other effects prevent the picture turn increases the level of
reduces the power consumption. from being quite so rosy. The leakage and partially offsets any
design of the transistors in the gains that are made. This is one
chip has to be altered to enable of the factors that makes
HEAT PROBLEMS them to operate at low voltages. optimizing the design for low-
Power consumption is an One of the results of this is that temperature operation so
increasing problem as they become far more leaky and important. By choosing the
demonstrated by the fact that this effect means that they optimum level of threshold
even modest Pentium chips consume power even when they voltage, the maximum use can
require cooling. However when it are switched off. be made of any cooling that is
is realized that IBM’s 64-bit used.
PowerPC uses 19 million TEMPERATURE
transistors, it is hardly surprising EXTRACTING HEAT
that very significant amounts of RISES
heat are dissipated. Some of the There are a number of ways
To ensure the highest
new chips now under in which heat can be extracted
speed of operation, devices
development dissipate levels of from the chips. One method is
should be operated at a low
heat well in excess of 50 watts, to use a system that is
temperature. The unwanted
effectively a small-scale version
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
New technology Updates
of a domestic refrigerator. could be built into the basic chip talk, which were large enough to
These systems are very package, providing a very slow down the speed of
successful, being already convenient, efficient and reliable operation. The material chosen
employed in a number of high method of extracting heat from for this is silicon oxyfluoride
end products and they are able the devices. (SiOF).
to cool chips down to a
temperature of around –50°C.
PACKAGES SUMMARY
Whilst this can give
significant advantages in Whilst heat is a major Although different
performance, lower problem that is being overcome, manufacturers use different
temperatures can provide even new package technology is also techniques to give the new
greater improvements. To part of the solution. Long gone higher clock speeds, the overall
achieve this there are a number are the days when dual-in-line pattern is clear, and it is likely
of methods that can be adopted. packages were able to meet that in a few years time they will
The most popular idea is that of most requirements. Even the all be used as standard. Many of
thermo-electric heat pumps. quad flat packs are not suitable, them give minor improvements
These do not involve the same and in addition to this, on their own, but when used
level of mechanical hardware equipment manufacturers dislike with the other techniques they
and are accordingly less them because they are easily enable a significant
expensive. They can also be damaged. Flip chip packages improvement in performance to
interfaced to the basic chip more where the silicon is directly be achieved in the chip as a
easily, and can actually be made bonded to the package are able whole. This demonstrates the
as part of the same assembly. to give performance fact that is commonly true in
improvements. This gives a technology that a variety of
However, the basic Peltier speed increase as a result of its improvements are required to
devices, although attractive at lower resistance and RC delays give the overall improvement in
first sight, leak too much heat as well as giving a physically performance.
back into the chip, and as a shorter connection.
result they are not as efficient as
they are required to be for this Further improvements have
function. Fortunately, new work been made by adopting a
undertaken at the system that enables the critical
Massachusetts Institute of leads to be kept as short as
Technology has resulted in the possible. Although this
production of new materials and technique requires the addition
structures that give far more of an extra layer of metalisation
effective and efficient solutions. and a complete re-layout of the
chip, it provides an increase that
The requirement is to be although small still helps to
able to remove a considerable increase the overall speed of
amount of heat from a small operation.
area. One of the new solutions
using a thin film semiconductor A further increase in
heat pump can extract as much performance is achieved by
as 100 watts per square using a dielectric with a low
centimeter. With further work it value. In turn this reduces the
is expected that these devices levels of capacitance and cross
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by ALAN WINSTANLEY
Our circuit surgeons provide more advice to help with reader’s problems and
conclude their mini-series investigating the inner workings of operational
amplifiers, looking at output stages and short-circuit
SHORT CIRCUITS
The push-pull amplifier is likely to be
damaged if its output is short-circuited to
ground, due to excessive collector current in
the conducting transistor. A short-circuit
protection arrangement may be added to
overcome this problem. The protection
circuit monitors the current flowing in the
Fig.4. Output stage with protection circuit (protection output and turns off the output transistor if
components are shown using bold lines). the current exceeds some pre-defined limit.
The current detection is usually achieved by
using a small resistor in the output signal
path, and a transistor to switch off the output
(see Fig.4); the output current causes a
voltage drop across the resistor.
A protection transistor switches on when
the resistor voltage reaches about 0××6V to
0××7V. The protection transistor is connected
so that when it is on, it effectively short-
circuits the input to the power transistors, so
they have no signal to amplify. The
protection resistor values, Rp1 and Rp2 may
be chosen using Rp1 = Rp2 = VbeTRP1 / Imax
where VbeTRP1 is the turn-on voltage of the
protection transistor (typically 0××6V to 0××7V)
and Imax is the maximum output current, i.e.
the current at which the protection kicks in.
This kind of protection circuit is what
enables opamps to have the “infinite output
short circuit duration” quoted on many data
sheets.
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PART PART 7 – Op.amps
by John Becker
Over the previous six parts of Teach-In We now move on from the “interesting” to
2000, which we know you have been greatly the “practical”, in terms of describing active
enjoying, we have covered passive components which can be used to amplify and
components and several digital logic circuits. otherwise modify the waveforms generated. it
Via the interactive computer programs and the is opamps we now examine, those simple
simple interface you assembled, you have also robust components that feature so frequently
been able to observe the various waveforms in audio and other analog circuits. This month
generated by the experimental breadboard we demonstrate their basic nature, next month
circuits, showing how a few electronic we get you experimenting with some useful
components can be connected to achieve applications.
interesting results.
BUFFER BUFFER
(SEE TEXT)
OUTPUT INPUT
Probably the most important
electronic component in the
analog designer’s armory is the TO R.H.
operational amplifier. Better SIDE OF
BOARD
known, perhaps, by its
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TEACH-IN 2000
increase in resistance here input to the input of IC1a (pin 1). and non-inverting nature of the
causes a decrease in the Look back at the screen. respective input.
waveform amplitude. Whereas you had a rising ramp
Next adjust VR2’s wiper a few moments ago, you should
now see a falling ramp – INPUT TO OUTPUT
anticlockwise. Once it goes
beyond the original midway curiouser and curiouser! First, suppose that both
position, note how rapidly the Time, then, to discuss your inputs have the same voltage
waveform amplitude increases. findings in relation to an level applied to them. Because
You may also notice a change in opamp’s basic nature. there is no difference between
the waveform’s frequency (fewer the voltages, the output will be
cycles per screen-full!). Note held at the same voltage. If the
also that its top and bottom BASIC OPAMP voltage on the non-inverting
peaks become flattened the NATURE input rises fractionally above
more that VR2’s resistance is that on the inverting input, the
decreased. The peaks are In essence, an opamp is a output voltage will try to rise by
unlikely to be evenly flattened, two-input single-output device, the same amount amplified
however. Carefully adjust VR4 which has the capability of (multiplied) by the gain factor
until they become more equal. greatly amplifying a voltage (of, say, 100,000).
difference between its two
As you further rotate VR2’s Conversely, should the
inputs. For this reason, it can be
wiper, you will eventually see a voltage on the non-inverted
called a differential amplifier.
waveform somewhat resembling input fall below that on the
Within limits, the amplification is
a square wave instead of a inverted input, so the output will
according to a linear
triangle. Adjusting VR4 will try to fall by an equivalently
relationship. (You will recall that
change the waveform’s mark- amplified amount.
we discussed linear
space ratio (discussed in Part relationships when we Obviously, a similar effect
4). Before VR2 reaches its discussed potentiometers in will occur, but in the opposite
minimum resistance, and with Part 3.) For each unit of change direction, if it is the inverting
VR4 set too much to either side at the input, an equivalent but input voltage that changes while
of midway, the oscillator might linearly amplified increase will the non-inverting input voltage
stop functioning. result at the output. remains constant.
