INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION INTRODUCTION The aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to transmit sound associated with the scene. The picture signal is generated by a TV camera and sound signal by a microphone. In the 625 line CCIR monochrome and PAL-B colour TV systems adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal frequency modulated before transmission. The two carrier frequencies are suitably spaced and their modulation products radiated through a common antenna, As in radio communication, each television station is allotted different carrier frequencies to enable selection of desired station at the receiving end. ‘The TV receiver has tuned circuits in its input section called ‘tuner’. It selects desired channel signal outof the many picked up by the antenna, The selected RF band is converted to a common fixed IF band for convenience of providing large amplification to it. The amplified IF signals are detected to obtain video (picture) and audio (sound) signals. The video signal after large amplification drives the picture tube to reconstruct the televised picture on the receiver screen. Similarly, the audio signal is amplified and fed to the loudspeaker to produce sound output associated with the scene. 4 PICTURE TRANSMISSION The picture information is optical in character and may be thought of as an assemblage of a large number of tiny areas representing picture details. These elementary areas into which picture details may be broken up are known as ‘picture elements’ or ‘pixels’, which when viewed together represent viswal information of the scene. TRUS, at any instant there are almost an infinite number of pieces of Jaformation that need to be picked up simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However, simaltaneous pick-up is not practicable because it is not feasible to provide a separate signal path (channel) for the signal obtained from each picture element, In practice, this problem is solved by a method known as ‘scanning’ where conversion of optical information to electrical form is carried out 1 | Scanned with CamScannerMODERN TELEVISION Praca e «© and in a sequential manner to cover the entire picture, Bes : ls, repeated a large numberof times per second to create an jy d on «reception from all the elements, though using only one iy, element by element, one at a tim scanning is done at a very fast rate and (impression at the eye) of simultaneou: path, Black and White Pictures Ina monochrome (black and white) picture, eacl dark. A TV camera, the heart of which is a camera tube, corresponding electrical signal, the amplitude of which varie Fig. 1.1 shows very elementary details of one type of camera tube (vidicon) and associated components to illustrate the principle. An optical image of the scene to be transmitted is focused by a lens assembly on the rectangular glass face-plate of the. camera tube. The inner side of the glass face-plate has 4 transparent conductive coating on which is laid a very thin layer of photoconductive material. The photolayer has very high resistance when no light falls on it, but decreases depending on the intensity ‘of light falling on it. Thus depending on light intensity variations in the focused optical image, the conductivity of each element of photolayer changes accordingly. An electron beam is used to pick-up picture information now available on the target plate in terms of varying resistance at each point element is either bright, some shade of grey o, is used to convert this optical information in, in accordance with variations of bright ‘Conductive coating Glass-piate: Focusin tens * = 2 Photoconductive Cathode _ | . surface Eleatonbeam. ° _Ekerorgun | | Magnetic deflection and em focusing coils Fig. 1.1. Simplified cross-sectional view of a Vidicon camera tube and associated components ‘The beam is formed by an electron gun in the TV camera tube. On its way to the inner side of glass face-plate, it is deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted on the glass envelope and Ke?! mutually perpendicular to each other to achieve scanning of the entire target area. Scanning is done " the same way as one reads a written page to cover all the words in one line and all the lines on the pas® (see Fig. 1.2). To achieve this, the deflecting coils are fed separately from two sweep oscillators which continuously generate suitable waveform voltages, each operating at a different desired frequency Magnetic pollard, caused by the Current in one coil gives horizontal motion to the beam from left to seen fon a ia tents it quickly to the left side to commence trace of the next line. The at erante ec a from top to bottom at a uniform rate and for its quick retrace back Plate to start this process over again. Two simultaneous motions are thus given 0 the Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION ss —Helont — a | g 2 g Fig. 1.2. Path of scanning beam in covering picture area beam, one from left to right across the target plate and the other from top to bottom thereby covering entire area on which electrical image of the picture is available. As the beam moves from element to clement, it encounters a different resistance across the target-plate, depending on the resistance of photoconductive coating. The result is a flow of current which varies in magnitude as the elements are - scanned. This current passes through a load resistance R, , connected to the conductive coating on one side and to a de supply source on the other, Depending on the magnitude of current, a varying voltage appears across resistance R, and this corresponds to optical information of the picture. If the scanning beam moves at such a rate that any portion of the scene content does not have time to change perceptibly in the time required for one complete scan of the image, the resultant electrical signal contains true information existing in the picture during the time of scan. The desired information is now in the form of a signal varying with time and scanning may thus be identified as a particular process which permits conversion of information existing in space and time co-ordinates into time variations only. The electrical information thus obtained from the TV camera tube is generally referred to as video signal (video is Latin for ‘see’). Colour Pictures It is possible to create any colour including white by additive mixing of red, green and blue colour lights in suitable proportions. For example, yellow can be obtained by mixing red and green colour lights in intensity ratio of 30 : 59. Similarly, light reflected from any colour picture element can be synthesised (broken up) into red, green and blue colour light constituents. This forms the basis of colour television where Red (R), Green (G) and Blue (B) colours are called primary colours and those * formed by mixing any two of the three primaries as complementary colours. A colour ) elements of which are shown in Fig. 1.3, is used to develop signal voltages of each primary colour light, Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 1MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE | 4 Relay lenses ‘i Pick-up tubes Ree me. Ly, ji ' G _ Partaly/ aN | sivered~ Of | g--- ls as es a up Green | Vg Fig. 1.3. Simplified block diagram of a colour camera. It contains three camera tubes (vidicons) where each pick-up tube receives light of only one primary colour, Light from the scene falls on the focus lens and through that on special mirrors Colour filters that receive reflected ligt via relay lenses spit it into R, G and B colour lights Thus, each vidicon receives a single colour light and develops a voltage proportional to the intensity of (one of the primary colours. If any primary colour is not present in any part of the picture, the Corresponding vidicon does not develop any output when that picture area is scanned. The electron beams ofall the three camera tubes are kept in step (synchronism) by deflecting them horizontally and vertically from common driving sources. Any colour light has @ certain intensity of brightness. Therefore, light reflected from any colour element of a picture also carries information about its brightness called luminance. A signal voltaze (¥) proportional to luminance at various parts of the picture is obtained by adding definite proportions Of Vay Vg and Vi (30:59:11), This then is the same as would be developed by a monochrome (black and white) camera when made to scan the same colour scene. This i.e., the luminance (Y) signal is also transmitted alongwith colour information and used at picture tube in the receiver for reconstructing the colour picture with brightness levels as in the televised picture An oversimplified block diagram of a monochrome TV transmitter is shown in Fig. 1.4, The luminance Signal from the eamerais amplified and synchronizing pulses added before feeding it to the modulating amplifier. Synchronizing pulses are transmitted to keep the camera and picture tube beams in step. ‘The allotted picture carrier frequency is generated by a crystal controlled oscillator, The continuous ‘wave (CW) sine wave output is given large amplification before feeding to the power amplifier Where its amplitude is made to vary (AM) in accordance with the modulating signal received from the modulating amplifier. The modulated ‘output is combined (see Fig. 1.4) with the frequency modulated (FM) sound signal in the combining network and then fed to the transmitting antenna for tadiation. Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION 5 ‘AM picture signal Crystal || Re Power cscilator [>| ampltier {>} amplifier | — Z — Transmitter = antenna Scanning and Y synchronizing | ‘creults !] Light L Uaht Lf Television Video ae ) sh Combinin srisitver {>| modulating 9 | a) = |} camera ampli aa, network % Microphone 5 Do} auto | loka soured J LD>>) ampitier >} mosulating >) ranamiter L a i Section FM sound signal Fig. 1.4. Elementary block diagram of a monochrome television transmitter. Colour Transmitter ‘A colour TV transmitter is essentially the same as the monochrome transmitter except for the additional need that colour (chroma) information is also to be transmitted. Any colour system is made compatible with the corresponding monochrome system. Compatibility means that the colour TV signal must produce a normal black and white picture on a monochrome receiver and a colour receiver must be able to produce a normal black and white picture from a monochrome TV signal. For this, the luminance (brightness) signal is transmitted in a colour system in the same way as in the monochrome system and with the same bandwidth. However, (o ensure compatibility, the colour camera outputs are modified to obtain (B-Y) and (R-Y) signals. These are modulated on the colour sub-carrier, the value of which is so chosen that on combining with the luminance signal, the sidebands of the two do not interfere with each cther ie., the luminance and colour signals are correctly interleaved. A colour syne signal called ‘colour burst’ is also transmitted for correct reproduction of colours. Sound Transmission ‘There is no difference #a sound transmission between monochrome and colour TV systems. The microphone converts the sound associated with the picture being televised into proportionate electrical signal, which is normally a voltage. This electrical output, regardless of the complexity of its waveform, is-a single valued function of time and so needs a single channel for its transmission. The audio signal from the microphone after amplification is frequency modulated, employing the assigned carrier frequency. In FM, the amplitude of carrier signal is held constant, whereas its frequency is varied in accordance with amplitude variations of the modulating signal. As shown in Fig. 1.4, output of the sound FM transmitter is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter output, through a combining fetwork, and fed to a common antenna for radiation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. 3 TELEVISION RECEIVER = of sn 'A simplified block diagram of a black and white TV receiver is shown in Fig. 1.5. The receiving ‘antenna intercepts radiated RF signals and the tuner selects desired channel's frequency band and CHAPTER 1 a Scanned with CamScannerMODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE 6 : Loudspeaker ‘Sound FM Audio rT Fe tg ound be amc. | of] | Receiver [| ampitier | "| demoduiator| "| 22 ‘antenna Picture tube ¥ 7 x 5] Video |, tuner amplifiers detector amplifier RE Video ! Scanning and| synchronizing] circuits Fig. 1.5. Simplified block diagram of a black and White TV receiver. converts it to the common IF band of frequencies. The Teceiver employs two or three stages of intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers. The output from the last IF stage is demodulated to recover the video signal. This signal that carries picture information is amplified and coupled to the picture tube which converts the electrical signal back into pi Control grid Accelerating anode my Focusing anode Final anode Scanned with CamScannerINTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION i black. Thus the video signal illuminates the fluorescent screen from white to black through various shades of grey depending on its amplitude at any instant. This corresponds to brightness changes encountered by the electron beam of the camera tube while scanning picture details element by element. ‘The rate at which the spot of light moves is so fast that the eye is unable to follow it and so a complete picture is seen because of storage capability of the human eye. Sound Reception The path of sound signal is common with the picture signal from antenna to video detector section of the receiver. Here the two signals are separated and fed to their respective channels. The frequency modulated audio signal is demodulated after at least one stage of amplification. The audio ‘output from the FM detector is given due amplification before feeding it to the loudspeaker. Colour Receiver A colour receiver is similar to the black and white receiver as shown in Fig. 1.7. The main difference between the two is the need of a colour or chroma subsystem. It accepts only the colour signal and processes it to recover (B-Y) and (R-Y) signals. These are combined with the Y signal to obtain Vp, Vg and V,, signals as developed by the camera at the transmitting end. V, becomes available as itis contained in the Y signal. The three colour signals are fed after sufficient amplification to the colour picture tube to produce a colour picture on its screen. Antenna gral rap |-—>] Sound sip Ls. 1 ratte Ee Fig. 1.7. An oversimplified block diagram of a colour receiver. As shown in Fig. 1.7, the colour picture tube has three guns tubes in the colour camera. The screen of this tube has red, alternate stripes. Each, gun produces gn electron beam to corresponding to the three pick-up ed, green and blue phosphors arranged in Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 1[s MODERN TELEVISION PRACTICE] {81.4 SYNCHRONIZATION Iris essential that the same co-ordinates be scanned at any instant both at the camera tube target plate and at the raster of picture tube, otherwise, the picture details would split and get distorted. To ensure Perfect synchronization between the scene being televised and the picture produced on the raster. synchronizing pulses are transmitted during the retrace, i.e, fly-back intervals of horizontal and verticaj motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus, in addition to carrying picture details, the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains synchronizing pulses. These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical motion control, are Processed at the receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring that the receiver picture tube beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube beam. As stated earlier, in a colour TV system additional sync pulses called colour burst are transmitted along with horizontal syne pulses. These are separated at the input of chroma section and used to Synchronize the colour demodulator carrier generator. This ensures correct reproduction of colours in the otherwise black and white Picture, f§1.5 RECEIVER ConTROLSs fast rate? : ces Tleata ee et Vidicon pick-up tube is employed in a Monochrome TV camera to ‘ ee Soe ih esgic cane Explain why itis necessary to transmit luminance Lk How i i : eecar con) ae oc to Cay ck and White receiver? Explain Why separate colour syne 5. Describe briefly the functions of Vario, a controls provi ‘What is the purpose of saturation (Colour) ie ‘on the front panel of a monochrome receiver. lour receiver? = Scanned with CamScannerTELEVISION PICTURES (INTRODUCTION Ideally a television system should be