For some purposes (but not
WAVEFORM all) the amount of amplification NEGATIVE
(gain) available is far too great
INVERSION to be of use – it can be several FEEDBACK
That’s the first set of hundred thousand times for Consider, though, what
observations – on to the next. some opamps. However, there happens if part of the output
Return all three opamp wipers is a simple technique that can voltage is fed back to the
(VR2 to VR4) to a midway be used to restrict the inverting input, see Fig.7.4.
position. If the oscillator had amplification to a more Feedback into this input (via
indeed ceased functioning, this manageable level. resistor R2 in this case) is
action should restart it. If it In Fig.7.3 is shown the basic known as negative feedback.
doesn’t, briefly disconnect the symbol for an opamp (no longer The output will try to swing in the
power and then reconnect it. cluttered as it is Fig.7.2). The direction prompted by the
Adjust IC1’s preset VR1 so symbol shows that one input is relative voltage difference
that a rising-ramp waveform is marked as inverting (–), and the +V
seen (ramps were discussed in other as non-inverting (+). The R2
Part 5). Leave all presets as different input modes have great
they are and connect the ADC significance to the way in which R1
INPUT
the opamp can be used and OUTPUT
INVERTING INPUT ( )
controlled. BIAS
+
INPUT A ( ) 2 13 INPUT D ( )
positive value. +
INPUT A ( ) 3
+ 6 INPUT B ( )
+
INPUT A (+) 3 + 12 INPUT D (+)
VE 4 +
5 INPUT B ( )
Low gain values are of mu
+
+ VE 4 11 VE
ch better use if you want to just INPUT B (+) 5 + + 10 INPUT C (+)
slightly raise the amplitude of a EXAMPLES
INPUT B ( ) 6 9 INPUT C ( )
LM358 BIPOLAR
waveform, as you have just NE5532 BIPOLAR OUTPUT B 7 8 OUTPUT C
done with the triangle waveform. 1458 (VARIOUS PREFIXES) BIPOLAR
TL062 F.E.T.
In fact, when you first adjusted TL072 F.E.T.
EXAMPLES
you doubled the waveform DC output level (offset) to match the basic zero-differential input volt-
amplitude. So let’s explain the age. Manufacturers’ data sheets should be consulted for more infor-
mechanism that is used in the mation.
circuit of Fig.7.2 to control the
signal gain. recall that you were asked to connected so that it feeds back
originally set its wiper to a part of the output voltage to the
midway position). This action inverting input. Jointly, the effect
CONTROLLING GAIN roughly balanced the two inputs of both resistances, VR2 and
First, assume that the at the midway voltage. The VR3, determines the amount of
waveform being sent to the changes in voltage caused by negative feedback that occurs.
inverting input of IC4 via preset the triangle waveform’s swing Respectively, they are the
VR2 is alternating about a thus became evenly balanced equivalent of R1 and R2 in
midway voltage level. Let’s say as seen across the two opamp Fig.7.4.
the midway level is at 3V (half inputs. If both resistances are
the voltage applied to the full The voltage being fed into equal, then the negative
circuit, as supplied by your 6V the inverting input, however, feedback amount is the same as
battery). passes through the resistance the basic input amount, but
Your initial adjustment of offered by preset VR2. On its inverted. The result is that the
preset VR4 applied just about own that resistance has no voltage actually “seen” at the
the same midway voltage (which appreciable affect on the voltage inverting input is the input
we refer to as the bias) to the actually reaching the input. voltage minus the feedback
non-inverting input (you will Preset VR3, though, is voltage, i.e. nil! At least, that
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TEACH-IN 2000
would be the case if you ignored INVERTING GAIN
the non-inverting input.
WAVEFORM
But you can’t and don’t. The
FORMULA CLIPPING
internal circuitry of the opamp There is a simple formula What we have not yet
effectively adds this input’s which defines the gain in relation accounted for is the “flattening”
voltage (3V in this case) to the to the value of the inverting input of the waveform peaks as the
voltage on the other input. Thus resistance (call it R1, as in gain is increased beyond a
both inputs end up with the same Fig.7.4) and the negative certain point. The term given to
voltage on them! Confirm this feedback resistance (call it R2): this effect is “clipping”.
point using your meter to monitor The clipping has two
the voltage on opamp pins 2 and Gain = R2 / R1
possible causes. First, the
3, and that from IC1a pin 1. Thus if R2 is 100kW and R1 opamp is powered at a
What’s the good of that? you is 10kW the gain is 100k/10k = particular voltage, 6V (or
might ask. Well, there’s a lot! In 10. The output signal will be ten thereabouts) in your
order to achieve that balance times greater than that coming experiments. Reason must tell
between inputs, the output has in through R1 (within certain you that the opamp cannot
had to change its voltage level. limits, as discussed in a output a voltage greater than its
And that’s what we are interested moment). power supply.
in – the change in output level in In a perfect opamp, the
Similarly, if R2 is 10kW and
response to a change in input output voltage would be capable
R1 is 100kW then the gain will
level. of swinging fully between the
be 10k/100k = 0××1. The output
signal will then be 0××1 (one two power line levels, 0V and 6V
BALANCING ACT in this case. The flattening
tenth) of the input signal.
occurs when the swing can
In the above equal resistance increase no further, irrespective
example (VR2 = VR3), the output VIRTUAL EARTH of the amount of amplification
changes by the same amount as available.
the input, but in the opposite There is a term used to
direction. An input change of 1V describe the effect seen at the There are, indeed, some
upwards, for instance, causes an inverting input when there is a more-specialized opamps
output voltage change of 1V balance of voltage directly at the manufactured whose outputs
downwards. two inputs when feedback is can swing almost completely
employed – “virtual earth”. This between the power line levels.
If, though, VR3 resistance is The term given is that they have
is not a “true” earth in the sense
twice that of VR2 resistance, twice a “rail-to-rail output capability”,
that applies when referring to
the amount of feedback is where rail means power-rail
the common or 0V line of a
required in order to achieve the (power-line).
circuit, but nonetheless it is one
balance at the opamp inputs.
into which voltages can be fed Most general purpose
Consequently, a 1V input change
via resistances from many opamps, though, do not have
results in a 2V output change in
sources without causing a rail-to-rail output. Most will only
the opposite direction.
change in the virtual earth swing within limits somewhat
Similarly, if VR3 resistance is voltage level at the inverting less than the power rail range.
half that of VR2 resistance, then input. Under feedback The actual range depends on
the output change required to conditions, only adjusting the the opamp type, the voltage that
achieve balance is only half that voltage level on the non- it is being powered at, and the
fed into VR1. Thus, a 1V input inverting input will cause a amount of current that is being
rise will cause a 0××5V output fall. change in level on the inverting drawn from its output by the load
Indeed you have already input, this occurring due to the into which it is feeding. Under
proved the truth of these opamp’s internal circuitry, as no-load conditions, the LM358
statements when observing the said earlier. you are using here has a typical
affect of changing the values of Note that a virtual earth swing of about 0××5V to 3××8V for a
VR2 and VR3. You have proved condition does not exist if 5V power supply.
both signal gain (amplification) negative feedback is not
and signal reduction (attenuation). employed.
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waveform as you adjust gain,
PANEL 7.3 – OPAMP POWER LINES just the amplitude change.
Most opamps are designed to be run from a dual-rail power sup- There is, though, a much
ply, i.e. one having positive, negative and zero (ground) output voltage more pronounced effect that you
rails, typically ±15V but may not be as high as this with some devices. may observe, that of a reduction
As we deliberately demonstrate in this Teach-In, opamps can also in oscillator frequency with the
be powered from a power supply having only positive and 0V (ground) additional capacitor in circuit.
connections. In this case the middle rail voltage is provided by using Furthermore, the frequency and
the voltage at the center of an equally-divided potential divider (as shape of the waveform are likely
used in the demos). to vary when adjusting opamp
Note that whilst in theory all opamp circuits shown in this Teach-In preset VR2.
part can be powered from dual-rail supplies, on no account should The effect is due to the
dual-rail supplies be used if the circuit is to be connected to the ADC oscillator now seeing two
device or to a computer. Additional circuitry would be required in order capacitors in parallel, its own
to permit computer connection. Failure to observe this could seriously C1, and C2 of the opamp circuit.
harm the ADC and/or computer. The effective value of the latter
For optimum stability of an opamp circuit, the power supply is also changed by the amount
should be regulated at fixed voltage levels. Power supplies will be dis- of resistance it sees from VR2.
cussed in Part 9. We have a cure for this as
well!
INPUT CAPACITOR them whilst allowing alternating
current (AC) to pass through. We
Earlier, we drew your shall discuss this ability more fully SIGNAL BUFFERING
attention to the likelihood that, in a future Teach-In part, but for There is a scenario that we
when the gain was being the moment let’s accept this as a have not yet explored, that of
adjusted, the waveform position fact. But bear in mind that future feeding a voltage into the non-
seen on screen would change discussions will point out that this inverting input, and merely
as well as amplitude. This is in ability is governed by the feeding the output straight back
part due to the fact that the capacitance value and the load into the inverting input, but
triangular waveform tapped from resistance into which the “output” without any additional voltage or
IC1a pin 1 may not be swinging side of the capacitor is fed. Two current being fed into that input.
about an exact midway voltage other terms come into use in that Such a circuit is shown in
level. discussion, differentiation and Fig.7.5.
Consequently, any DC integration.
The interesting thing about
voltage difference between the this circuit is that the total
waveform’s midway level and
that set by VR4 is amplified by AC COUPLING negative feedback ensures that
the voltage applied to the non-
the opamp, causing the vertical So let’s prove the point even inverting input receives neither
shift observed. though we don’t explain it. amplification nor attenuation at
There is a very easy cure for Remove the oscillator connection the output. Whatever change
this – to stop the DC level from from the “DC Input” point on your there is on this input is exactly
the oscillator reaching the breadboard and connect it to the followed by the output, and in
opamp, just allowing the AC “AC Input” point. This now the same direction. In this
voltage change through. provides the input path with what configuration, the circuit is
is known as AC coupling (as known as a unity gain amplifier,
In Teach-In 2000 Part 2 we opposed to DC coupling, which
discussed capacitors in terms of i.e. the gain is 1. The circuit is
has been the situation so far). also said to function as a buffer.
their ability to be charged and
discharged through a Run the same group of What is now worth noting is
resistance. We displayed it via adjustments using opamp presets that inputs to opamps draw very
one of the computer demos and VR2 to VR4 as you did earlier and little current (some types draw
gave formulae for it. observe the screen results. none at all, see Panel 7.1). They
Capacitors have another You should find that once are said to have high impedance
attribute, the ability to stop direct VR4 has been set midway, there inputs, where impedance can
current (DC) passing through should be no vertical shift of the loosely be described as
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
TEACH-IN 2000
+6V
D.C. INPUT
Fig.7.6 SIGNAL
Adding a
C2 buffer to the
NON-INVERSION
6
IC4b 7
22m
VR3 circuit of We have not fully discussed
+
5 +
LM358
8
100k
Fig.7.2 the fact the waveform being
INPUT
2 output from IC4a is an upside
VR2 IC4a 1
OUTPUT down (inverted) version of that
100k +
3 LM358
generated by the oscillator.
VR4 4 There are occasions when this
100k
inversion might be undesirable,
0V in DC voltage amplification, for
example.
As another example, in
audio amplification involving
many simultaneously processed
sources, signals must often
remain the “right-way-up” with
respect to each in order to
maintain their correct
relationships. Failure to do so
could have severely detrimental
effects on the overall sound
quality. It could even result in
two signals canceling each other
(a principle we shall
demonstrate next month).
Interactive computer screen illustrating a non-inverting One way that we can
opamp circuit. maintain the correct phase
relationship, as it is known in
waveform processing, is to use
the amplifier stage in its non-
inverting mode rather than its
around IC4a, still via C2 and inverting mode. We can still
resistance. provide the same amount of
VR2.
In the earlier experiments, amplification.
Referring back to the
capacitor C2 caused a
breadboard layout in Fig.7.1,
frequency change at the
oscillator because the current/
connect the oscillator output NON-INVERSION
from IC1a pin 1 to the point CIRCUIT
voltage flowing through the
labeled “Buffer Input” and
resistance provided by VR1 was First we need to connect the
connect “Buffer Output” to “AC
being partly diverted into C2. If signal to the non-inverting input
Input”. Ensure that the small link
we insert a unity gain opamp to of the opamp. We must then
between columns 25 and 26 of
isolate (buffer) the charging provide the correct midway bias
row G is inserted.
process for C1 from the effect of voltage to the inverting input. It
C2, then the oscillator frequency Having made the changes,
is, though, this input that is still
will be unaffected by the observe that the frequency is
responsible for partly controlling
presence of C2. now unaffected by the presence
the negative feedback, and thus
of the amplifying stage.
The circuit diagram for this the gain. Consequently, the
simple improvement is shown in resistance of the bias setting
Fig.7.6. Here we now use the
second half of the dual opamp,
IC4b, to provide the unity gain Fig.7.5. Unity gain
buffer stage and then feed its opamp buffer. OUTPUT
output into the amplifier stage
INPUT +
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
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+6V
R3
Fig.7.7. Non- breadboard layout to that shown
4k7 inverting in Fig.7.8.
opamp ampli-
VR3
The signal is still being fed
+ 8
100k
fier circuit. in via capacitor C2 in order to
C3 2
22m
VR2 IC4a 1
OUTPUT
isolate the amplification from the
6 C2 100k +
3 LM358 affects of the DC bias that might
22m
IC4b 7 4 exist from the oscillator.
+
INPUT +
5 LM358 However, we must provide the
R4
4k7
VR4
100k
opamp side of C2 with a
discharge path, as supplied via
0V
preset VR4.
Fig.7.8 and photo. Breadboard layout for Fig.7.7. Note that the Note that in the “real world”,
the discharge resistance value
second half of IC4 is now required to be connected into
in relation to the value of
the circuit. capacitor C2 affects the
INPUT frequency range that can be
correctly handled (to be
discussed when we examine
TO R.H.
SIDE OF
integration in a later part of the
BOARD series), and should be chosen
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
29
30
31
4
SIDE OF
There are several This is provided by the voltage
BOARD
approaches to this problem. We divider formed by resistors R3
shall just take an option that is and R4. At their junction is
easy to implement with the added a capacitor (C3) to
OUTPUT
breadboard layout we are “smooth” the voltage here,
control must also be taken into already using. The circuit is which could otherwise vary
account. shown in Fig.7.7. Change the significantly with the changing
signal levels in the feedback
path. As we discussed when
considering voltage dividers
feeding into another resistance
(Part 1), the resistance of R3
and R4 should be equal in order
to provide the midway voltage,
but also of a value about ten
times less than the load
resistance (effectively VR2 in
this case). A value of 4k7W has
been chosen on the assumption
that VR2 is set about midway
(about 47kW). Fine adjustment
of the midway level can be
made using preset VR4.
Interactive computer display illustrating an inverting Note that the wrong figure
was published for Fig.1.12 of
opamp circuit.
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Part 1. The correct figure, which PANEL 7.4 – RESISTANCE VALUES
illustrates a voltage divider
feeding into another resistance The question of what decade ranges the resistance values should
(Rm), is shown now as Fig.7.9. be chosen from for opamp designs is a slightly tricky one. You will
The circuit in Fig.7.7 does not recognize that a uniform potential divider, for instance, can be made
invert the signal output. Examine up from any two equal resistance values. So, should the values each
the output at IC4 pin 1 as shown be 1W, 10kW or even 10MW? We have to say first that only a text
on your screen (via the ADC) book heavily dedicated to opamps can really give definitive answers.
and confirm that it is the same There are, though, some basic considerations that it is appropriate to
way up as the original. Now that mention here:
you have a buffer amp in circuit, One consideration is that power economy should always be at the
you can monitor the basic forefront of any designer’s mind. Since power consumption is less
oscillator waveform from its with higher value resistors, this does not favor very low resistances for
output (IC4 pin 7). the divider. We have already said that a divider’s resistance should
ideally be at least ten times less than the load into which it feeds.