capable of preserving all details of the scene that the eyes are capable of utilizing. However, there are certain limitations which have to be kept in mind while attempting to design such a system. To understand this, it is desirable to study various factors which are necessary for successful transmission and reception of pictures. The requirements that are common to monochrome and colour pictures are considered first and specific needs of colour pictures are described in later sections of this chapter. (2.1 GEOMETRIC FORM AND ASPECT RATIO - ‘The frame adopted in all television systems is rectangular with width/height ratio, .e., aspect ratio = 4/3. ‘There are many reasons for this choice. In human affairs most of the motion occurs in the horizontal plane and so a larger width is desirable. The eyes can view with more ease and comfort when the width of a picture is more than its height. The usage of rectangular frame in motion pictures with a width/ height ratio of 4/3 is another important reason for adopting this shape and aspect ratio. This enables direct television transmission of film programmes without wastage of any flee raster area. tis not necessary that the size of picture produced on the receiver same as that being televised but it is essential that the aspect ratio of the two be same, otherwise the ‘scene details would ook too thin or too wide. This is achieved by setting magnitudes of current in the deflection coils to correct values, both for the TV camera tube and receiving picture tube. Another important requirement is that the same co-ordinates should be scanned at any instant both by the camera tube beam and the picture tube beam in the receiver. Synchronizing pulses are transmitted along with picture information to achieve exact congruence between transmitter and receiver scanning systems. oy . k Scanned with CamScanner10 MODERN TELEVISION Prarie] (2.2. IMAGE CONTINUITY While televising picture elements of the frame by means of scanning process, it is necessary to present the picture to the eye in such a way that an illusion of continuity is created and any motion in the scene appears on the picture tube screen as a smooth and continuous change. To achieve this, advantage is taken of ‘persistence of vision’ or storage characteristics of the human eye. This arises from the fact that sensation produced, when nerves of the eye’s retina are stimulated by incident light. does not immediately after the light is removed but persists for about 1/16th of a second. Thus. if the scanning rate per second is made greater than sixteen, or the number of pictures shown per second is more than sixteen, the eye is able to integrate the changing levels of brightness in the scene. So when picture elements are scanned rapidly enough, they appear to the eye as a complete picture unit, with none of the individual elements visible separately. Scanning The scene is scanned rapidly both in the horizontal and vertical directions simuitaneously to provide sufficient number of complete pictures or frames per second to give the illusion of continuous s, the frame repetition tate is 25 motion. Instead of 24 as is the practice in commercial! motion pictur per second in most television systems. Horizontal Scanning Fig. 2.1 (a) shows the trace and retrace of several horizontal lines. The linear rise of current in the horizontal line deflection coils (Fig. 2.1 (b)] deflects the beam across the screen with a continuous. uniform motion for the trace from left to right. At the peak of its rise, the sawtooth wave reverses direction and decreases rapidly to its initial value. This fast reversal produces the retrace or flyback ‘The start of horizontal trace is at the left edge of raster. The finish is at the right edge-and then the flyback produces retrace back to the left edge. Note, that ‘up’ on the sawtooth wave corresponds to horizontal deflection to the right. The heavy lines in Fig. 2.1 (a) indicate useful scanning time and dashed lines correspond to the retrace time. Vertical Scanning The sawtooth current in the vertical deflection coils [sec Fig. 2.2 (a)] moves the electron beam from top to bottom of the raster at a uniform speed while the electron beam is being deflected horizontally Thus the beam produces complete horizontal lines one below the other while moving from top (© bottom. ‘As shown in Fig. 2.2 (c) the trace part of the sawtooth wave for vertical scanntig deflects the beam to the bottom of raster. Then the rapid vertical retrace returns the beam to the top. Note that maximum amplitude of the vertical sweep current brings the beam to the bottom of raster. As shown in Fig. 2.2 (6) during vertical retrace horizontal scanning continues and several lines get scanned during this period. Because of motion in the scene being televised, the information or brightness at the top of target plate of the camera tube or picture tube screen normally changes by the time the beam returns to the top to recommence the whole process. This information is picked up during the next scanning cycle and the whole process is repeated 25 times to cause an illusion of continuity. Sais Scanned with CamScannerTELEVISION PICTURES 11] End of aine Toa | Raster of 625 lines + Ast line 2nd line ‘3rd line. Let‘ trace period > 4} — 6) : : ‘One cycle of : deflection current Fig. 2.1. (a) Path of scanning beam in covering picture area (Raster) (b) Waveform of current in horizontal deflection coils producing linear (constant velocity) scanning in the horizontal direction. ‘The actual scanning sequence is, however, a little complex than that just described and is explained in a later section of this chapter. It must however be noted, that both during horizontal and vertical retrace intervals the scanning beams at the camera tube and picture tube are blanked and no picture information is either picked up or reproduced. Instead, on a time division basis, these short retrace intervals are utilized for transmitting distinct narrow pulses to keep sweep oscillators. of the picture tube deflection circuits of the receiver in synchronism with those of the camera at the transmitter. This ensures exact correspondence in scanning at the two ends and results in distortionless reproduction of picture details. Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 2(a) Trace (b) Retrace One cycle of vertical Trace period deflection current Top alia W Tyymax.|—- ; Retrace period Bottom Yt (©) Current waveform in vertical deflection cols Fig. 2.2. Vertical deflection and deflection current waveform. Although the rate of 24 pictured) faglaGaiia aM momen ree ena that of scanning 25 frames per sion of continuity, they are not rapid enough to Smoothly into the next through the time when the Scanned with CamScanner[TELEVISION PICTURES 13 sereen is blanked between successive frames. This results in definite flicker of light that is very annoying to the observer when the screen becomes alternately bright and dark. This problem is solved in motion pictures by showing each picture twice, so that 48 views of the scene are shown per second although there are still the same 24 picture frames per second. As a result of the increased blanking rate, flicker is eliminated. Interlaced Scanning Intelevision pictures an effective rate of 50 vertical scans per second is utiliz ‘This is accomplished by increasing the downward rate of travel of the scanning electron beam, so that every alternate line gets scanned instead of every successive line. Then, when the beam reaches the bottom of picture frame, it quickly retums to the top to scan those lines that were missed in the previous scanning. Thus the total number of lines are divided into two groups called ‘fields’, Each field is scanned alternately. This method of scanning is known as ‘interlaced scanning’ and is illustrated in Fig, 2.3. It reduces flicker to an acceptable level since the area of screen is covered at twice the rate. This is like reading alternate lines of a page from top to bottom once and then going back to read the remaining lines down to the bottom. I Beginning of 2nd field Beginning of ‘Ast field 4 313, — osons End of 1st field End of 2nd field Fig. 2.3. Principle of interlaced scanning, Note that the vertical retrace time has been ‘assumed to be zero. The retrace lines are also omitted for clarity. In the 625 line TV system, for successful interlaced scanning, the 625 lines of each frame or picture are divided