When the divider is feeding into the non-inverting input simply as bias,
NON-INVERSION its resistance can therefore be comparatively high. When it is provid-
GAIN ing bias to the inverting input of a feedback circuit, the load is pro-
Earlier we defined the vided by the effective input resistance and so the divider resistance
formula for calculating inversion should be chosen with respect to that.
gain as: The input resistance is chosen in relation to the gain required and
the resulting value of the feedback resistor. One matter to consider
R2 / R1 here is that the gain of an amplifier (as opposed to a comparator) is
…where R1 and R2 represented usually best kept below about 200, and preferably below 100.
the inverting input and feedback In DC amplification circuits, another factor to be considered is that
resistances respectively. (again, ideally) both opamp inputs should have equal current flow, and
Using the inversion the resistances should be chosen to meet this condition. In choosing
configuration, signal attenuation gain setting values, and those of the dividers, it should be borne in
can be achieved as well as mind that very high values of resistance are prone to causing the cir-
amplification. cuit to pick up signals from external electrical sources, such as mains
“hum”, motorbike ignition, frequency radiation from TV or computer
For the non-inverting monitors, etc.
amplifier, the lowest level of
signal amplification is 1 (unity), Additionally, the relationship between signal capacitors and resis-
attenuation can never be tors affects the frequency response of the circuit as a whole. Some of
achieved. Consequently, the this capacitance can be due to that which exists in the opamp itself,
as well as the proximity of one printed circuit board track to another.
With some opamps a further problem is that if the load they feed
into has quite a low resistance, distortion of the output can occur if the
R1 feedback resistance is too high.
As a very rough guide, however, the ranges of input and feedback
resistances are usually best kept between about 1kW and 1MW, but it
does depend on the circumstances. It is then usually best if the values
are chosen from the “commonplace” decade multiples, such as those
R2 Rm in the E12 range (see Part 1): 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7,
5.6, 6.8 and 8.2.
To help you become more conversant with what resistance val-
ues can be chosen for different opamp circuits, study the published
circuits of other electronics designers.
Finally, despite this list of considerations, for general experimen-
Fig.7.9. Why a meter tation opamps are really easy devices to use successfully! You can
(represented by resistance play around with component values to your heart’s content with an ex-
Rm) affects the voltage read- cellent chance of achieving results (even if they are not perfect). Fur-
ing at resistor junctions. Cor- thermore, opamps are such hardy devices that you are highly unlikely
rected Fig.1.12 for Part 1. to ever kill one!
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TEACH-IN 2000
gain calculation becomes DC STABILITY inputs seemingly remains the
feedback resistance (R2) same. Such a change is known
divided by inverting input We must comment now, as temperature drift. It will be far
resistance (R1), as before, but a however, that amplifying DC more pronounced at higher
value of 1 is then added: voltage is not necessarily as amplification settings. Typical
easy as one might like. We have temperature drift values are
Gain = (R2 / R1) + 1 said that the values of electronic usually quoted in component
components can change with data sheets, often in the form of
You will probably spot that if temperature, indeed the
R2 has a value of zero, then the graphs.
thermistor is an exaggerated
unity gain condition exists, You should also be aware
example of this (but intended to
irrespective of the value of R1. that an opamp can heat up
do so beneficially).
internally when the current into
Unfortunately, opamp circuits
or out of its output increases,
DC AMPLIFICATION are no exception to this rule. Not
and that this will affect its
only can the components that
For the last several characteristics.
are used in conjunction with
paragraphs we have opamps have their values For AC amplification
concentrated heavily on an changed according to (waveforms fed in and out via
opamp’s ability to amplify temperature, but so too can the capacitors), though, temperature
waveforms (i.e. AC signals). characteristics of the opamp drift is seldom of any
You may not have recognized it, itself. significance.
but you have already proved that
the opamp is equally suited to The subject is actually too
amplifying DC levels. complicated to fully discuss or COMPUTER DEMOS
demonstrate as part of Teach-
When you were initially In, but it is something of which We suggest that you now
experimenting with the you should be aware. There are run two of the opamp demo
relationships of the three many circuit techniques by programs, which interactively
presets in Fig.7.2, you needed which the problem can be illustrate the functioning of
to adjust VR4 in order to overcome, and more inverting and non-inverting
compensate for the DC bias sophisticated (and expensive) opamp circuits.
coming from the oscillator. You opamps in which the situation is From the main menu select
may have noticed that the less pronounced. Opamps – Menu, this will bring
adjustment became more up another screen from which
sensitive when the gain was set five opamp demo programs can
high by either VR2 or VR3. TEMPERATURE be selected. The two we
This was entirely due to the DRIFT suggest you play with now are
DC bias from the oscillator and Simple Inverting Amp and
A particular example of an
VR4 being amplified. At that Simple Non-Inverting Amp. We
opamp’s temperature
time the DC amplification was shall discuss the other three
dependency affects the DC
undesirable. There are, though, options next month.
output relative to the input. In a
many occasions in which a DC The inverting demo
DC amplification circuit you can
level needs to be amplified in illustrates an opamp’s response
set up a bias level on one input
order to be useful. to an AC-coupled input triangle
in order to bring it closer to the
One example that comes to DC level on the other input (i.e. waveform in respect of different
mind is the way in which the narrow the differential voltage resistance values. Resistors R1
thermistor (heat sensor) and between the two). The resulting and R2 control the gain, while
light dependent resistor (LDR) DC output level, however, may R3 and R4 change the bias on
you were encouraged to try as only hold true at the temperature the non-inverting input.
part of various oscillator at which the adjustment is The non-inverting demo
experiments could be used (Part made. also inputs an AC-coupled
3). We’ll examine how voltage triangle waveform. Resistors R1
As the ambient
change with temperature or light and R2 control the gain. R4 has
(surrounding) temperature
intensity can be monitored on a fixed unspecified value; it is
changes, so the DC output level
your multimeter and computer the “bleed” resistor required
can change, even though the
screen as part of next month’s following input capacitor C3. The
voltage difference on the two
Tutorial. bias voltage applied via R4 can
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
TEACH-IN 2000
be changed. output signal can become moved forward to next month
Signal input amplitude and clipped. You can press the and becomes Tutorial Part 8.
frequency rate (Cycle Count) <PAUSE> key to stop the In reality, Part 7 and Part 8
can also be changed. The waveform scrolling, then press are both a mixture of Tutorial
power supply voltage is fixed at any other key to restart scrolling. and Experimental. What we
+5V/0V. Note that the demo discuss in Part 8, though, is all
opamp has been given output NEXT MONTH based on the characteristics we
min/max limits of 1V and 4V. have been describing here in
This seems a convenient Part 7, and illustrates some
The controls are stated on
point at which to end this interesting ways in which
screen, press the appropriate
month’s Tutorial. We do not opamps can be used.
keys to activate the function to
have room for an Experimental
be changed. Note the varying
section as such, this has been
conditions under which the
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Robert Penfold looks at the Techniques of Actually Doing It!
It is said that the simplest
inventions are the best ones,
and, for the electronics hobbyist,
stripboard possibly ranks along-
side sliced bread and the wheel
in the “best inventions” stakes.
Stripboard is a proprietary
printed circuit board that is noted
for its versatility. For most pro-
jects it represents the only prac-
tical alternative to using a cus-
tom printed circuit board (PCB).