into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is scanned alternately to cover the entire picture area, To achieve this, the horizontal sweep oscillator is made to work at a frequency of 15625 Hz. (312.5 | 5 50 = 15625) to scan the same number of lines per frame (15625/25 = 625 lines), but the vertical sweep circuit is run ata frequency of 50 instead of 25 Hz. Note that since the beam is now deflected from top to bottom in half the time and the horizontal oscillator is still operating at 15625 Hz, only half the total lines, ie., 312.5 (625/2 = 312.5) get scanned during each vertical sweep.:Since the first field ends in a half line and the second field commences at middle of the line on top of the target plate or sereen (see Fig, 2.3), the beam is able to scan the remaining 312.5 alternate lines during its downward journey. In all then, the beam scans 625 lines (312.5 x 2 = 625) per frame at the same rate of 15625 lines Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 2(312.5 x 50 = 15625) per second. Therefore, with interlaced scanning the flicker effect is ae without increasing the speed of scanning, which in turn does not need any increase in the channe| bandwidth, i may be noted that the frame repetition rate of 25 (rather than 24 as used in motion pictures) was choosen to make the field frequency equal to the power line frequency of 50 Hz. This helps in reducing the undesired effects of hum due to any pick-up from the mains, ecause then such effects i the picture stay still, instead of drifting up or down on the screen, In the American TY system, a field frequency of 60 was adopted because the supply frequency is 60 Hz in USA. This brings the total number of lines scanned per second equal to (525/2) x 60 = 15750 lines which is practically the sam. as in the 625 line system. Scanning Periods ‘The wave shapes of both horizontal and vertical sweep currents are shown in Fig. 2.4. As shown there, the retrace times involved (both horizontal and vertical) are due to physical limitations of practice scanning systems and are not utilized for transmitting or receiving any video signal. The nominal uration of one horizontal Line as shown in Fig, 2.4 (a) is 64 ws (10°/15625 = 64 4s), out ot which the active line period is 52 us and remaining 12 us isthe line blanking period. The beam return short interval to the extreme left side of the frame to start tracing the next line. is during this 1.280 ms é z ij Pig. 24. (a) HonizOMalieiccton current. (6) Vertical deiecton curent | Similarly with fi eld frequency Set at 50 Hz, the nominal duration of one vertical trace (see Fig. 2.4 (b)) is 20 ms (1 50 = 20 ms). Out ofthis period of 20 ms, 18.720 ms are spent in bringing the Scanned with CamScannerWe hy [FRESION PicTUnEs beam from top to bottom and the remaining 1.280 ms i commence the next cycle. taken by the beam to return back to the top to Werte ees of inteta ae pepe and vertical sweep oscillators operate continuously to achieve eee incre ten 20 horizontal lines (1280 j1s/64 j1s = 20 line) get traced during ea : tval. Thus 40 scanning lines are lost per frame as blanked lines during retrace interval of two fields. This leaves active number of lines, (Na) for scanning the picture details equal to 625 — 40 = 585, instead of the 625 lines actually scanned per frame. Scanning Sequence x ide: ore geometry of the standard interlaced scanning pattern is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. jote that the lines are numbered in the sequence in which these are actually scanned. During the first vertical trace actually 292.5 lines are scanned. The beam starts at A, and sweeps across the frame with ———————| Ars be 8 BL 3 ble ‘1s vertical trace Inactive ines during 2nd vertal race Inactive ines during (292.5 nes) Tt vortcal retrace (292.5 ines) 2d vara retrace (20 ines) (20 ines) 102925 2025103125 2312.5 t0.605, 605 9 625 tstfield = 3125 tines 2nd eld = 9125 ines One frame or picture = 625 lines Fig. 2.5. Odd line interlaced scanning procedure. cer all the picture elements in one horizontal line. At the end of this trace the fi side of the frame, as shown by dashed line in the illustration, to begin the next horizontal line, Note that horizontal lines slope downwards inthe direction of scanning Because westical deflecting current simultaneously produces a vertical scanning motion, which is very slow compared with horizontal scanning. The slope of horizontal trace from left to right is greater than during retrace from tight to left. The reason is that the faster retrace does Oo8 allow the beam so much time t> be deflected vertically. After line one, the beam is atthe left side ready 10 sean line 3, omitting the second line. However, a8 mentioned earlier its convenient to number the [ines as they are scanned aud 20 the next scanned ine skipping’ ofc Hite, lv nutmbeted two (2) anid tes three (3). This process a tinues all the last line gets scanned half when the vertical motion reaches the bottom of raster or frame. As explained earlier, skipping of lines is accomplished by doubling the vertical scanning frequency from the frame or picture repetition rae of 25 to the field frequency of 50 Hz. With the field frequency ro gO Hi the height ofthe raster is so set that 292.5 lines get scanned as the beam travels from top to ottom and reaches point ‘B’. Now the retrace starts and takes a period equal to 20 horizontal Tine periods to reach the top marked °C’. These 20 lines are known as inactive lines, as the scanning beam. uniform velocity to cov’ beam retraces rapidly to the le CHAPTER 2. ooo Scanned with CamScannerMODERN TELEVISION PRACTicr is cut-off during this period. Thus the second field starts at the middle of the raster and the first li. scanned is the 2nd half of line number 313, The scanning of second field, starting at the middle of the raster automatically enables the beam to scan alternative lines left unscanned during the first field. Th. vertical scanning motion otherwise is exactly the same as in the previous field giving all the horizontal lines the same slope downwards in the direction of scanning. As a result 292.5 lines again get scanned and the beam reaches the bottom of frame when it has completed full scanning of line number 605. The inactive vertical retrace again begins and brings the beam back to the top at point ‘A’ in a period during which 20 blanked horizontal lines (605 to 625) get scanned. Back at point ‘A’, the scanning beam has just completed two fields or one frame and is ready to start the third field covering the same arca (number of lines) as scanned during the first field. This process (of scanning fields) is continued at « fast rate of 50 times a second, which not only creates an illusion of continuity but also solves the problem of flicker satisfactorily. For perfect interlaced scanning it is essential that the starting points at the top of the frame is separated exactly one half line between first and second fields. To achieve this it is necessary to feed two regularly spaced synchronizing pulses to the field time base during each frame period. One of these pulses must arrive in the middle of a line and the next at the end of a line. This is shown in Fig. 2.6. Thus the vertical time base must be triggered 50 times per second in the manner explained above. For half line separation between the two fields, only the topmost and the extreme bottom lines are then hali lines whereas the remaining lines are all full lines. If there are X number of full lines per field, where X may be even or oda, the total number of full lines per frame is then 2X, an even number. To this, when the two half lines get added the total number of lines per frame become odd. Thus for interlaced scannine the total number of lines in any TV system must be odd. == Trigger pulse instances Fig. 2.6. Vertical trigger pulse instances. Further for correct interlacing it becom, control must be utilized to maintain a horizon ‘Rafter 1st field, ‘Batter 2nd tiels. les necessary that at the transmitter automatic tal scanning frequency that is exactly 312.5 tit asthe Feld frequency ie, 30 Hz. This is accomplished by generating a stable frequency at! “rystal controlled oscillator circuits. A frequency doubling circuit produces a frequency of 31250 ¥ which is utilized to control the correct generation of equalizing and vertical sync pulses. Four frequen? Scanned with CamScannerdivision ts each with a ratio of 5: 1 are employed to derive 50 Hz. The vertical scanning frequency 1250 Eee % 5 x5 x 50). Thus all the required frequencies are derived from a common stable source and they automatically remain interlocked in the correct ratios. The ability of image reproducing system to represent fine structure of an object is known as its resolving power or resolution. It is necessary to consider this aspect separately in the vertical and horizontal planes of the picture. Vertical Resolution ‘The extent to which scanning system is capable of resolving picture details in the vertical direction is referred to as its vertical resolution. As already explained, vertical resolution is a function of scanning lines into which the picture is divided in the vertical plane. Thus, vertical resolution can be expressed as: V, = Na x k where V, is the vertical resolution expressed as number of lines, Na, the active number of lines in the system and ‘the resolution factor also known as ‘KELL’ factor. The use of resolution factor arises from the fact that in practice, picture elements are not arranged as equally spaced segments but have random distribution of black, grey and white pixels depending on the nature of picture details in the scene under consideration. Statistical analysis and subjective tests carried out to determine average number of effective lines suggest that about 70 percent of the total lines or segments get separately scanned in the vertical direction and the remaining 30 percent get merged with other elements due to the beam falling equally ‘on two consecutive (one after the other) lines. Thus the effective number of lines distinctly resolved gets reduced by the resolution (k) factor. Assuming k = 0.69 we get vertical resolution for the 625 line + system as: V, = 585 x 0.69 = 400 lines Horizontal Resolution ‘The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements along the scanning, line determines horizontal resolution. While aiming at equal vertical and horizontal resolutions and assuming the same ‘KELL’ factors (&) the effective number of alternate black and white segments (N) that get scanned in one horizontal line are: N=Na x aspect ratio x k = 585 x 4/3 x 0.69 = 533 For the extreme situation where alternate picture segments are black and white, ike that in a chess board, the scanning spot must develop 533/2 ~ 266 complete cyclic changes while switching Slternately to voltage levels corresponding to black and peak white light values. Since 266 cyclic voltage changes get generated ina time period of 52 us thatthe beam takes to sean one line in the horizontal plane the time period (,) of each cycle comes to: of each hor ‘number of cycles yntal line 52x10 seconds Scanned with CamScanner aAssuming the cyclic changes to be neatly sinusoidal, the frequency f, of this periodic way j equal to: 1 _ 266x10° ue pag The significance of determining this frequency is to show the maximum video frequency tha, can get generated with the assumptions made is 5 MHz and the system must be designed to handle; ‘bandwidth that extends up to this frequency. In addition, the TV channel bandwidth must be lay enough to transmit a modulating frequency upto 5 MHz. This in turn explains the need for a 7 Mii channel bandwidth for the 625 line system when sound signal transmission and other related factors ar taken into account. In the 525 line American TV system where the active number of lines is 485 and actual period of horizontal scanning is 57 is, the highest modulating frequency comes to 4 MHz. This explains the allocation of 6 MHz as the channel width in this system. = 5 MHz. Bandwidth for Colour Signals As detailed above the luminance i.e., brightness signal is transmitted with full frequen: bandwidth of 5 MHz.for maximum horizontal details in monochrome. However, such a large freq Spectrum is not necessary for colour video signals. The reason being, that for very small colour details the eye can perceive only its brightness but not its hue. Detailed studies have shown that perception of colours which are produced by combinations of the three primary colours is limited to objects which have relatively large coloured areas. On scanning they generate video frequencies which do not exces 0.5MHz. Furthermore, medium size objects or areas which produce a video frequency spectrum between 0 and 1.5 MHz, only two primary colours are needed. This is so, because for finer details the eye fails ‘0 distinguish purple (magenta) and green-yellow hues from greys, As the coloured areas become ver small in size (width), the red and cyan hues also become indistinguishable from greys. Thus for very fine colour details produced by frequencies from 1.5 to 5 MHz, all persons with normal vision are colour blind and see only changes in brightness even for coloured areas Therefore, maximum bandwidth necessary for colour signal transmission on modulation is around 3 MHz (£15 MHz). Thus colour information needs much less bandwidth and as explained later it is accommodated within the same channel width of 7 MHz allotted for monochrome transmission. [28_sacimiess GRADATION AND COLOUR CHARACTERISTICS The signal transmission path should have proper transfer characteristics to preserve same brightness on a the eye would perceive when viewing the scene directly. Where non-linearities occu Corrections have to be applied. Both the pick-up tube at the transmitting end and picture tube atthe reesiving end have non-linear characteristics, For example, the picture tube emphasizes whit in “Producing the image and a correction called ‘gamma correction’ is applied to obtain desired contrast ratio. Another important factor that has to be kept in mind while designing the TV channel is that Sensation in the eye to detect changes of brightness is logarithmic in nature. Scanned with CamScanner‘The factors that affect tonal gradation of the reproduced picture and need attention are: (a) Brightness Brightness is the overall or average intensity of illumination and it determines background light level in the reproduced picture. The brightness control can be varied to obtain optimum average illumination of the scene. (b) Contrast This is the difference in light intensity between black and white parts of the picture over and * above the average brightness level. The contrast range should be great enough to produce a strong picture with bright white and dark black for the extreme intensity values. Contrast can be varied by the contrast control. Too much contrast makes the picture hard while too little contrast gives the impression of a washed out picture (©) Viewing Distance ‘The viewing distance from the screen of the TV receiver should not be so large that the eye cannot resolve details of the picture. The distance should also not be so small that picture elements become separately visible. The above conditions are met when the vertical picture size subtends an angle of approximately 15° at the eye. The distance also depends on habit, varies from person to person and lies between 3 to 8 times the picture height. Most people prefer a distance close to five time the picture height. While viewing TV, a small light should be kept ‘on’ in the room to reduce overall contrast. This prevents strain to the eyes and there is less fatigue. (d) Luminance, HUE and Saturation Any colour picture has three characteristics t0 specify its visual ififormation. These are ( luminance, (ii) hue or tint and (iii) saturation. These are defined as follows: (Luminance or Brightness = ‘This is the amount of light intensity as perceived by the eye regardless of the colour. In black and white pictures, better lighted parts have more luminance than dark areas. Different colours also have shades of luminance in the sense that though equally illuminated appear more or less bright as, determined by the response of human eye to various colours. Thus on a monochrome TV screen, dark red colour will appear as black, yellow as white and a light blue colour as grey. (ii) Hue : T in ved li of any object is is is the predominant spectral colour of the received light. Thus the colour Thien te ‘The green leaves have green hue and red tomatoes have red hue. istinguished by its hue or tint. 2 ‘ Gstinguished PY from diferent wavelengths of spectral radiation and ae perceived as such by the optical nerve of the eye- (iii) Saturation : t it i i i ‘hue colours occur rarely alone, this isis the spectral purity