A project based on a cus-
tom board is actually the best
choice for a complete beginner
Fig.1. Stripboard only has the copper strips on one side.
due to the relatively foolproof
nature of these boards. How- was possible to obtain strip- copper sides of two scraps of
ever, many small and medium boards with the holes spaced at stripboard.
sized projects are based on 0××1-inch, 0××15-inch, or 0××2-inch
stripboards, and newcomers to
intervals, but these days only
the hobby soon find themselves
0××1-inch boards are readily avail- BRITTLE EXPERIENCE
using this method of construc-
able. It is only 0××1-inch pitch With a custom PCB there is
tion.
boards that are of any real use usually no preparation required.
Although stripboard is not with modern projects, because When you are ready to start
quite as straightforward to use many components will not fit construction you simply begin
as custom PCBs, it is not really onto 0××15-inch or 0××2-inch fitting the component to the
that difficult to use either. There boards. board. With stripboard a small
are a few traps waiting for the amount of work is needed be-
unwary, but once you are aware One side of stripboard is fore the board is ready to accept
of the pitfalls it is not too difficult plain, while the other side has
to obtain perfect results almost copper strips running along
every time. the rows of holes. It is, of
course, from these copper
strips that the stripboard
RIGHT PITCH name is derived. Many peo-
So what exactly is strip- ple still refer to this material
board? It is based on a board by the old proprietary name
about 1××6mm thick that is made of “Veroboard”.
from an insulating material. Pre- Like an ordinary single-
sumably the color of the board sided printed circuit board,
varies from one manufacturer to the components are
another, but it seems to be sup- mounted on the plain side.
plied in a variety of yellow-brown The leadout wires are
colors from almost white to virtu- trimmed short on the other
ally black. side and soldered to the
The board is drilled with
copper strips, which then Fig.2. The underside view of the
carry the connections from board will clearly show the positions
one-millimeter diameter holes
one component to another. of any breaks required in the
on a regular matrix. In the past it
Fig.1 shows the plain and copper strips.
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Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Practically Speaking
the components, and the normal duces some very rough edges,
first step is to cut out a board of but these are easily filed to a
the required size. neat finish using a flat file.
As pointed out previously, The finished board might
stripboard comes in a range slot into place in the case, but it
yellow-brown colors, reflecting a is more likely that it will be
range of materials used in the bolted in place. Any mounting
board. Some of these materials holes should be drilled at this
are tougher than others, but stage using an ordinary HSS
most stripboards seem to be twist drill. Use a piece of scrap Fig.5. Removing some ex-
slightly brittle. It is best to err on timber, chipboard, etc. under- cess flux rendered this solder
the side of caution and assume neath the board, and use only
bridge fairly obvious.
that all these boards are brittle, moderate pressure. This should
give good “clean” holes and the break, but more than the oc-
avoid any cracking around them. casional repair will give scrappy
When drilling any form of looking results and poor reliabil-
copper laminate board it is best ity.
to drill the board with the copper A special strip-cutting tool is
side uppermost, as there is oth- available, and it is often referred
erwise a risk of the copper being to as a “spot face cutter” in com-
torn away from the board. ponent catalogs. This is basi-
cally just a drill style cutting tool
fitted in a handle. In order to cut
BIG BREAKS a strip the point of the tool is
With anything but the most placed in position and the han-
Fig.3. Using the special tool simple of projects it is necessary dle is given a couple of rotations
provides the easiest way of to make some breaks in the while applying moderate pres-
making breaks in the copper strips. Without any cuts sure (Fig.3).
each strip can only carry one set If you will be producing any-
copper tracks.
of interconnections, but by thing more than the occasional
and exercise due care when breaking a strip into (say) three stripboard project, it is certainly
working on them. Use the pieces, it can carry three sets of worthwhile buying this tool. Ini-
“hammer and tongs” approach connections. tially you may prefer to use a
and you may well end up with The article describing the handheld twist drill bit of about
three or four small boards in- project should include a diagram 5mm in diameter, which will do
stead of one large one! that clearly shows the positions the job quite well.
Over the years various sug- of the breaks, as in the example Either way, make quite sure
gestions have been made for of Fig.2. Double-check the posi- that the strips are cut right
quick and easy ways of cutting tion of each break before actu- across their full width. Very fine
stripboard to size using imple- ally making it. If a mistake residual tracks of copper can be
ments such as glass and tile should be made it is possible to difficult to see with the naked
cutters. The problem with these solder a small piece of wire over eye, so it is worth checking the
methods is that they work well board with the aid of a magni-
with some makes of stripboard, fier.
but can produce disastrous re-
sults with others. Although you need to make
sure that the strips are cut prop-
The only truly reliable erly, do not go to the other ex-
method found so far is to care- treme and practically drill
fully cut along rows of holes us- through the board. With a large
ing a hacksaw. Due to the close number of breaks this would se-
spacing of the holes and width riously weaken it. Brush away
of the blade it is not practical to any copper shavings as these
cut between rows. Cutting along Fig.4. An example stripboard could otherwise cause short cir-
rows of holes inevitably pro- layout diagram. cuits.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 405
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Practically Speaking
MOVING IN A fine point fiber-tip pen is to run from any given point on
required, as there is not a great the board to any other point. Vir-
At this stage the board is deal of space available for the tually every stripboard layout
ready for the components to be labels. Also, it needs to be a has at least a few link-wires, and
added. This is one respect in type that is capable of writing on the larger boards can have
which stripboard is rather more glass and other non-porous sur- dozens of them.
awkward than a custom printed faces. Otherwise it will not mark The usual way of fitting link-
circuit board. With a PCB there the board properly, or the labels wires is to pre-form a piece of
is one hole per leadout wire or will rub off the first time you han- wire to fit into the layout in much
pin, but with stripboard less than dle the board. the same way as resistors and
10 percent of the holes are nor-
It is difficult to mark num- axial capacitors are fitted. The
mally used.
bers for all the columns of holes, ends of the wires are then
Mistakes with component but navigating your way around trimmed to length and soldered
placement are more easily the board should still be easy if to the board in the usual way.
made, and when they do occur only every fifth or tenth column An alternative method is to
they can be difficult to spot. To is labeled. Similarly, it is only cut a piece of wire that is slightly
compensate for this it is neces- necessary to label every other over-length and then solder one
sary to proceed more carefully copper strip, or even every end of it to one of the holes in
and to double-check the posi- fourth or fifth strip. the board. Next thread the other
tioning before fitting and solder-
Do not make the classic end of the wire through the sec-
ing each component in place.
mistake of getting the orientation ond hole and pull it tight using a
Having to remove and refit a of the board wrong so that all small pair of pliers. Finally trim
small component occasionally is the components are fitted in the the wire and solder it to the
not a major disaster, but getting wrong places. There are usually board.
a multi-pin component, such as mounting holes that make the The trimmings from resistor
an integrated circuit (IC), in the correct orientation obvious, but leadout wires are ideal for short
wrong place can be more diffi- the diagrams for the two sides of link-wires, but for longer wires
cult to deal with. Removing this the board normally have a 22s.w.g. or 24s.w.g. (or about
type of component requires marker that indicates the same 0××6mm diameter) tinned copper
proper desoldering equipment corner of the board in both
and risks damaging the board. wire is needed. Where a layout
views. This is included in Fig.2
has a lot of link-wires be sure to
Getting a large number of and Fig.4, and leaves no excuse
meticulously check that every
components shifted out of posi- for getting it wrong.
link has been fitted to the board.
tion is time consuming to cor-
rect, and all the soldering and There is no need to insulate
desoldering could take its toll on MISSING LINK short links, but with wires of
the board. It is much better to With the preliminaries out of around 25mm or more in length
proceed carefully and get things the way, assembling a compo- there is a slight risk of short cir-
right first time. nent panel is much the same cuits occurring, particularly
whether it is based on stripboard where there are several wires
or a PCB. There are a couple of running side by side. In this
ON YOUR MARKS differences though, one of which case, it is advisable to fit the
is the higher number of link- longer link-wires with pieces of
Stripboard layout diagrams
wires encountered when build- PVC sleeving.
often have letters to identify the
copper strips and numbers to ing projects based on strip-
identify the columns of holes, as board. BUILDING BRIDGES
in the dummy layout diagram of The copper tracks of a cus-
Fig.4. Many constructors find it The second potential prob-
tom PCB can weave all round lem with stripboard is accidental
useful to mark the board itself the board if necessary, but this
with these letters and numbers, short circuits due to solder
is clearly not possible with strip- splashes and excess solder on
so that they can quickly and board. Link-wires provide a
easily match any point on the joints. This can be a problem
means of compensating for the with any form of printed circuit
board with its equivalent point lack of versatility in the track
on the diagram. board, but it tends to be more
pattern, and enable connections problematic with stripboard due
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 406
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Practically Speaking
to the very narrow gap between clean the copper side of the or across any breaks in the
one track and the next. There is board and thoroughly check it strips. Usually, once you know a
actually only about 0××3mm be- for solder bridges. Cleaning flu- short circuit is there it will mirac-
tween adjacent tracks. ids for removing excess flux are ulously appear when the board
available, but simply scrubbing is given another visual check!