of the colour light. Since single rarely dicate the amounts of other colours present. Thus, saturation may be taken a a indication of how fine te colour is diuted by white. A fully saturated Golouras no white. Asan example, vivid greens Scanned with CamScanneraS TELEVISION CAMERAS INTRODUCTION ‘A television camera consists of an opto-electrical pick-up tube, a lens system and a signal processing unit, The camera pick-up tube that converts optical information of the scene into electrical form may be called as eye of the TV system. For such an analogy tobe true, the tube must possess characteristics that are similar to its human counterpart Development work during the past fifty years or so, has enabled scientists and engineers to develop image pick-up tubes, which not only meet the desired requirements but in-fact excel thg human eye in certain respects. Such sensitive tubes have now been developed which deliver output even where spectral response has been so perfected, that pick-up outside the visible our eyes see complete darkness, as become possible. Infact, now there is a tube available for any range (infrared and ultraviolet) h: special application. ‘The optical unit or lens system focuses the aimed picture oF the camera plate and in colour cameras also splits the received light into the three primary colours, The associated view finder enables the camera operator to frame the scene and maintain proper focus. The electronics section that is located Close to the camera tube provides scanning currents forts beam, shapes the generated video signal and inserts blanking and syne pulses,,besides providing necessary amplification. “The basic system of signal generation in both monochrome and colour cameras is the same. The main difference between the two is that while only one pick-up tube is needed in a black and white ‘camera, three such tubes or its equivalent is necessary in colour cameras to develop separate signals for red, green and blue informations present in the scene. A wide variety of TV cameras are now available tach having some special features. The basic principle of different camera tubes, TV cameras and sccociated equipment are briefly described in this chapter. 21 amie Scanned with CamScannerare taken into account, any picture appears to be composed of , which are known as picture element, The elements this on, When minute details of a picture a TV pick-up tube is to sense each element indepen, elementary ares of light or shade, which ae Ee Brae, earl to the brightness of each element. As sce. : Ka : and develop Sia etm the scene is focused witha Ten system on a photosensitive sy i thapter 1, light from am on aoe ‘ie aah the optical image thus formed represents light intensity variations o for 2 eee then convert different light intensities in, scene. The photoelectric properties of the image plate differen * corresponding electrical variations. In addition to photoelectric conversion, it is necessary to picky, this information as fast as possible. Since simultaneous pick-up is not possible, scanning by an cic beam is resorted to, The electron beam moves across the image plate line by line, and field by fie , provide signal variations in a successive order. This scanning process divides the image into its basic picture elements. Though the entire image plate is photoelectric, its construction isolates the picture elements so that each discrete small area can produce its own signal variations. Photoelectric Effects é The three photoelectric effects used for converting variations of light intensity into clecirical variations are ()) photoemission, ({i) photoconduction and (iii) photovoltaic. Certain metals emit electrons when light falls on their surface. These emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the emiting surface a photocathode. Light consists of small bundles of energy called photons. When light is made incident on a photocathode, the photons give away their energy to the outer valence electrons to allow them to overcome the potential-energy barrier atthe surface. The number of electrons which can overcome the potential barrier and get emitted, depends on the light intensity. The second method of producing an electrical image is by photoconduction, where the conductivity or resistivity of the. photosensitive surface varies in proportion to the intensity of light focused on it. The variations in resistance at each point across the surface of the material is utilized 0 develop a varying signal by scanning it uniformly with an electron beam, .__ The third effect relates to the development of a potential difference across a semiconductor cok when light falls on it. The camera tubes using this effect are termed as photovoltaic camera Image Storage Principle Television cameras developed during the initial stages of development were of the non-stor ‘ype, where signal output from the camera for the light on each picture element i d only at th instant it is scanned, Most of the illumination i ‘ We ue lon is thus Wasted. Since the effect of light on the image Scanned with CamScannerie _ The Electron Scanning Beam As in the case of picture tubes, an electron gun produces a narrow beam of electrons for scanning In camera tubes magnetic focusing is normally employed. The electrons must be focused to a very srarrow and thin beam because this is what determines resolving capability of the camera. The diameter of the beam determines size of the smallest picture element and hence finest detail of the scene to which it can be resolved. Any movement of electric charge is a fldw of current and thus the electron beam constitutes a very small current which leaves the cathode in the electron gun and scans the target plate. The scanning is done by deflecting the beam with the help of magnetic fields produced by horizontal and vertical coils in the deflection yoke put around the tubes. The beam scans 312.5 lines per field and 50 such fields are scanned per second. Video Signal In tubes employing photoemissive target plates the electron beam deposits some charge on the target plate, which is proportional to light intensity variations in the scene being televised. The beam motion is so controlled by electric and magnetic fields, that it is decelerated before it reaches the target and lands on it with almost zero velocity to avoid any secondary emission. Because of negative acceleration the beam is made to move back from the target and_on its retum journey, which is very accurately controlled by the focusing and deflection coils, it strikes an electrode which is located very close to the cathode from where it started. The number of electrons in the returning beam will thus vary in accordance with the charge deposited on the target plate. This in turn implies that the current which enters the collecting electrode varies in amplitude and represents brightness variations of the picture. This current is finally made to flow through a resistance and the varying voltage developed across this 0 signal. Figure 3.1 (a) illustrates the essentials of this technique of resistance constitutes the videi developing video signal. Photoconductive coating Faceplate Target Scanning Electron gun Gia Photoemissive coating 1. (6) Production of video signal ition of video signal Fig. 3.1. (0) Pr pei (Ceseversibeni by photoconduction. ‘A camera tube called Image Orthican, that operates on this, ie, photoemission principle was developed in 1945 and remained in use for along time. However, it has now Peen replaced by vidicon and other similar tubes because these are more efficient, less complex and smaller in size. Tr camera tubes employing photoconductive cathodes the scanning electron beam causes a flow of current through the photoconductive material. The amplitude of this current varies in accordance a Scanned with CamScannerwith the resistance offered by the surface at different points. Since conductivity of the material vari jy accordance with the light falling on it, the magnitude of current represents brightness variations of th. scene. This varying current completes its path under the influence of an applied de voltage through load resistance connected in series with the path of current. The instantaneous voltage developed acros, the load resistance is the video signal. Figure 3.1 (b) shows a simplified illustration of this method of developing video signal. The vidicon came into general use in early 50's and gained immediate popularity because of its small size and ease of operation. It functions on the principle of photoconductivity, where the resistance of target material shows a marked decrease when exposed to light. Figure 3.2 illustrates the structural configuration of a typical vidicon, and Fig. 3.3 shows the circuit arrangement for developing camera signal output. As shown, there, the target consists of a thin photoconductive layer of either selenium or antimony compounds. This is deposited on a transparent conducting film, coated on the inner surface Of the face plate. This conductive coating is known as signal electrode or plate. Image side of the Photolayer, which is in contact with the signal electrode, is connected to de supply through the load resistance R, . The beam that emerges from the electron gun is focused on the surface of photoconductive layer by combined action of uniform magnetic field of an external coil and electrostatic field of Grid No. 3. Grid No. 4 provides a uniform decelerating field between itself and the photoconductive layer, So that the electron beam approaches the layer with a low velocity to prevent any secondary emission, Deflection of the beam for scanning the target is obtained by vertical and horizontal deflecting coils, placed around the tube. Charge Image ‘The photolayer has a thickness of about 0.0001 cm, and behaves like an insulator with a resistance f approximately 20 MQ when in dark. With light focused on it, the photon energy enables more electrons to go to the conduction band and this reduces its resistivity. When bright light falls on any area of the photoconductive coating, resistance across the thickness of that portion gets reduced to about 2 MQ. Thus, with an image on the target, each point on the gun side of the photolayer assumes a Certain potential with respect to the de supply, depending on its resistance to the signal plate. For example, with a B+ source of 40 V (see Fig. 3.3), an area with high illumination may attain a potential of about + 39 V on the beam side. Similarly dark areas, on account of high resistance of the photolayer may rise to only about +35 volts. Thus, a pattern of positive potentials appears, on the gun side of the Photolayer, producing a charge image, that corresponds to the incident optical image. Storage Action Though light from the scene falls continuously on the target, each element of the photocoating is scanned at intervals equal to the frame time. This results in storage action and the net change in resistance, at any point or element on the photoconductive layer, depends on the time, which elapses between two successive scannings and the intensity of incident light. Since storage time for all points on the target plate is same, the net change in resistance of all elementary areas is proportional to light intensity variations in the scene being televised. Scanned with CamScannerTarget connection 30 to 60.V Grid no, 2 (accelerator) Alignment coil a0 Target Light —p face plate ‘Cathode, OV LU aa) Grid no. 4 275 to 300 V (decelerator) eed 275V col Horizontal and vertical detecting coils Fig. 3.2. Vidicon camera tube cross-section. 1=03nA Signal plate os is Camera Photolayer signal output ‘Scanning beam Fig. 3.3. Circuit for output signal from a Vidicon camera tube. Signal Current ; ; ‘As the beam scans the target plate, it encounters different positive potentials on the side of the photolayer that faces the gun. Sufficient number of electrons from the beam are then deposited on the photolayer surface to reduce the potential of each element towards the zero cathode potential, The remaining electrons, not deposited on the target, return back and are not utilized in the vidicon, However, the sudden change in potential on each element, while the beam scans, cases a current flow in the signal electrode circuit producing a varying voltage across the load resistance R,. Obviously, the amplitude of current and the consequent output voltage across R,, are directly proportional to light intensity variations on the scene. Note that, since, a large current would cause a higher voltage drop Scanned with CamScanner E éacross R,, the output voltage is most negative for white areas. The video signal thus developed across the load resistance is very small in amplitude. It is therefore amplified by conventional amplifiers before it leaves the camera unit. Light Transfer Characteristics 4 Vidicon output characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.4. Each curve is for a specific value of ‘dark current’ which is the output with no light. The ‘dark’ current is set by adjusting the target voltage Sensitivity and dark current both increase as the target voltage is increased. Typical output for the vidicon is 0.4 WA for bright light with a dark current of 0.02 HA. Dark current = 0.2 WA 1.0} leas Ic 0.02, oO : 3B 001 2 10.004 pA 0.001 oor Ot 1.0 10 1001000 Illumination on tube face (ft-candies) > Fig. 3.4. Light transfer characteristics of a vidicon. The photoconductive layer has a time lag, which can cause smear with a trail following fast moving objects. The photoconductive lag increases at high target voltages, where the vidicon has its highest sensitivity. This is another variation of vidicon but of the photovoltaic type where the target is prepared from a thin n-type silicon wafer instead of deposited layers on the glass faceplate. The final result is an array of silicon photodiodes for the target plate. Fig. 3.5 shows constructional details of such a target. As shown there, one side of the substrate (n-type silicon) is oxidized to form a film of silicon dioxide (SiO,) which is an insulator. Then by photomasking and etching processes, an array of fine openings is made in the oxide layer. These openings are used as a diffusion mask for producing corresponding number of individual photodiodes. Boron, as a dopent is vapourized through the array of holes, forming islands of P-type silicon on one side of the n-type silicon substrate. Finally, a very thin layer of gold is deposited ‘on each p-type opening to form contacts for signal output. The other side of the substrate is given an antireflection coating. The resulting p-n photodiodes are about 8 pm in diameter. The silicon target Plate thus formed is typically 0.003 cm thick, 1.5 cm square having an array of 540 x 540 photodiodes This target plate is mounted in a vidicon type of camera tube. Scanned with CamScannerSubstrate Antirefiection (n-type silicon) coating Gold coating for sional ouput Ja Gold overlay cmap p-type silicon Light — 6 Seancing bar — Depletion repon Siicon dose nity a +layer Fig. 3.5. Constructional details (enlarged) of a silicon diode array target plate. Scanning and Operation ‘The photodiodes are reverse biased by applying +10 V or so to the m+ layer on the substrate, This side is illuminated by the light focused on to it from the image. The incidence of light generates electron-hole pairs in the substrate. Under influence of the applied electric field, holes are swept over to the ‘p’ side of the depletion region thus reducing reverse bias on the diodes. This process continues to produce storage action till the scanning beam of electron gun scans the photodiode side of the substrate. ‘The scanning beam deposits electrons on the p-side thus returning the diodes to their original reverse bias. The consequent sudden increas: x : the video signal, The current flows through a load resistance in the battery circuit and develops a video signal proportional to the intensity of light falling on the array of photodiodes. A typical value of peak signal current is 7 HA for bright white light. “The vidicon employing such a multidiode silicon target is less susceptible to damage or burns due to excessive high lights. It also has low lag time and high sensitivity to visible ight which can be extended to the infrared region. Other Camera Tubes Based on vidicon many other camera tubes have since been developed. These include Plumbicon, Saticon, Silicon, Vidicon (described above), Chalnicon and Newvision. All these are similar in construction to the vidicon but different materials are used for the target plate to obtain desired photoelectric and spectral (visible light spectrum) characteristics. High sensitivity is the most desired quality so that less light is needed for the camera signal. Scanned with CamScanner ‘ein current across each diode caused by the scanning