Usually it is fairly obvious
the board vigorously with some-
when excess solder bridges two
thing like an old toothbrush
tracks, and remedial action can
seems to do an equally good
be taken straight away. Small
job.
amounts of excess solder can
usually be wiped away with the Any reasonably powerful
bit of the soldering iron, but magnifying glass will provide a
large amounts should be re- good close-up view of the board,
moved using a desoldering but something like an 8x or 10x
pump. The affected joint or loupe is best. These are primar-
joints can then be carefully re- ily intended for viewing slides
made. and they are available from
most camera shops. The cheap-
The real problems are
est of loupes is adequate for this
caused by the tiny trails of sol-
application.
der that are barely visible. In
fact, they are sometimes buried If a stripboard refuses to
under excess flux and can only work for no apparent reason it is
be seen if the board is cleaned worthwhile making some checks
(Fig.5). using a continuity tester. Check
that there are no short circuits
Having completed a strip-
between adjacent copper strips
board it is definitely advisable to
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 407
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
A ROUNDUP OF THE LATEST EVERYDAY NEWS
FROM THE WORLD OF ELECTRONICS
A team of researchers from rent method of recording a sig- horizontal recording (HR). For
IBM’s laboratory in Zurich re- nal, with a miniature inductive VR the domains are switched by
cently revealed their road map head, will have become unwork- a field that aligns the magnetic
for the future of data storage. able. particles through the disk coat-
One surprise is that punched IBM’s Magneto-electronics ing.
cards are due for a comeback, team leader, Dr Stuart Parkin, IBM’s Microdrive, the hard
but around a million times believes that in two years time drive no bigger than a large
smaller than they were the first hard drives will have to use ver- postage stamp, currently stores
time round. tical recirding (VR) instead of 340 Megabytes, or nearly 900
The real density of hard disk
recorders is now increasing at
120 percent per year, thanks to
IBM’s 1988 discovery of GMR,
Microchip Handbook
the giant magneto-resistive ma-
terial which was ready for com-
mercial exploitation two years
ago and is now used in 70 per-
cent of all hard drive read heads
– either made by IBM or under
license.
GMR is a multi-layer sand-
wich of magnetic and non-
magnetic materials, which show
dramatic changes of resistance Many of you will already have found how useful Microchip’s
in a changing magnetic field. Embedded Control Handbook can be when writing PIC microcon-
This makes the read head ten troller software. The latest update to this book has been released
times more sensitive, and so and provides a comprehensive reference tool for anyone using
lets it detect smaller magnetic PICs and related products.
domains. The 848-page updated handbook provides current application
notes, technical briefs and reference designs which have been
Hard Drive Density written and published since the previous edition. The book can be
obtained through any authorized Microchip representative. The
Currently hard drives can material is also available individually on Microchip’s website at
record around 20 Gigabits of www.microchip.com
data for every square inch
2
(6.45cm ) of surface area and It is interesting to note from another Microchip press release
35 Gigabit per square inch that the organization is offering a comprehensive University Pro-
drives are already working in the gram within the UK, designed to help university professors give
lab. The likely practical limit their engineering students a hands-on understanding of PICs and
looks like being 100 Gigabits. At related products. Details can be found via www.microchip.com/
this density, the individual mag- university
netic domains are so small and Microchip’s UK HQ is at Microchip House, 505 Eskdale Road,
close that they affect each other, Winnersh Triangle, Wokingham, Berks RG41 5TU, UK.
making storage unreliable. Be-
fore this limit is reached, the cur- Tel: +44 (0) 118-921-5858
Fax: +44 (0) 118-921-5835
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 408
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
NEWS......
still pictures from a video cam- The fundamental science on power is switched off. So it
era. The next Microdrives will Atomic Force Microscopy was works like flash memory, but
hold 1GB. By comparison an done in 1980, and won a Nobel with much higher capacity, and
8MB Compact Flash card holds Prize for IBM’s Dr Gerd Binnig in much lower power needed for
around 20 pictures. 1986. The first laboratory writing. With Magnetic RAM a
So what happens when disk demonstrations are now nearly PC could boot up within sec-
drives run out of space? Dr ready. “It’s back for the future”, onds.
Bernard Meyerson, IBM’s Direc- says Gerd Binnig, alluding to the The system relies on the
tor of Telecommunications original punch card, developed ability to detect and control the
Technology, dismisses the idea in the last century for census spin parameters of electrons in
that optical disk can take over data processing and then used ferromagnetic materials. Switch-
from magnetic hard disks. by early computers. ing at low power is possible be-
“IBM has worked for years But whereas original punch cause of the quantum physics
on optical storage, including cards had permanent perfora- phenomenon known as tunnel-
disks with several layers to in- tions, the new Millipede record- ing, whereby if enough electrons
crease density. But there is a ing material can be erased, by confront a barrier, some will
basic limiting factor – the wave- heating the plastic to re-flow de- pass through, even though their
length of light”. pressed areas. The chip moves energy state is theoretically too
across the surface, in a scan- low to allow it.
ning raster, writing 1GB of data
Millipede Tips in a 3mm x 3mm area.
Good wishes to Greenweld
Big Blue’s Blue Sky re- The write/read system must from us all at EPE and EPE On-
search efforts are now concen- be kept surgically clean, but the line.
trated on an extraordinary new techniques used to keep hard
technology called Millipede. A drives clean are applicable. Air For more information, con-
silicon chip, the size of a finger- is continually blown over the sur- tact Greenweld Ltd., Dept EPE,
nail, is made with a matrix of face, through very fine filters. PO Box 144, Hoddesdon, Herts,
1024 tiny cantilever arms, each EN11 0ZG, UK.
with a sharp tip, around 1nm in Tel: +44 (0) 1277-811042
size. When the tips are moved, Tunneling Ram
Fax: +44 (0) 1277-812419
by feeding current to activate There are also new develop-
drive coils, they press down on a ments coming in Random Ac- E-mail: ad-
spinning plastic film disk to cre- cess Memory. Current RAM min@greenweld.co.uk
ate tiny indentations. These can needs power to retain data. TMJ Web: www.greenweld.co.uk
then be read by sensor tips. (tunneling magnetic junction)-
RAM retains data even when the
WIND
Greenweld experience, along with interests
ranging from computers to cars
POWER
and robots to recycling.
Catalog We are pleased to have re- A book called Windpower
You will be glad to hear that ceived the new Greenweld cata- Workshop: Building Your Own
Greenweld have reopened. log, the first under the new own- Wind Turbine, has been written
Chris Knight tells us that after ership and management team. by Hugh Piggott, the technical
many months of work they have The catalog lists many ranges of consultant to the BBC 1 docu-
finally got the business going the types of component that soap Castaway 2000, in which
again. You will probably recall anyone involved in electronics is the castaways rely on renewable
that the original Greenweld Elec- likely to need, not only resistors, energy for their power needs.
tronics ceased trading last year, capacitors, potentiometers, logic Hugh has lived for 25 years
but the remaining stock was as- ICs, LCSs and so on, but also on a similar island and runs his
tutely bought by Chris and Tim items such as meters and tools, own wind turbine company. His
Knight and Geoffrey Carter. hardware and surplus stocks, book is based on his knowledge
and there is a selection of books of wind power harnessing and is
The trio have a scientific as well.
background and wide business aimed at helping budding sur-
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 409
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
NEWS......
vivalists, hobby engineers, self- sent to the project throughout have sent if the capsules had
sufficiency hopefuls and stu- the year 2000. The site will be been large enough? Replies
dents of renewable energy to sealed in 2001 and shall remain may be serious or humorous
learn more about wind power. buried for 200 years. A trust is (but at least loosely connected
The book is priced 10 UK being established to ensure the with electronics)!
pounds (plus 1.75 pounds ship- site is excavated in 2200. Any-
ping and handling), and is avail- one can take part by filling a
able by mail order from the Cen- time capsule pack and sending Three Counties Ra-
ter for Alternative Technology, it back to the project. Each pack
Machynlleth, Powys SY20 9AZ, contains a time capsule measur-
dio
UK. ing 340mm x 250mm x 80mm, & Computer Rally
Tel: +44 (0) 1654-702400 along with specialized folders
and envelopes which help to Sunday 21 May 2000. By pop-
Fax: +44 (0) 1654-702782 preserve the items within it. ular demand following the 1999
rally, the Three Counties annual
Email: me- Records of the project, in- radio and computer rally is to be
dia@catinfo.demon.co.uk cluding the participants and lo- staged a week before the Spring
Web: www.cat.org.uk cation of the site shall be kept Bank holiday. It will be held at the
with The International Time Perdiswell Leisure Centre, Bilford
Capsule Society in Atlanta, key Road, Worcester, UK.
MILLENNIUM regional record repositories in
Britain and within the records of For those not familiar with the
TIME CAPSULE the project itself. venue, the following facilities are
available: full restaurant services
The Millennium Time Cap- The location of the site will from 7 AM, licensed bar from 11
sule is a major national UK pro- be announced later this year. AM, all traders in two adjacent
ject in celebration of the new Everyone who takes part halls, easy access to the halls
millennium. Businesses, receives a certificate giving which are at ground level, free
schools, clubs and the general them legal title to their time cap- parking for 900 cars and coaches.
public are invited to take part in sule and its contents, allowing The organizers point out that,
this prestigious event and to them to leave their legacy to fu- being close to the City Center,
send a personal message to fu- ture generations. wives and children can spend a
ture generations. The Millen- Packs can be ordered by pleasant day in Historic Worces-
nium time capsule will be buried sending a check for 41 UK ter, sight seeing, shopping or a
for 200 years. Inside, contribu- Pounds made payable to: The boat trip on the river Severn (we’d
tors will have their own box con- Millennium Time Capsule Pro- like to ask why wives and children
taining whatever they wish to ject and sent with the partici- should be shuttled off – we are
include. Photographs, videos, pants name and address to: The sure they are just as interested in
books, tapes, letters – the list is Millennium Time Capsule Pro- what the rally has to offer as the
as long as your imagination. ject, PO Box 736, Newcastle rest of us are!).
The time capsule will be the upon Tyne NE99 1LQ, UK. Al- For more details contact
largest ever constructed, provid- ternatively, packs can be or- William E. Cotton G4PQZ, Tel/
ing a snapshot of the UK at the dered through the website Fax: +44 (0) 1905-773181 (for fax
end of the millennium. But it will shown below. please ring first).
also be a very personal record. Tel: +44 (0) 191-261-6784
Every contributor will be sent
certification, identifying their box Fax: +44 (0) 191-232-1274 Farnell’s Catalog
within the capsule. In this way E-mail: editorial@millennium- No longer need you complain
individual boxes can be passed timecapsule.com that “the Farnell catalog is great
down from generation to gener- but it’s just too big”! This
Web: www.millennium- renowned supplier is separating
ation and inherited by our de-
scendants in the year 2200. timecapsule.com its catalog into six books, split by
product. It will be available from
The massive site will house
April.
thousands of time capsules from Why not tell us, for possible
people from all over Britain and inclusion in Readout, what you Farnell say that this allows
abroad. Time capsules can be are sending or would like to emphasis to be placed on their
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 410
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
NEWS......
core product strengths, market Farnell’s catalog always has
Tel: +44 (0) 113-263-6311
the full range, provide the been a “must” to have in your
“ultimate one stop shop” and to electronics workshop. This Fax: +44 (0) 113-263-3411
focus on new products three change of binding will surely be Web: www.farnell.com
times a year instead of twice, as welcomed. Don’t forget, also,
at present. that Farnell have product data
From the summer edition on CD-ROM as well.
onwards, color pages will also For more information con-
be made available for suppliers tact Farnell, Canal Road, Leeds
to advertise their products in LS12 2TU, UK.
these books.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 411
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
John Becker addresses some of the general points readers have raised. Have
you anything interesting to say? Email us at editor@epemag.com!
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 414
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Readout
it’s not just the treatment of inven- superb series of articles on RF the BF244 and BF245 is 3 to
tors that is the problem, more Design by Raymond Haigh, cul- 6××5mA/V, whilst the spread for
likely it’s the pressure the manu- minating in the High Perfor- the 2N3819 is slightly greater at
facturers are already under with mance Receiver (March ’00), 2 to 6××5mA/V.
their own product lines. They get which I have decided to con- Unfortunately, the BF244
too wrapped up in their own prob- struct.
and BF245 may not be readily
lems to want to go looking for I am not “new” to construc- available outside Europe, and
more! But a forward-thinking and tion, having built over 23 re- regard must be had to the world-
progressive company (e.g. Black ceivers for short waves over the wide circulation of EPE. Be-
& Decker) will listen to outside years, designing and producing cause of this, I will have to con-
ideas, if only to get the feel for an my own PCBs for these re- tinue specifying the ubiquitous
idea that may subsequently be ceivers. 2N3819.
proposed to their competitors.
It is the power gain of the I have built about six ver-
You should ask yourself 2N3819 FETs used in Raymond sions of the circuit using this
whether it’s worth sub-contracting Haigh’s design that I wish to transistor as a drain bend detec-
the production yourself, and query. The problem is that many tor. They all worked well with the
maybe get a small batch made component suppliers use the component values quoted and
and sell direct if you have to (e.g. same manufacturer for 2N3819s without any selection of the
on a web site). CE approval is and the spread in characteristics 2N3819s.
your next hurdle, then give a few of these devices may affect the
samples away and get the market receiver’s performance. In my I have, however, explored
talking about it. If you can make a own designs I use BF244 and this question. The outcome of
big enough nuisance of yourself in BF245. Your comments are re- the trial was as follows:
the marketplace, it could then be quested. (a) Thirty-three 2N3819
that someone will buy the rights. transistors were connected into
Just make sure you are fully pro- John B. Dickinson circuit and provision made for
tected with design rights. There Tamworth, Staffs, UK monitoring the audio output volt-
are plenty of good electronic engi- age. Of these, 23 performed in a
neers who can CAD up a board completely satisfactory way,
John Dickinson gave a lot
and polish off its development. three were marginally better
more information in his letter
Try looking at James Dyson’s than the rest, and seven per-
and sent an example 2N3819.
web site (www.dyson.com/ formed badly, or would not work
We forwarded everything to
co.uk), there used to be an inven- at all, unless the detector source
Raymond Haigh, who replied:
tor’s resource there. There is also resistor was increased in value.
an alt. newsgroup for inventors The transistor kindly supplied by
where I’m sure you’ll get more Thank you for letting me Mr. Dickinson was one of those
help. Also you could try a local read Mr. Dickinson’s interesting that would not work at all.