beam represents ”ses chosen for cameras are focal length and ‘f stop rating. The foc Lenses with shorter focal lengths are used for wide telephoto lenses. Their taking angles are narrow ang The two basic features of len: length determines the ‘taking angle’ of the lens. angle shots. Long focal length lenses are called they make distant objects look closer. Stop-Value (f) The light gathering ability of a camera is determined by the diameter of lens. The larger th: lens diameter, the greater the amount of light falling on the target. Lenses are rated at maximum diameter for the biggest iris opening. The iris varies the opening for light to enter the lens. The ‘f rating is defined = Fid, where F is the focal length and d the diameter of the lens with iris fully open. The smaller the ‘f” rating the more light the lens can take in. A low ‘f number is needed when light is low in the scene Higher ‘f” numbers can be used in bright sunshine. The iris is calibrated in ‘f’ steps such as 1, 9.2.8 4-etc. In practice, the lens on the TV camera is ‘stopped’ down until the brightest object in the scene yields the standard 1 V p-p video output. In many cameras the iris is servo-controlled to maintain this relationship. Lens Turret ‘A judicious choice of lens can considerably improve the quality of image, depth of field and the impact which is intended to be created on the viewer. Accordingly, a number of lenses with different viewing angles are provided. Their focal lengths are slightly adjustable by movement of the front element of the lens located on the barrel of the lens assembly. This lens compliment (assembly of many lenses) is mounted on a turret which is screwed on the front of the camera. The rotation of turret brings the desired lens in front of the camera tube. Zoom Lens ‘A zoom lens has a variable focal length with a range of 10 : 1 or more. In this lens the viewing angle and field view can be varied without loss of focus. This enables dramatic close-up control. The smooth and gradual change of focal length by the cameraman while televising a scene appears to the viewer as if he is approaching or receding from the scene. The use of zoom lenses is now almost ‘universal in present day cameras. This alone enables the camera operator to have close-ups, wide coverage of the scene and distant shots without loss of focus. eae The building blocks of a monochrome television camera are shown in Fig. 3.6. The optical image of the picture being televised is focussed on the front glass faceplate of the camera tube. Since the glass is transparent the light strikes the photoelectric image plate on the inner surface via the lens system. The optical lens produces an inverted image of the scene as in a film camera. In addition ‘0 forming an optical image, the lens regulates the light by the iris built into the lens housing. The iris adjusts the opening or aperture to determine how much light goes through the lens. In low priced cameras the iris is mechanical and adjusted manually. However, in advanced cameras the light is set automatically by the servocontrol technique. Scanned with CamScannerMagnetic deflection and focusing coils Lens Electron beam Light from. the scene i Yeti pase Aliser-ts syne plo tee Vidicon ey ~e oaring | =e +1. '+4 Preampiior }+] Sian, |*s1 sync ar Video ‘ Mined cust L fi 150 see siti }) Fig. 3.6. Functional blocks of a monochrome TV camera. Inside the camera tube the light image is converted to an electrical charge pattern as explained in an earlier section. The charge pattern is scanned sequentially in time by the electron beam that sweeps ver the image plate. Note that scanning in the camera is done from right to left and from bottom to top because the image presented to the camera tube is inverted by the lens Signal Processing The signal current from the camera tube is extremely small — a few tenths of a microampere and thus the output voltage that develops across the load resistor R, is very small. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 3.6, the first stage in the camera electronics se°°% is a preamplifier for the low level camera signal. This stage is designed to be a low noise, high gain amplifier that is fully shielded to prevent pickup of external interference. It is located as close as possible to the output terminal (Pin) of the Camera tube. The signal processor that follows the preamplifiers to add blanking pulses during horizonta) and vertical retrace intervals. Signal processing vlso includes correction of undesired shading in the picture and setting of desired contrast rao Setting of contrast ratio also called ‘gamma correction’ is, to compensate for the fact that picture tube emphasizes white in the reproduced picture, This correction is comparable to the idea of ‘volume compression and expansion of the audio signal. ‘The syne adder block clamps blanked part of the fies en ae mtn ee i c pulses i destal level on which syne Pu pe aes pat 6 vind its amplitude is standard at | V P-P across 75-ohm. This output on eit ci cee ‘ohm coaxial cable. The control unit is located in the eamera control console that e control unit via 75~ is located at a distance from the camera. a ‘Hip Zeedion wo use more thot one Cale for televising any scene. fe te control and are fed a common synchronizing signal to ensures! a ae ‘are decided by the Director who er instants ‘The change over Ins! See oe picts as picked up by different cameras ‘The Director a2 sends voice instructions about t oom set-up and sends voice ins i camera-men through an inte ‘Allthe cameras have provision ‘mooth change over from one has before him several ‘also in toueh with the he shots to be taken. Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 3[Raprson caverns Z 29 Magnetic detection and focusing co) be, sing coils » Elect - tron = ug ron beam SO ze = = K a pulse HL, Sine puise 1vPP Vidicon~ = e blanking J + Preamplifier | ame ‘Sync adder Video = Lilia ‘signal output I T a ‘Syne pulses 2 Fig. 3.6. Functional blocks of a monochrome TV camera. Inside the camera tube the light image is converted to an electrical charge pattern as explained in an earlier section. The charge pattern is scanned sequentially in time by the electron beam that sweeps over the image plate. Note that scanning in the camera is done from right to left and from bottom to top because the image presented to the camera tube is inverted by the lens. Signal Processing ‘The signal current from the camera tube is extremely small ~ a few tenths of a microampere and thus the output voltage that develops across the load resistor R, is very small. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 3.6, the first stage in the camera electronics section is a preamplifier for the low level camera signal. This stage is designed to be a low noise, high gain amplifier that is fully shielded to prevent pickup of external interference. It is located as close as possible to the output terminal (Pin) of the camera tube. The signal processor that follows the preamplifier is t add blanking pulses during horizontal and vertical retrace intervals. Signal processing also includes correction of undesired shading in the picture and setting of desired contrast ratio. Setting of contrast ratio also called ‘gamma correction’ is to compensate for the fact that picture tube emphasizes white in the reproduced picture, This correction is comparable to the idea of volume compression and expansion of the audio signal. ‘The syne adder block clamps blanked part of the video signal to some reference voltage level. ‘This infact forms the pedestal level on which syne pulses are added. The shape of The resultant video 3.6 and its amplitude is standard at 1 V P-P across 75-ohm. This output is fed to hn goaxial cable. The control unit is located in the camera control console that signal is shown in the control unit via 75-ol is located at a distance from the camera. Ttis common to use more than one camera fr televising any scene. All the cameras have provision for femote control and are fed a common synchronizing signal fo ensure smooth change over from one crnere to the other, The change over instants are decided by the Director who has before him several monitors showing pictures as picked up by different cameras. The Director is also in touch with the camera-men through an intercom set-up and sends voice instructions about the shots to be taken. Scanned with CamScanner CHAPTER 3