University – an example in my and helpful letter. I should be (b) When the source bias
case would be the new Product grateful if you would thank him resistor (R5) was increased to
Design & Development Centre for having taken so much trou- 15k, all 33 specimens of the
based at the University of Hull, ble and for his very kind remarks 2N3819 performed in a com-
with whom I’m working. about my recent series of arti- pletely satisfactory way. With
cles. I would offer the following the source bias resistor in-
I’m sorry I can’t be of more
observations: creased, several specimens of
assistance, but hope the above
helps – good luck! He is, of course, quite cor- 2SK168, MPF102, TIS14 and
rect in pointing out the wide J310 (about twenty transistors in
Alan Winstanley spread in FET characteristics. total) all worked well in the cir-
He is also correct when he says cuit also.
REGEN RECEIVER AND FETs that the specifications for the (c) The few transistors that
BF244 and BF245 are tighter were marginally better than the
Dear EPE, than the specification for the rest gave a very slightly higher
I am writing to you as a sub- 2N3819. Referring to the tables output with the specified 4k7
scriber to EPE and an electronics published in Farnell’s catalog, source resistor. It would seem
construction enthusiast for some the transconductance spread for my earlier endeavors to milk the
35 years. First, thank you for the
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 415
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Readout
last drop of performance from the BINARY CONVERSION This method is probably
circuit had revealed this. It is un- well-known in the “Trade” but it
Dear EPE,
fortunate that I made a chance might be new to some readers.
selection of transistors that would Your Teach-In 2000 Part 6
(Logic gates, Binary and Hex) Harry Nairn
work with this source bias resis-
brought to mind a system of Ashtead, Surrey, UK
tor. Had I not done so I would
have discovered that the circuit converting decimal to binary I
would not suit devices at the other learnt many years ago.
It’s certainly new to me as
extreme of the characteristic Dredging through my per- well Harry. It’s a form of long di-
spread. sonal memory-bank and with vision, of course. How obvious
(d) Working and non-working many false starts, the system is when it’s pointed out! Many
devices in the test were dis- to divide the number to be con- thanks.
tributed across a random selec- verted by 2 continuously, ignor-
tion of the products of different ing any remainder. Every time
manufacturers. Presumably, the number is odd, put a dash (–
therefore, the problem is primarily ) beside it. If it is even put “o’’.
The top “–’’or “o’’ is the least sig-
one of characteristic spreads
nificant figure and the bottom
rather than manufacturing differ-
one most significant. For exam-
ences. However, as suggested by
ple, decimal 3353 is converted
Mr. Dickinson, there could well be
as follows:
a tendency for some manufac-
turer’s transistors to drift towards 3353 –
a particular extreme of the toler- 1676 o
ance range.
838 o
(e) I suggest that the value of
419 –
TR2 source bias resistor, R5, be
increased to 15k to ensure that all 209 –
specimens of 2N3819 are oper- 104 o
ated in the non-linear region of
52 o
their characteristic curve. With
this value for the source resistor, 26 o
most other jFETs, including the 13 –
2SK88, MPF102 and J310 should
6 o
also work well.
3 –
Raymond Haigh
1 –
Doncaster, S. Yorks, UK
Turn the paper through 90
degrees clockwise so that the
most significant figure is to the
left then read off the binary
code. Thus decimal 3353 equals
110100011001 binary.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 416
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
with DAVID BARRINGTON accuracy on the 1nF range.
Therefore, use the TS555 timer
instead of the standard NE
Some Component Suppliers for EPE Online Construc- version. The low-power version
tional Articles should be widely stocked and
readily available.
Some Component Suppliers Rapid Electronics (UK) Once again, the meter is left
for EPE Online Constructional Tel: +44 (0) 1206-751166 to individual choice as prices
Articles RF Solutions (UK) seem to vary quite considerably.
Antex Tel: +44 (0) 1273-488880 The model uses a 100uA
Web: www.antex.co.uk Web: www.rfsolution.co.uk movement obtained from Maplin
(code RW92A).
Bull Electrical (UK) RS (Radio Spares) (UK)
Tel: +44 (0) 1273-203500 Web: www.rswww.com The 12-way single-pole
Email: sales@bull- rotary range switch is a Lorlin
Speak & Co. Ltd.
electrical.com type, which has an adjustable
Tel: +44 (0) 1873-811281 rotation limiting “end-stop” that
Web: www.bullnet.co.uk
should be set to 5-ways. This
CPC Preston (UK) Versatile Mic/Audio was also purchased from the
Tel: +44 (0) 1772-654455 Preamplifier above, code FF73Q.
EPE Online Store and Library To date, we have only
Web: www.epemag.com traced two sources for the Multi-Channel Transmission
Electromail (UK) SSM2166P microphone System
Tel: +44 (0) 1536-204555 preamplifier IC used in the Most of the components
Versatile Mic/Audio Preamplifier called up for the Multi-Channel
ESR (UK) project. It is currently listed by
Tel: +44 (0) 191-2514363 Transmission System should be
Maplin (code GS39N) and is
Fax: +44 (0) 191-2522296 stock items, even
also carried by Farnell (code
Email: sales@esr.co.uk unprogrammed PIC16F84s are
114-7249).
Web: www.esr.co.uk now widely available.
If you are going to include
Farnell (UK) The author is able to supply
the Signal Strength Meter
Tel: +44 (0) 113-263-6311 ready-programmed PIC16F84s.
option, the actual selection of You will need to order at least
Web: www.farnell.com the moving coil meter is left to two microcontrollers, one
Gothic Crellon (UK) individual choice, hence the Transmitter (Tx) and one
Tel: +44 (0) 1743-788878 small table giving resistor values Receiver (Rx). We understand
for meter movements ranging that the first two will cost 6 UK
Greenweld (UK)
from 50mA up to 1mA. Many pounds each and any additional
Fax: +44 (0) 1992-613020
component suppliers should be PICs 5 UK pounds each,
Email: greenweld@aol.com
able to offer a suitable small inclusive of postage (overseas
Web: panel meter.
www.greenweld.co.uk readers add 1 UK pound per
order for postage). Orders
Maplin (UK) Low-Cost Capacitance Meter should be sent to: Andy Flind,
Web: www.maplin.co.uk 22 Holway Hill, Taunton,
The only item that needs
Magenta Electronics (UK) highlighting when buying parts somerset, TA1 2HB, UK.
Tel: +44 (0) 1283-565435 for the Low-Cost Capacitance Payments should be made out
Email: Meter – this month’s Starter to A. Flind. For those who wish
sales@magenta2000.co.uk Project – is the timer IC. to program their own PICs, the
Web: software is available for free
www.magenta2000.co.uk A low-power version of the download from the EPE Online
555 timer must be used in this Library at www.epemag.com
Microchip project as, due to its low self-
Web: www.microchip.com capacitance, it gives better
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 417
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Shop Talk
PIR Light Checker Online Store at FML Electronics (Tel: +44
Nearly all the components www.epemag.com (0) 1677-425840) – Basic
needed to build the PIRLight component sets.
Checker project should be Teach-In 2000 N. R. Bardwell (Tel: +44 (0)
obtainable from your usual local No additional components 114 255-2886) – Digital
supplier. The miniature light- are called for in this month's Multimeter special offer.
dependent resistor (LDR) and installment of the Teach-In 2000
the 7-segment, common series. For details of special PLEASE TAKE NOTE: Micro-
cathode, display both came from packs readers should contact: PICscope April '00
Maplin (codes AZ83E and
FR41U) respectively. (You can, Unfortunately a digit was missed
ESR Electronic
of course, use the good old from the order code for the
Components – Hardware/Tools
ORP12 LDR.) orange box, which should be
and Components Pack.
Details and prices for all of 281-6841. We apologize for this
Magenta Electronics – error
this month’s printed circuit
Multimeter and components, Kit
boards can be found at the EPE
879.
Copyright © 2000 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, May 2000 - www.epemag.com - 418
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc