Professional Documents
Culture Documents
International
Islamic collections
The Islamic world has embraced a huge There are, at the end of the twentieth century, four types of museums in which works of
geographic span over many centuries Islamic art can be found.
and its arts are of unparalleled variety The first one is the primarily Western creation of the more or less universal museum,
and beauty, in many cases setting such as the Louvre in Paris, the Hermitage in St Petersburg, the British Museum in
standards that have been unmatched London, the newly consolidated Berlin Museum, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
anywhere. This special dossier is New York. Works from Muslim lands occupy a percentage of a usually huge space and
this percentage varies according to acquisitions, donations or other considerations.
intended to present readers with the
range of issues confronting museums in The second type, also mostly found in the West, is the specialized museum. It could be a
collecting, preserving and displaying this generally `Oriental' or `Asian' museum like the Freer Gallery and the Sackler Museum in
rich heritage, and in presenting it to the Washington and the Museum of the Art of the Peoples of Asia in Moscow, or else a
public in a meaningful way. Our specifically `Islamic' museum such as the one attached to the Institut du Monde Arabe in
Paris or the Leo Mayer Museum in Jerusalem. Another form of specialized museum with
indispensable guide on this complex frequently large collections of Islamic art is the museum devoted to techniques, such as the
question was Oleg Grabar, one of the MuseÂe de la CeÂramique at SeÁvres, near Paris, the Corning Glass Museum at Corning, New
foremost specialists on the subject of York, or the Textile Museum in Washington, D.C., as well as the museum attached to the
Islamic art. Professor at the School of Abegg Foundation in Riggisburg near Basle. Numismatic museums exist as well, for
Historical Studies of the Institute for example, the one attached to the American Numismatic Society in New York. Within this
category of specialized museums should be included the private museum exhibiting one
Advanced Study in Princeton, former individual's collection, usually restricted to a technique or a theme; examples exist in
Aga Khan Professor of Islamic Art and Western Europe and in Beirut and Kuwait.
Architecture at Harvard University, past
director of the American School of The third type of museum is the national museum found in nearly every country of the
world and favoured particularly by all newly independent countries. Such museums are
Oriental Research in Jerusalem,
designed to reflect the history of a land, and every country with an Islamic past or with a
Honorary Curator of Near Eastern Art at significant Muslim population today has devoted a section of its national museum to
the Smithsonian Institution's Freer Islamic art. At times, as in Istanbul or Cairo, separate buildings house Islamic collections,
Gallery of Art until 1969, Near Eastern but they form part of an officially sanctioned sequence of institutions dedicated to the
editor of Ars Orientalis from 1957 to preservation of a country's past. National museums often reflect political and ideological
judgements on history or culture and their message often requires them to include
1970, etc.: the list of his prestigious
ethnographic and archaeological exhibitions as well as reconstructions of ways of life in
positions, honours and awards is addition to more standard works of art.
inexhaustible. He is currently a member
of the international scientific committee Finally, there is the special case of libraries. Their exhibition facilities are not always of
of UNESCO's Bayt al-Hikma (House of the highest order, but they are the guardians of most of the manuscripts and albums
with illuminations, paintings and works of calligraphic art which are among the glories
Wisdom) project which seeks to shed light of Islamic art.
on the contribution of Islamic
civilization to the scientific, intellectual Each of these categories has its own expectations and its own demands on technical or
and artistic heritage of humanity. He intellectual expertise. In practice, there is also a certain amount of conflation and overlap
between types, as historical circumstances or the availability of space compel compli-
was kind enough to provide us with the
cated mixes. Such is the case with the Top Kapi Seray in Istanbul, where, in a setting of
following guest editorial, which presents historical significance and dramatic location, all but the first of my categories appear in
a brief overview of the various the range and quality of the collections and in the manner of their presentation.
approaches to Islamic art adopted by
museums today. It is, of course, possible to look at these museums with significant holdings in Islamic art in
another way than that of their institutional structure. For that very structure has created, at
times perhaps merely reflected, the views on Islamic art held by scholars or by the general
public. Because so much of Islamic art consists of objects in many different techniques and
of an almost infinite range of quality, museums are compelled to make choices in what
they acquire, exhibit, or publish. But they have to do so without being provided with the
rather forceful hierarchy of genres, techniques and artists developed in post-Renaissance
Western art. The manner of their decisions will form the taste of the public and identify the
norms by which Islamic art will be evaluated. Museums control access to the basic infor-
mation available to professionals or to amateurs. Their responsibility lies in meeting the
needs of large audiences, from local schoolchildren to visiting scholars and tourists. They
can best fulfil this obligation by preserving and caring for their treasures, by guiding visitors
in the complex history and aesthetic message of Islamic art, and by making their collections
known even to those who cannot visit them. These aims are not always compatible, and
the true role of a museum is to establish a proper equilibrium among them.
OLEG GRABAR
ISSN 1350-0775, Musem International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999) 3
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Permanent exhibitions: a variety of
approaches
Adel T. Adamova
The State Hermitage Museum in St The limits in time and space of the art we (for as long as they correspond to the
Petersburg has adopted a unique way of habitually refer to as Islamic are vast, current level of knowledge) and which
exhibiting its rich Islamic collection, one stretching from the seventh to the nine- become an integral part of a museum's
which reflects its vocation as a `single teenth century, and from the Atlantic exhibitions as a whole. Temporary exhibi-
museum of world culture and art'. But Ocean to China. Islamic art consists of tions, unlike permanent ones, exist in
different concepts prevail in other works created by the peoples of the many museums in an autonomous sort of way
museums, which seek to highlight the Eastern countries conquered by the Arabs alongside the main exhibitions and have
particularities of the Islamic artistic in the seventh to eighth centuries and their own characteristics and purposes.
vision, and these contrasting principles brought under the single state of the Arab This article is too limited in scope to take a
also have their validity according to Adel Caliphate, which by the ninth century had detailed look at temporary exhibitions of
T. Adamova, senior research associate/ already broken up into a number of the art of Islamic countries (which usually
curator of medieval Persian art in the independent states. The political and even deal with one theme or a group of works).
Oriental Department at the Hermitage. the ethnic frontiers in this territory Exhibitions of this sort also have their own
She is the author of three books changed many times during the Middle history and could by themselves be the
(Miniatures in Kashmiri Manuscripts, The Ages, and more often than not they do not subject of research, as even a cursory
Miniatures in the Manuscript of the Poem coincide with the frontiers of the con- review of the exhibitions staged in dif-
`Shahnama' of 1333, and Persian temporary states in which Islam is even ferent museums over the entire century
Paintings and Drawings of the Fifteenth now the dominant religion. This art, yields an interesting picture of changing
to Nineteenth Centuries in the Hermitage which took shape under the powerful priorities at various stages in the study of
Collection) and some thirty articles on influence of Islam, emerged on a complex Islamic art. The article does not deal with
various subjects connected with medieval foundation of the traditions of the great specific exhibition issues such as creating
Persian painting. civilizations of the Mediterranean, the the exhibition's visual impact, though such
Near and Middle East, and was charac- matters also warrant special consideration
terized by its variety. However original the if only because an exhibition of Islamic art
path of the development of Islamic art, it consists in the main of very varied items
was continually encountering cultures that (ceramics, bronzes, textiles, carpets,
had evolved on the basis of other reli- books, and so on), and this often calls
gions. Displaying Islamic art to a broad for particular display solutions.
public in a museum so as to demonstrate
all the particular features of its emergence In the nineteenth century, in exhibitions
and development, and so that it appears staged in the major museums of world art
in all its richness and diversity, poses a such as the Louvre, the British Museum,
difficult problem. The road to exhibitions the Berlin Museum, the Metropolitan
of Islamic art in museums was long and Museum of Art and the Hermitage,
hard and was the outcome of the Oriental art was represented only by
collecting activities and research of more objects from the Ancient East (Egypt,
than one generation of museum curators. Sumeria, Assyria and Babylon). Works
from the Islamic East already in the
The aim of this article is to review in broad possession of the museums were lost
outline the exhibitions of art from Islamic among other art treasures and very little
countries currently to be found in different research had been done on them at the
museums and to endeavour to answer the time. In 1890 in the Louvre, and slightly
question about whether there is (or can be later in the other museums, specialist
proposed) an optimum way of displaying Islamic departments began to be estab-
Islamic art in a museum. It is principally lished, studying the museums' holdings
about what are called permanent exhibi- and adding to them by way of archaeo-
tions, which are set up for a long period logical expeditions. After a few decades,
4 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Permanent exhibitions: a variety of approaches
ß UNESCO 1999 5
ß L. G. Kheifetz, State Hermitage Photographic Studio Adel T. Adamova
6 ß UNESCO 1999
Permanent exhibitions: a variety of approaches
that had existed on those same territories, Exhibiting unity and diversity
though their closeness to Coptic items
would demonstrate the preservation of The establishment of permanent exhibi-
old traditions in the artistic products of tions in European museums and the
Fatimid Egypt, especially in textiles. The Metropolitan Museum of Art relates to
art of Islamic Spain (for the most part the 1970s to 1990s when Oriental studies
glazed ceramics) is kept and is on display in the West took a new turn. More and
in the Western European department. It more frequently, books were published
thus turned out historically that, unlike whose authors represented Islamic civiliz-
other major museums of world art, the ation as a single entity. Questions of the
Hermitage does not have a specialist continuity and originality of the culture of
Islamic department or a separate display the regions were pushed to the back-
of art from the Islamic East. The objects ground. Emphasis was laid on studying
are displayed in a few of the museum's the general problems of Islamic civiliz-
permanent exhibitions as medieval art ation, research was carried out on the
from the relevant country. underlying principles of Islamic culture,
and an understanding was sought of the
Although to keep pace with increasingly most characteristic general features and
accurate information about attributions, particularities of Islamic art. It called for a
changes have been continually made to different approach and a different way of
the exhibitions put together some decades displaying the culture and art of the
ago, they need to be improved, and this Islamic world. One after another, exhibi-
concerns not only purely practical exhibi- tions of Islamic art began to open in
tion matters but also the intellectual museums (in 1971 at the Berlin Museum,
content of the exhibitions. At present, in 1975 at the Metropolitan Museum of
while work is proceeding on the Central Art, at the British Museum in 1988 and at
Asia exhibition, the curators have intro- the Louvre in 1994). Naturally, the idea of
duced a new theme ± steppe and city, a common artistic language throughout
nomadic and urban cultures, thanks to the Islamic world and the revelation of its
which the exhibition is being funda- most essential features became para-
mentally renewed and expanded. How- mount, including when the Dar al-Athar
ever, the historical principle of object al-Islamiya exhibition was mounted in the
display is being retained. It will obviously Kuwait Museum of Islamic Arts, opened in
continue to be dominant in the future, 1983. Here, a collection was put on
too, since it corresponds, as previously, display for the first time to the general
both to the direction in which the Oriental public that had been put together over
Department's research work is going and many years by Sheikh Nasir Sabah al-
to the exhibition principles that have been Ahmad al-Sabah and Sheikha Hussah al-
adopted by the Hermitage. Thanks to the Sabah. Numerous objects, previously
singleness of direction that these prin- dispersed throughout the world, were
ciples impart to the exhibitions, the displayed together. The collection was
integral form of the museum is being constituted in such a way that it displayed
preserved. The Hermitage, which has works of art from all the regions of the
such varied collections, is seen by visitors Islamic world. Its richness, diversity and
not as a collection of museums under one breadth of coverage in space and time
roof but as a single museum of world (from the ninth to the eighteenth century,
culture and art. from Spain to India) make it at present
ß UNESCO 1999 7
ß L. G. Kheifetz, State Hermitage Photographic Studio Adel T. Adamova
8 ß UNESCO 1999
Permanent exhibitions: a variety of approaches
ß UNESCO 1999 9
Adel T. Adamova
graphical sense, by cultural region, this art Quite clearly, it is precisely through the
is more diverse and the differences are variety of the exhibitions that the different
very noticeable. The visitor gets an idea of aspects of the richest and most distinctive
how general aesthetic tenets were inter- civilization can be demonstrated. ■
preted differently in each country or
region. This is undoubtedly the advantage
of the separate, special display of Islamic Notes
art which enables objects from different
ends of the Islamic world to be compared. 1. V. Bartol'd, Istorija izu . . . enija Vostoka v
However, the originality of the regions is Evrope i Rossii [History of the Study of the
demonstrated here but not explained; a East in Europe and Russia], 2nd ed., p. 34,
real historical perspective is lost, the Leningrad, 1925.
history of how this art came into being is
left out, and the foundations and sources 2. I. Orbeli, Musul'manskij Vostok [The Islamic
that shaped the originality of the artistic East], p. 1, Leningrad, State Hermitage, 1925.
culture of the different countries where
Islam became the principal religion are 3. Ibid., p. 3.
not shown. Account must also be taken of
the changes occurring in relation to their 4. See Sheikha Hussah al-Sabah, `Rescue in
artistic heritage in contemporary Islamic Kuwait: A United Nations Success Story',
countries. Not only the art of the Islamic Museum International, No. 197 (Vol. 50, No.
period but the legacy of the ancient 1, 1998). At the time of the Iraqi invasion of
civilizations that existed previously in Kuwait in 1990, the museum building was
Egypt and Mesopotamia, to say nothing irreparably damaged and many objects
of Persia and Central Asia, are seen by the destroyed. However, the collection continues
peoples living there as their own artistic to grow and hope of reviving the museum is
heritage and as works created by their not lost. Clearly, in the near future, the Dar al-
ancestors. There is clear testimony to this Athar al-Islamiya will become the most
in the contemporary art of the countries of representative museum of Islamic art in the
the East, and in their endeavour to create world.
their own national school, present-day
artists are turning not only to medieval but 5. A number of extremely interesting
also to ancient art. exhibitions of this kind have been organized
in recent years at the Metropolitan Museum of
The development of a single universal Art. They have included Illustrated Poetry and
approach to the display of objects from Epic Images. Persian Painting of the 1330s
the culture and art of the Islamic countries and 1340s, by Marie Lukens Swietochowski
of the East is not pragmatic. The ways and and Stefano Carbony, with essays by A. H.
means of displaying this art and the choice Morton and Tomoko Masuya (exhibition
of ideas for the exhibition in each catalogue, New York, Metropolitan Museum
museum are determined by the contents of Art, 1994); Following the Stars: Images of
of the collection, its chronological and the Zodiac in Islamic Art, by Stefano Carbony
territorial compass, the traditions con- (exhibition catalogue, New York, Metropolitan
cerning the display of items that have Museum of Art, 1997).
grown up in the museum, and the
direction of the research work done there.
No one exhibition can repeat another.
10 ß UNESCO 1999
The curator's dilemma: dispelling the
mystery of exotic collections
Sheila Canby
How to display a very rich collection and In Europe and North America curators in archaeological site and what types of glass
make it meaningful to a public generally museums of art and history face a chal- decoration were practised in ninth-
unfamiliar with the cultural and lenge when exhibiting collections of arte- century Iran. At the British Museum such
historical context of the works is one of facts unrelated to their own country or labels are limited to seventy-five words.
the major challenges faced by the British broader cultural background. Although While forcing some discipline on the
Museum, whose holdings of Islamic the diversity of the populations there curator, this limitation may help the visitor
pottery are considered the best outside guarantees that Muslim visitors will find to avoid label fatigue and increase the
the Islamic world. Sheila Canby, their way to an Islamic gallery, curators time spent looking at the object.
assistant keeper in the Department of must plan for a broader public unfamiliar
Oriental Antiquities, explains what is with much of what they see. The larger Although some museums adhere to the
being done. and more complex the collection, the principle of isolating star objects by
more essential it is that curators and their placing them alone on a pedestal, most
teams of designers, editors, and tech- large Islamic collections ± at the Metro-
nicians plan the installation clearly and politan Museum of Art, the Louvre and the
support it with labels, maps, gallery British Museum, for example ± are ex-
guides and programmes that contribute hibited contextually. It is at this point that
to the viewers' understanding and enjoy- curators must consider the big picture.
ment. While no single formula for success Not only must they balance the display in
in a museum installation exists, curators terms of historical period and geography
have at their disposal a variety of means to but also in terms of medium and the
communicate information about their strengths of the collection. Whereas at the
collections. Metropolitan and the Louvre, numerous
rooms were available at the time of
reinstallation, at the British Museum the
The written word entire Islamic display had to fit into one
medium-sized gallery.
The starting point of any museum instal-
lation is the artefact, be it an item of Despite the differences in available space,
practical use, a painting, a sculpture or an the curators of all three Islamic collections
architectural fragment. The object on shared a similarity of approach to exhibit-
display can provide visual, non-verbal ing them. Each museum has an intro-
information about itself, but most visitors ductory space in which notable objects
do not want to view objects without from various places and periods are dis-
knowledge of their historical context. played. By their beauty, size or virtuosity
Thus, the most basic form of information these dazzling pieces draw visitors into
on a museum object is its label. A simple the Islamic section. This space provides a
label will identify the object, its place of complement to object labels in the form of
origin and date, its material, its donor and an information panel explaining the
its registration or accession number. While temporal and geographical scope of the
some visitors will find this amount of in- galleries that follow and a map of the
formation sufficient, the casual museum- regions represented by the collection. The
goer will probably not know exactly galleries or cases that follow are then
where Susa is or much about the tech- organized chronologically from the
nique of applying decoration to glass. seventh to the nineteenth or twentieth
Thus, a sentence or two appended to the century and by region. Fewer seventh-
label could explain the significance of and eighth-century objects are extant than
Susa as an ancient and early Islamic those of the ninth century on, so less
ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999) 11
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
ß British Museum Sheila Canby
A favourite piece of the British Museum space is allotted to the earliest pieces. In seem increasingly reluctant to invest any
public, this massive, 20-cm-high jade the original installation of the Metro- money or staff time in supplementary
terrapin, c. 1600, is attributed to the politan Museum's present Islamic gal- materials. At the British Museum, portable,
Mughal Empire and was found at the leries, the earliest pieces were shown in written information is provided in the
bottom of a cistern in Allahabad, India. a range of small cases. By combining form of inexpensive illustrated gallery
However, the turtle is an avatar of objects of different media which were guides, short books on aspects of Islamic
Vishnu so scholars of Hindu India also adorned with very similar motifs, the art, such as metalwork, tiles or painting,
claim it as one of their objects. From the curators emphasized the stylistic unity of and specialist catalogues of parts of the
bequest of Thomas Wilkinson Esq. late eighth- and ninth-century Islamic art permanent collection. The brief of the
from Iraq and Egypt. Such a careful choice curators who write these short books is to
of works with obvious visual correspond- make the subject intelligible to interested
ences can impart as much about an object adults or undergraduates.
and its context as a written label. Like-
wise, the room at the Louvre filled with The audience for gallery guides is more
Mameluke metalwork or the case in the amorphous than that for books, and as a
British Museum overflowing with med- result there is less agreement between
ieval Iranian lustreware ceramics im- curators and educationalists within the
presses the viewer with the sheer museum about how to pitch them. At the
quantity of such material as much as with moment the British Museum is in its
the merit of the individual pieces in each second generation of Islamic gallery
group. guides. Since the 1989 version the price
has doubled, the type size of the text has
Curators in large museums with high increased and colour images have
visitor numbers have less trouble con- replaced black and white. As the quality
vincing their superiors of the need to of printing and presentation has im-
inform people of different ages and levels proved, the amount and sophistication of
of specialization about the collections in information has declined. In part, the
their charge. By contrast, museums with increase in type size, dictated by the need
financial problems or low attendance to provide better access for the partially
12 ß UNESCO 1999
The curator's dilemma: dispelling the mystery of exotic collections
ß British Museum
sighted, has led to the decrease in space
for written information. Yet, educational-
ists firmly maintain that the public who
buy the guides do not want too much
information. Additionally, designers wish
to keep gallery guides uniform through-
out the museum no matter what the
subject. As a result, dynastic charts, maps
and general historical information have
been omitted from the Islamic guide,
which is unfortunate, since some of the
greatest objects in the collection were
produced for rulers of minor dynasties in
obscure cities of the Middle East. Instead,
each object illustrated is accompanied by
an explanatory paragraph, which sheds
some light on the production and use of
the object but very little on its historical
context. The third generation of gallery
guides may incorporate more information,
but for now curators will have to seek
other means of augmenting the labels and
information panels in the gallery.
information in their field. The advantage Two glass bottles with applied disks, Iraq,
The spoken word of gallery talks over labels and gallery ninth to tenth century, excavated at Susa
guides is the interaction between the by W. K. Loftus.
A standard means of amplifying written speaker and the audience. Visitors'
information in museum galleries is the queries can lead the discussion in unan-
spoken word. While taped tours of ticipated directions, which can be stimu-
exhibitions in the form of audiophones lating for the whole group. However, this
provide an expensive adjunct to labels medium of communication does have
and gallery guides, tours with docents or certain drawbacks. Not every docent has
curators are perennially popular with enough depth of knowledge to answer
visitors. The docents or volunteer guides difficult questions, and not all curators
are trained and managed primarily by have the ability or tolerance to explain the
museum education departments with the basic facts of their field as well as more
help of specialist curators. Over time complex ideas. Yet the advantages of
some docents become quite knowledge- direct contact with the museum audience
able about the collections, but even far outweigh the disadvantages and help
beginners are expected to have enough keep museum professionals aware of
information to be able to lecture on the what museum visitors are seeking.
exhibits and answer questions. As one
would expect, curators should be able to Another level of spoken communication
bridge the gap between the general takes place not in the gallery but in the
introduction to the collections and more lecture hall. Regularly scheduled lectures
arcane, theoretical or newly discovered are part of most museums' educational
ß UNESCO 1999 13
ß British Museum Sheila Canby
14 ß UNESCO 1999
The curator's dilemma: dispelling the mystery of exotic collections
the artistic style of an object without enhance or plan their visit and to acquire
explaining its context usually leads to a more information during their time in the
mass defection of the museum audience. museum than would have previously
been possible. For younger visitors such
an adjunct may take precedence over the
Electronic information actual exhibits, but it will still focus their
attention on the collections and may
In recent years a third means of com- encourage them to return to the museum.
municating with the public about museum
collections has become increasingly avail- The nature of education in museums
able in the form of interactive computer differs markedly from that of the school
programs. Audiovisual displays have long or university. Museum visitors are free to
been used to augment exhibitions, but ignore or partake of the range of
they present the visitor with an oppor- information on offer without fear of failing
tunity to glean information passively. By a course or incurring a teacher's wrath.
contrast, interactive CD-ROMs allow Although museum curators are obliged to
visitors to choose the subjects that most provide as much accurate information as
interest them and delve into them more possible about the collections, members
deeply. Whereas most galleries are of the public are not compelled to read
arranged chronologically, the interactive labels, listen to gallery talks, search for
computer program allows the visitor to information on the computer, or even
focus on themes ranging from the social to look at the objects on display. Yet, a finely
the technological. Also, objects that are installed showcase or a thoughtfully
shown in different galleries in the composed label can succeed in drawing
museum can be brought together on the the visitor literally into a gallery and
screen. figuratively into a culture or historical
period. A curator who can spark off
At the British Museum the development of curiosity and invite the visitor to linger in
a large-scale interactive computer pro- a gallery to ponder over its exhibits is on
gram is well underway. It will include the road to success. If the visitor goes
objects from all departments of the home and reads up a bit on what has been
museum which will be organized in seen and then returns for a lecture or
subject categories. The public will be able another visit, the curator will have good
to search for information on individual reason to feel satisfied. Yet, the curator
objects as well as topics that cut across who learns that the vase or painting or
departmental lines. The computers on textile carefully placed on display has
which visitors can access the Compass inspired such artists as Henry Moore or
Program, as it is called, will be placed in Howard Hodgkin or Lucy Rhie or even a
the new Walter and Leonora Annenberg musician or a scientist can feel equally
Centre, formerly the Round Reading proud that the work has been a success.
Room of the British Library, in the heart The great appeal of presenting exotic
of the British Museum building. Will these collections is not to inculcate audiences
computers and their far-reaching pro- with one idea or way of viewing history or
grams lure visitors away from the objects art, but to give the public as broad a range
on display? This is certainly not the as possible of ways to enjoy, understand
museum's intention. Rather it is hoped and respond to the works on exhibition.
that people will use the computer to ■
ß UNESCO 1999 15
Islamic art in Berlin
Jens KroÈger
Berlin, long a major centre for Islamic The reunification of Germany resulted in Museen zu Berlin) was set up. Himself a
art and study, is in the process of far-reaching changes for the State mu- man of wide interests, he was well
reuniting collections dispersed by war seums in Berlin. The Museum of Islamic acquainted with Islamic carpets, which
and politics. This unique challenge is Art is one of those collections that have he collected for himself and for the Berlin
described by Jens KroÈger, curator at already or will be united within one of the museum prior to the existence of an
Berlin's Museum of Islamic Art and a main museum centres in Berlin. As part of Islamic collection. In the Department of
specialist in the Sassanid art of Iran and the archaeological collections, the Mu- European sculptures he used carpets
Iraq, and early Islamic glass. He is the seum of Islamic Art will be situated within within his Renaissance-period rooms.
author of a number of publications the Pergamonmuseum on the museum
including Sasanidischer Stuckdekor island in the centre of the city as has been Bode was informed of the existence of the
(Mainz, 1982) and Nishapur: Glass of the case since 1932. However, as will be monumental facËade of the palace of
the Early Islamic Period (New York, shown in detail, due to the historic events Mshatta in the Jordanian desert by the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1995). in Germany, the Museum of Islamic Art has Austrian art historian Josef Strzygowski.
undergone numerous changes since the He immediately began negotiations for
first exhibition in 1904 was inaugurated. acquisition and asked for support from
the German Emperor Wilhelm II. Due to
his archaeological ambitions the Kaiser
A first start in the Kaiser-Friedrich- took a keen interest in the facËade, which
Museum (1904±32) was then believed to have been built in
the pre-Islamic period by the Persians.
ß G. Niedermeiser, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ± Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Museum fuÈr Islamische Kunst
It was due to the energy of Wilhelm von The facËade was given as a personal
A photo of the painted room from a Bode, the leading figure within the Berlin present from the Ottoman Emperor Sultan
house in Aleppo, restored in 1960, as it museums at the turn of the century, that Abdul Hamid to the German Emperor
was displayed in the Islamic Museum the new department of Islamic art within Wilhelm II. In 1903 it was taken to Berlin
within the Pergamonmuseum in 1996. the Royal Museums in Berlin (KoÈnigliche to be set up within the newly built Kaiser-
Friedrich-Museum. Although the date of
the Mshatta facËade was still disputed it
was placed within the new collection
which thereafter was called the Persian-
Islamic Department. Only later was an
Umayyad date accepted, probably A.D.
743/44 at the end of the first Islamic
dynasty. To enlarge the exhibition Bode
asked Friedrich Sarre to loan his private
collection of Islamic art. Sarre had rapidly
acquired it on his journeys in the Near
East as well as on the European art market
and due to his scholarly research became
the founder of the study of Islamic art and
archaeology in Germany. He was also
asked to head the department. Bode
himself presented his own collection of
thirty carpets from the classical period as a
gift to the KoÈnigliche Museen. Further
exhibits from other collections in the State
museums were continually integrated into
the museum.
16 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Islamic art in Berlin
On the occasion of the opening of the excavations. Aside from objects of various
Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum on 18 October materials such as stone, woodwork and
1904 the facËade of Mshatta was shown to ceramics, architectural elements gave the
the general public for the first time, and galleries in Berlin a very typical character.
the acquisition of such a monumental
work of architecture was a sensation in The Islamic galleries in the Kaiser-Fried-
the international world of museums. It rich-Museum had always been seen as an
became obvious that it was one of the intermediate stage. About this Sarre wrote:
major architectural monuments of the `One of Bode's plans was to concentrate
Berlin State museums. all Asian art of the Berlin museums in one
spot. For this purpose the architect Bruno
However, the presentation of the Mshatta Paul was asked to plan an Asiatic Museum
facËade was not considered totally accept- in the suburb of Dahlem.'2 Within the new
able, as it had to be installed within building the Mshatta facËade would have
already existing rooms that did not fit its been given a prominent place, however
size. Thus it could not be shown in its due to the First World War and strong
original length, the rooms were too low opposition from Carl Heinrich Becker,
and without light from the ceiling the Islamicist and Prussian Minister of Culture
relief could not be seen as well as in from 1925 to 1930, who saw Islamic art as
daylight. The difficulties of exhibiting a part of the arts in the classical tradition,
such a monumental architectural work these plans were never realized.
within a museum were obvious and have
remained so ever since. A major point during the 1920s remained
the discussion about a different location
Sarre wrote on public reactions concern- within the museum island. One of these
ing the newly opened museum depart- plans was to erect a new wing; however it
ment: `The small collection only found was eventually dropped because the
admiration and met approval among a Mshatta facËade needed a space 35 metres
limited number of art lovers in Berlin. The long to be displayed properly.
typical art historians or museum people
remained indifferent or critical. The same The decision to place the new Islamic
is true about the press and the general gallery on the second floor of the south
public.'1 It was only when Wilhelm von wing of the Pergamonmuseum had been
Bode himself became Director-General taken in 1929. The provisional set-up of
that he was able to install the new the Mshatta facËade in the Kaiser-Friedrich-
department officially in 1907. Museum thus lasted for nearly thirty years,
from 1904 until 1932. During these years
A major event of the early years was the the Islamic collection had grown con-
excavation from 1911 to 1913 at Samarra siderably and included art of a very differ-
(Iraq). Friedrich Sarre and Ernst Herzfeld ent nature. It thus was an archaeological
had selected the former ninth-century collection as well as a collection of ap-
Abbasid capital as a place most suitable plied arts of the Islamic world from Spain
to learn more about early Islamic art and to India during the seventh to nineteenth
culture. Stucco wall panels from the centuries. Masterpieces included metal-
palaces and houses in Samarra had been work, pottery and glass objects, minia-
taken to Berlin and were presented within tures and carpets. However, considerable
the exhibition as one of the results of the care had been taken to build a systematic
ß UNESCO 1999 17
Jens KroÈger
collection that included masterpieces as was hit by a bomb and shattered into
well as dated objects and archaeological many pieces. On 10/11 March 1945 a
material. Because the museum was the bomb struck the safe within the mint
only specialized collection of Islamic art in (ReichsmuÈnze), destroying the most im-
Germany it did not see its role as solely portant carpets of the famous collection.
exhibiting art but also as a centre for Most of the moveable objects that had not
Islamic art studies. been taken to safety in salt mines or
secured secretly within the museum
compound were deported by a Soviet
The Pergamonmuseum (1932±45) commando early in 1946.
18 ß UNESCO 1999
Islamic art in Berlin
È r Islamische Kunst
ß Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ± Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Museum fu
of the department and under his tenure Volkmar Enderlein was appointed head of A 1909 photograph of the Islamic
the museum was given the name of the Islamic Museum, as it had been re- Department in the Kaiser-Friedrich-
Museum fu È r Islamische Kunst. The new named in the 1950s. A member of the Museum (1904±32).
permanent galleries in Dahlem were museum staff since 1959, he was respon-
inaugurated in 1971 within the complex sible for numerous exhibitions and
of the Museum for Asiatic Art. restorations of major monuments. Among
them were the famous wooden painted
A considerable number of new acqui- panels belonging to the main room of a
sitions greatly enlarged the collection in house in Aleppo, Syria, which had pre-
the western part of the museum from 1954 viously been acquired in 1912. In 1960 the
until 1992. The main aim was to build a room was arranged according to the
systematic collection of Islamic art through original plan.
the centuries. As all large architectural
works of art remained in the eastern half of
the collection and reunification of Ger- The museum in a changing world
many did not to seem likely at that time, it (1989±2000)
would be necessary to add such works of
prime importance to the collection in the In West Berlin Michael Meinecke suc-
west. In 1978 the acquisition of a wooden ceeded Klaus Brisch in 1988. It was during
cupola ceiling dating from the thirteenth his tenure and that of Volkmar Enderlein
or fourteenth century from the Torre de las in East Berlin that the reunification of
Damas within the Alhambra complex in Germany took place. On 1 January 1992
Granada, Spain, which had long been in a the administrative unification of the two
German private collection, was one of the parts of the State museums was under-
major acquisitions in that sense. taken. The name Islamisches Museum was
dropped in favour of the name Museum
In the eastern half of the city, in 1978, fuÈr Islamische Kunst and Michael
ß UNESCO 1999 19
ß Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ± Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Museum fuÈr Islamische Kunst Jens KroÈger
Until the future galleries for the museum 2. F. Sarre, `Wilhelm v. Bode und die
can be realized, an intermediate exhibi- Islamische Kunstabteilung', Der
tion is planned for the existing gallery in Kunstwanderer, 1929, pp. 343±5.
the Pergamonmuseum. Masterpieces of
both collections will be shown within this
gallery which once housed the complete
collection.
20 ß UNESCO 1999
Preserving a treasure: the Sana'a
manuscripts
Ursula Dreibholz
The extraordinary find in Yemen of The House of Manuscripts, called the Dar weeks) to be ready for a conference of
ancient parchment and paper fragments, al-Makhtutat in Arabic, was built in 1980 ministers from Islamic states held in 1984.
mainly from the earliest Islamic periods, on a site alongside the Great Mosque in It has not been changed since then.
posed a unique set of problems covering the Old City of Sana'a in order to
all aspects of museum practice, from accommodate newly acquired manu- The basic and very simple idea was to
conservation and restoration to storage scripts and to be, at the same time, in have oblong, supporting frameworks
and access. How to exhibit these newly close proximity to the mosque library, made up of welded hollow, square iron
discovered materials in a country with facilitating the transfer of manuscripts bars. Such structures are strong but small
few museum traditions was the challenge between the two libraries for microfilming and light enough to be easily handled
facing Ursula Dreibholz, a conservation and conservation purposes. UNESCO and, furthermore, impart a weightless and
expert who worked on the project for subsequently provided wooden storage airy feeling to the whole display. Heavy
eight years. She recounts how the use of cabinets for the manuscripts, and there are wooden boards were laid on top of these
simple, often locally available materials rooms with microfilm readers for frames to form the base for the actual
coupled with a great deal of ingenuity studying. supports of the manuscript leaves; these
and resourcefulness came to the rescue supports were also made up of wooden
of a collection of inestimable historic After a hidden cache of very old Koranic boards, joined together two at a time
importance. manuscript fragments had been dis- lengthways by metal hinges. They were
covered between the ceiling and the roof fixed upright on to the base and spread
of the Great Mosque in 1972 when heavy apart at the bottom, so as to form a
rains had caused the west wall of the triangle with the supporting board and
mosque to collapse, they were then stored prevented from slipping over the edges by
in potato bags in the basement of the small wooden posts. The boards were
National Museum for many years until a covered with dark red velvet, a locally
project, funded by the German Govern- available fabric, and the manuscript leaves
ment working in conjunction with the were prevented from sliding on the
Yemeni Department for Antiquities, sloping surface by the weight of 5-mm-
Museums and Manuscripts, was finally thick glass plates securely held in place by
established in 1980 to preserve, properly small pieces of wood screwed on to the
store, catalogue and microfilm this price- boards at the lower two corners and in the
less cultural heritage.1 Conservation and centre of the top edge, allowing enough
photographic facilities as well as a photo- air to circulate through the unsealed
graphic laboratory were built in the Dar edges. (Parchment, which is animal skin,
al-Makhtutat, and an exhibition room for needs to `breathe' and should never be
showing a selection of parchment manu- completely sealed off.) Since the leaves
script leaves was created. (The parchment have to be shown in their entirety and
manuscripts, being older than those of sometimes have very irregular shapes due
paper, were considered more important to prior deterioration, masking them with
and were given priority. Unfortunately, mats is not desirable. So, holding them
there was not enough time during the down with glass plates is the simplest and
course of the project to attend to the safest method.
paper fragments as well.)
So far, the exhibition is not open to the
A large hall on the ground floor of the Dar general public, but arrangements for a visit
al-Makhtutat was allocated for displaying are possible. To protect the fragile inks and
the selected manuscript fragments. The colours the manuscripts are kept per-
installation had to be made with limited manently in the dark, light only being
funds and in a very short time (two allowed for short viewings. Curtains, made
ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999) 21
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
ß Photo by courtesy of the author Ursula Dreibholz
22 ß UNESCO 1999
Preserving a treasure: the Sana'a manuscripts
ß UNESCO 1999 23
ß Photo by courtesy of the author Ursula Dreibholz
24 ß UNESCO 1999
Preserving a treasure: the Sana'a manuscripts
ß UNESCO 1999 25
Fourteen centuries of Islamic culture:
the Iranian Islamic Period Museum
Zohreh Roohfar
Zoreh Roohfar, curator of Islamic art Given the particular significance of the a sophisticated presentation has been
and head of the Islamic Period Museum rich Islamic culture and civilization in Iran, realized, was inaugurated on 22 October
in Tehran, describes the exhibition the necessity of creating an independent 1996.
themes and methods used to display and comprehensive museum to display its
Islamic art in an Islamic context, for a art and artefacts was clearly felt, and The museum building follows the style of
public familiar with the historical and ample planning was made in this direction four-vaulted Sassanid monuments and
cultural background of the objects. The over several years. Eventually, from 1993 covers a built area of 4,000 m2 laid out
author, a professional archaeologist, has onward, tangible and extensive efforts on three floors. The first floor houses an
published a number of works on Islamic were undertaken by three entities to auditorium and temporary exhibition
textiles and astrological themes and has achieve this goal. galleries. On the second floor, the items
been guest lecturer in several museums, are thematically organized in chrono-
including the British Museum. She was The Islamic section of the Iranian National logical order. The architectural decorative
responsible for reorganizing the Museum took charge of the selection, items exhibited on the third floor are laid
collection of the Bastan Museum expertization, presentation and classifica- out according to historical periods. The
comprising more than 10,000 objects tion of artefacts alongside the preliminary items exhibited in this large museum
and transforming it into the new work of preparing two catalogues for the cover fourteen centuries of Islamic civil-
Iranian Islamic Period Museum. new museum. ization and culture, and mostly constitute
a selection of objects retrieved during
The Iranian Cultural Heritage Organi- scientific excavations effected on such
zation's Restoration and Conservation sites as Nayshabur, Rey, Gorgan and
Research Centre handled the transfer of Shush (Susa), or transferred from valuable
such voluminous items as prayer niches collections such as that of the mausoleum
and the like from the second floor of the of Sheikh Safi od-Din Ardabili.
(old) Iranian National Museum to the new
Islamic Period Museum. During this
phase, experts took great pains to pre- A treasury of manuscripts
serve earlier restoration work and to
install the objects so as to exhibit them The focal point of the museum is a square
just as they were set in their original area where a treasury of Koranic manu-
buildings. For example, if a prayer niche scripts is displayed. A fifth-century A.H.
was originally located 50 cm above the wooden window on which the Unity sura
floor of the mosque to which it belonged, is carved and a wooden door incised with
this disposition was respected. Of course, verses from the Holy Koran and set on a
such work was carried out with the help wall notify visitors that they are entering
of the Islamic Department's experts and an entirely spiritual area whose holy
their historic studies of the buildings con- atmosphere is complemented by a stone
cerned. Care was taken to install volumi- prayer niche dating back to the eleventh
nous items so that they could be easily century A.H., a superb prayer rug and the
relocated whenever needed in the future. heart-warming incantation of verses from
the Holy Koran.
The design and execution of the mu-
seum's interior architecture was com- The manuscripts range from the third to the
pleted by skilled architects and visitor fourteenth century A.H., the most ancient
information was prepared by expert specimens being written on deerskin and in
graphic designers. Thus, thanks to the kufic script. As we know, the first Koranic
co-operation of these three groups, the manuscripts were written in kufic script and
Iranian Islamic Period Museum, in which Soltan-cAli Mashhadi has recorded:
26 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Fourteen centuries of Islamic culture: the Iranian Islamic Period Museum
The kufic script is a divine sign among used in writing sura headings. Superb The focal point of the museum is a
divine signs and a miracle among Koranic manuscripts in these scripts square area where third- to fourteenth-
miracles, and Korans written by His bearing the signatures of such artists as century Koranic manuscripts are
Holiness, the King of Believers, Imam Yaqut Mostacsemi, c
Emad-at-Tavusi, displayed.
c
Ali (pbuh) existed which were models Ahmad Sohrevardi, Pir Mohammad Thani,
of handsome writing, sobriety, perfect Ahmad Nayrizi and Ziac os-Saltane and
composition and masterly balance of displaying exquisite covers and illumina-
words, and although Imam cAli (pbuh) tions shine in this museum.
did not invent the kufic script, he
knowledgeably altered it, and it is said In the area surrounding the Koran Treasury,
that he also taught the kufic script to 316 scientific, literary and historical manuscripts
calligraphers.1 such as Masalek va-mamalek, cAjayeb ol-
makhluqat, Zakhire-ye Kharazmshahi,
The collection also includes a Koranic Hafez's Divan, the Shah-name, the
manuscript which bears the adjunct Masnavi-ye Macnavi, Sacdi's Qasayed,
signature of Imam cAli (pbuh). Some Rouzat os-safa', Hafez-e Abru's History,
believe that deerskin was used because etc., are exhibited with due care for their
no paper existed at the time, but the first thematic and chronological sequence. The
paper mill was created in Baghdad oldest among these manuscripts is the Al-
between A.H. 147 and 194 (A.D. 764/65 Khalas grammar, dated A.H. 557 (A.D. 1161/
and 809/10) by Fazl ebn-e Yahya, the 62). In addition to the importance of the
Iranian minister of the cAbbasid court, and subject matter, all the arts of the book,
the paper it produced was exported to including cover-making and -binding,
other Islamic countries as well. Therefore, illumination, calligraphy and occasionally
it was perhaps owing to the solidity of illustration may also be admired.
deerskin that it was used for the Koranic
manuscripts. On the walls surrounding the central area,
valuable calligraphic works and miniature
From the fourth century A.D. onward, after paintings encircle the manuscripts on
the invention of the Six Pens by Ebn-e display. Calligraphy enjoys a highly
Moqle, Koranic manuscripts were written revered status among Islamic arts and is
in thuluth, naskh, muhaqqaq, raihan, considered a sacred art that has taken
tauqic and reqac scripts, and kufic was shape at the hands of artists. It may be
ß UNESCO 1999 27
ß Photo by courtesy of the author Zohreh Roohfar
28 ß UNESCO 1999
Fourteen centuries of Islamic culture: the Iranian Islamic Period Museum
contemporary of the Dailamite monarch evolution of ceramic art from the earliest
c
Azod-ad-Dowleh, who was also an Islamic centuries until the end of the Qajar
observer of the stars. period is shown. On display are such
various techniques as moulded patterns,
In the section of glassware and medical monochrome glazing, sprayed glaze and
instruments the height of early Islamic painting over the slip under transparent
glassmaking art may be contemplated. glaze, often accompanied with kufic
The most important glassmaking centres inscriptions, mostly belonging to the third
of the time were Rayy, Shush, Gorgan and and fourth centuries A.H. These artefacts
Nishapur. After the Moghol invasion, a were made in such Iranian ceramic
large number of Iranian glassmakers manufacturing centres as Nishapur,
emigrated to other Islamic countries and Shush, Estakhr and Rayy. The summit of
thereafter this art declined in Iran, though ceramic art may be admired in the Seljuk
a number of glass items from the Safavid period, when mina'i (overglaze painting)
period are extant. In the Qajar period, and lustreware items were crafted at Rayy,
thanks to the efforts of Amir Kabir, Kashan and Gorgan. Their decorative
glassmaking workshops were set up in themes and motifs mostly comprise
the country, but these attempts were Iranian epic and romantic stories and are
unsuccessful. Among the glass items are often accompanied by poems. Artefacts
medical laboratory instruments, including dating back to the eighth century A.H.
blood-letting implements and experi- consist mainly of superb gilded and
mental tubes dating back to the early underglaze painted items made at Soltan-
Islamic period. abad and Kashan. The evolution of
ceramic art is visible on kubachi blue
The sacred art of writing and its related and white vessels produced in the eighth
instruments, as well as their use and care, and ninth centuries A.H.
have received particular attention in a
section of this vast treasury devoted to the The objects exhibited in the vast
Holy Koran and penmanship. In this metalwork gallery show the diversity of
collection, a number of stone, glass and techniques used over time. Here, a
metal inkpots from various Islamic collection of fourth-century A.H. silver
periods are exhibited, along with a bronze vessels from Azerbaijan includes nielloed
pen-case containing an inkpot and other bowls, flower vases and a tray bearing the
writing instruments and exquisite silver- inscription `Barakat le-Amir Abe-l-cAbbas
and gold-beaten pen-cases from the va-laken ebn-e Harun'. The development
Seljuk period. This section also includes of silver- and gold-beating techniques on
several lacquered pen-cases and boxes for bronze in the course of the sixth and
writing tools crafted by such talented seventh centuries A.H. can be followed on
Safavid and Qajar period artists as Aqa- a variety of items made at Hamadan.
Najaf, Mohammad Zaman, Fathollah and Various types of inscribed brass candle-
Mohammad Esmacil. sticks, which mostly incorporate Persian
poems and belong to the Safavid period,
On the second floor, alongside the central are also impressive. A collection of
area and four peripheral booths, three thirteenth-century A.H. gold-beaten steel
main galleries are dedicated to ceramics, items made by Hajji cAbbas Esfahani and
metalwork and textiles (carpets and bearing Persian and Arabic inscriptions
fabrics). In the ceramics gallery the are included among them.
ß UNESCO 1999 29
ß Photo by courtesy of the author Zohreh Roohfar
A historical approach
The gallery dedicated to the seventh and In the textiles gallery the most ancient On the third floor of the museum, various
eighth centuries A.H. features Il-Khanid fabric is a fragment of two-sided silk cloth Islamic artefacts are displayed with an
period architectural work in the form of unearthed during excavations in Rayy and emphasis on architectural decorative ele-
two prayer niches. dating back to the early Islamic period. ments. They are arranged in chronological
The continuation of Sassanid styles, tech- order, from the early lslamic centuries up
niques and decorative patterns is conspic- until the thirteenth century A.H., thus
uous on this specimen. The persistence of enabling the visitor to see how specific
this weaving technique, albeit with dif- political, economic and social conditions
ferent motifs and kufic inscriptions read- helped shape artistic development. In this
ing `Man kaburat himmatuh kathurat context the coins minted in each of these
qimatuh' and `Man taba asluh zaka periods, which are exhibited with refer-
feicluh', is visible on a silk cloth dating ences to their caliphs, or kings, as well as to
back to the fourth century A.H. Also where they were minted, constitute the
present is a unique specimen of Seljuk- most important historical documents
period silk fabric in which the rang-o- depicting the ups and downs and the
nim-rang (literally, tone and half-tone) political situation in the course of the
technique has been used. The diversity of centuries. Stucco carvings from monu-
weaving techniques and patterns can be ments at Rayy and Nishapur are also found
admired in Safavid-period fabrics and in a on this floor, as well as the most ancient
variety of brocades (dara'i, atlasi, etc.), Islamic-period fresco in Iran, which dates
velvets, inscribed silk cloths and various back to the third century A.H. and comes
stitch-works (golabetun-duzi, dah-yek- from the Sabzpushan Palace in Nishapur.
duzi, pile-duzi, ajide-duzi, etc.). In this
section, a unique brocade specimen In the gallery dedicated to the fifth and
represents and attests to the combination sixth centuries A.H., a superb prayer niche
of different arts in the Esfahan school and two carved stucco panels from Buzun
under the Safavid Shah cAbbas I. This (near Esfahan), as well as decorative brick
30 ß UNESCO 1999
Fourteen centuries of Islamic culture: the Iranian Islamic Period Museum
panels from the Nezamiye Madrase of with indigo, vermilion and golden inks. It
Khargerd, may be admired. These are was woven during the reign of Shah
surrounded by mina'i and lustreware Tahmasp by Yusef al-Ghobari. (Brush-
ceramic vessels made in the famous painted qalamkar fabrics were produced
manufacturing centres of Rayy and Kashan, by impregnating the cloth with starch so as
and the most ancient inscribed glazed tiles to allow ink and paint to adhere to its
crafted in the Islamic period, which bear surface.) At the centre of this gallery are a
the words `el-Malek' and `Mohammad' and number of artefacts from the Chini-khanel
date from the fifth century A.H. of Ardebil, including frames, flower vases,
jars, ewers and bowls, all of which bear the
In the gallery dedicated to the seventh and seal of Shah cAbbas. The continuation of
eighth centuries A.H. the imposing majesty Safavid arts in the twelfth and thirteenth
of Il-Khanid period architectural decora- centuries A.H. can be seen in the
tion can be admired in the form of two development of marquetry, mirror-work
prayer niches. One is of carved stucco from on wood, superb gold-beaten steel items
Oshtorjan (near Esfahan) made by Mascud and enamelled silverware.
Kermani in A.H. 708 (A.D. 1308/09) and the
other is a lustreware tile prayer niche The Iranian lslamic Period Museum pos-
famous as the Gate of Paradise and made sesses all the required educational attri-
by Yusef ebn-e cAli ebn-e Mohammad ebn- butes in terms of design and presentation.
e Abi Taher. Various inscribed lustreware The information provided with every item
and gilded tiles are exhibited here along- is comprehensive and the artefacts bear-
side gilded ceramic vessels and silver- and ing inscriptions are described together
gold-beaten metal artefacts. A superb with their texts and script types. At the
Koranic manuscript in muhaqqaq script entrance to all the galleries, extensive data
bearing the signatures of Ahmad concerning the political and economic
Sohravardi and cEmad al-Mahallati also situation of the period concerned and its
adorns this gallery. outstanding arts and artistic centres are
supplied, providing visitors with a general
The peak of perfection achieved by knowledge and giving them a foretaste of
several arts in the Safavid period, including the items they are about to see. The
miniature paintings following the Indian, museum also has two catalogues, one
Moghol and Esfahan schools, handsome presenting the Koranic manuscripts in its
underglaze lacquered paintings on pen- custody and the second introducing other
cases, mirror frames and boxes for Islamic arts with an emphasis on out-
stationery tools, and incised brass artefacts standing artefacts in each field. A more
± mostly adorned with Persian inscriptions extensive introduction to the museum is
± as well as various gold-thread rugs and provided in the form of slides and post-
fabrics, may be admired in the section cards depicting a selection of its treasures.
dedicated to the tenth and eleventh ■
centuries A.H. A tessellated tile prayer niche
made at Mashhad adds to the majesty of
this gallery. A highly interesting work of art Note
belonging to this period is a piece of fabric
decorated in the brush-painted qalamkar 1. cAbd ol-Mohammad-Khan Irani (Mo'addeb
manner and bearing Koranic verses in os-Soltan), Peidayesh-e khatt va khattatan,
kufic, naskh, thuluth and ghobar scripts p. 52, Tehran, Ebn-e Sina, 1346/1967.
ß UNESCO 1999 31
Living the past: the Museum of
Turkish and Islamic Art
È lcer
Nazan O
The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art If you live in a country where the majority might be, the result is that hardly anyone
in Istanbul exemplifies `the process of of the population are Muslims, and where is particularly disturbed by the felling of
reciprocal influence and the universality countless works of art from every area of an ancient tree, the demolition of a
of art' through a thoughtful combination Islamic culture have been created in the historic house, the theft of an inscription,
of Ottoman and Islamic art, as well as distant and recent past, then it is no or the gradual decay of a monument
the folk art and folk life that, in Nazan surprise to encounter them at every step through neglect, and before long the
OÈ lcer's words, `are the natural extension as an intrinsic part of life there. Educated incident is sure to be forgotten.
of the fine arts and at the same time eyes are aware of them, of course, and of
their roots'. The author became director the monuments and artefacts inherited If that is the state of affairs in our cities,
of the museum in 1978 after having from other past civilizations outside the what then is it in our villages and towns?
been chief of the carpets and kilims and Islamic tradition. These might be works of Unfortunately, the general consensus
metalwork sections there. She has worked architecture, whether standing or in ruins, everywhere seems to be that what is
as assistant curator at the ethnological a bookbinding, a single leaf of a book, a needed is change, in the shortest possible
museums in Munich and Vienna and as faded fresco or a wall fountain in a hidden time and at whatever cost. As advanced
guest researcher at the Museum of corner. telecommunications technology brings
Islamic Art in Berlin. Author of many scenes from the modern world to tele-
works on carpets and kilims, the art of But for the great majority these traces of vision screens in even the remotest parts
metalworking, museology and cultural the past are a sight to which they are of the country, the desire to resemble the
change, she was named Museologist of inured. They neither know nor wonder outside world as fast as possible becomes
the Year in Turkey and has received how they came to be there, when or for irresistible, uprooting ways of life, tradi-
international recognition and honours what purpose they were made. They are tional dress and other habits and customs
including the Chevalier des Arts et des just a part of daily life, and while some of centuries.
Lettres from France, the remain, others disappear over time. There
Bundesverdienstkreuz order from is no awareness of how the creations of Under these conditions what chance does
Germany, the Kryzem Kawalerskim the past influence and enrich our aesthetic the museum curator have of collecting
order from Poland and the order of understanding, adding to its dimensions, and researching works of Islamic art,
Cavalieri di Omri from Italy. even if this process is unconscious. When regional architecture, folk art, traditional
women unconcernedly hang out their costume and other legacies? If, not
laundry on strings stretched between an- content with existing and static collections
cient gravestones in cemeteries hemmed gathered in the past, curators attempt to
in by houses in poor districts, is it just be- collect additional objects, or new objects
cause the stones are a familiar part of their and material relating to daily life which
environment, or do the stones mean no they believe should be saved for posterity
more to them than the branch of a tree? in a rapidly changing world, can they
succeed? Can they persuade the imams
In Turkey we are used to people who and caretakers of rural and urban
have no idea of the name of the local mosques who eagerly take the first oppor-
mosque or fountain in the neighbourhood tunity to exchange the fine worn carpets
where they have lived for years, and shrug spread on the cold stone floors, which
their shoulders when asked when they have somehow managed to survive, for
were built or by whom. Perhaps this brand new machine made, wall-to-wall
attitude is due in part to Eastern peoples' carpeting, that those worn carpets are far
acceptance of fate and the temporary more precious and should be preserved?
nature of everything in this world, but How can they explain to the occupants of
also to some extent to the influx into our an old house who suffer the trials of
crowded cities of newcomers who are carrying water in buckets from the well
strangers to this past. Whatever the reason into their old-fashioned kitchen, and who
32 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Living the past: the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art
ß UNESCO 1999 33
ß Photo by courtesy of the author È lcer
Nazan O
34 ß UNESCO 1999
Living the past: the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art
life again. Walking along the wooden carefully chosen exhibitions. They serve
scaffolding looking into the empty rooms to remind visitors of the process of
and long corridors as the cold winter winds reciprocal influence and the universality
swept through the windowless apertures of art.
and doorless entrances, I used to envisage
the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art as it The Ethnography Gallery on the next floor
would be many years on. is entered via the courtyard. Here tableaux
designed with as much imagination as the
Our advantage in moving from one architectural limitations allow present
historic building to another was that we glimpses into traditional Turkish life.
were able to co-operate with the technical
team throughout the restoration process In the section on nomadic life are two
and so guide it to suit our needs. More- tents, one a circular felt Turkmen tent
over, it was ideally situated in the heart of (known as a yurt or topak ev), used until
the old city next to Hagia Sophia, Sultan relatively recently in the district of Salihli
Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque) and in western Anatolia and representing the
the Hippodrome. extension of Central Asian culture in
Turkey; and the other a goat-hair kara
Ibrahim Pasa had served as Grand Vizier cËadir, of the type used by nomads in the
between 1523 and 1536 during the early Toros Mountains in south-eastern and
part of Su
È leyman the Magnificent's reign, southern Anatolia and also found in other
and his palace was one of the most im- parts of the Near East and North Africa.
portant examples of secular architecture The tents are exhibited together with their
to have survived from the sixteenth contents, furnishings and models, the
century. Those parts still standing would layout based on documentary evidence
provide an appropriate setting for the of their original use.
great art collections of the museum, and
also leave room to display the ethno- The other scenes are a village house
graphic collection which we had spent together with its facËades, and two late-
long years amassing. nineteenth-century provincial houses, one
from Bursa and the other from Istanbul
When we eventually moved in we which illustrates the Western influence of
decided to use the gallery on the ground this period and the changing way of life.
floor for temporary exhibitions, mainly of
collections from abroad, and including I must reiterate that the scenes have been
both historical and contemporary works adapted to the architectural space where
of art from Asia, Europe, and North and they are located, because the necessary
South America. These exhibitions give compromise between the relatively small
visitors the opportunity to see different space and our wish to preserve the co-
concepts and approaches to art. I believe herence of the whole and enable visitors
that this is an important function for a to comprehend what they are seeing
museum housing Islamic art. The dimen- obliged us to keep to the framework of
sions of political and cultural exchange a clear concept and theme. Just as,
that have taken place over long centuries between 1983 and 1985 scenes illustrating
between countries and continents, and ceremonies relating to birth, circumcision
the resulting influence on their art, can be and marriage were used as the exhibition
clearly seen and understood at such framework on the theme of `Transitional
ß UNESCO 1999 35
ß Photo by courtesy of the author È lcer
Nazan O
36 ß UNESCO 1999
Living the past: the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art
Second, the message is conveyed that way we can explain to future generations
worn and damaged objects (which in our that we have a real past which is worth
collection generally means carpets and preserving.
kilims that have been spread on the floors
of mosques for centuries) are important, When we define museums as living en-
have aesthetic and historic value, and tities which need to develop, this entails
even in their worn state represent an their being responsible not only for the
invaluable cultural heritage. Only in this care and display of existing collections,
way can there be hope for objects in but also for a continuous process of new
private hands which are in danger of acquisition. As yet it still seems possible to
being destroyed because their owners do obtain ethnographic material partly by
not appreciate their value. fieldwork and partly by donations or
purchases from families. However, the
Third, by means of exhibiting objects illus- scale and prices reached by the art market
trating well-defined art movements, styles, both at home and abroad make it increas-
or the tastes of specific centuries, either in ingly difficult to obtain the Islamic works
total or in the context of a theme, the of art required to complete our collec-
visitor should be encouraged to think, to tions.
forge links between the objects, and in
looking at the details not to lose sight of In this respect our relations with private
the whole. collectors are increasingly important. We
are aware of the fact that every serious
Finally, when exhibiting an object, not just collection could end up in a museum or
the work of art itself but the conditions be transformed into a private museum,
under which it was made and the social and as a result of legislation that subjects
and economic history behind it should be certain collections to inspection by the
taken into account, and explained not museum, we know what items these
only in the catalogue but at least on collections contain. Because of this close
information panels and preferably (if relationship with collectors we have been
means allow) by means of audiovisual able to acquire certain important groups
techniques. of objects for the museum.
In the Ethnography Gallery we also have When we look back along the long and
additional objectives, the most important difficult road that we have travelled, we
being to serve as a `memory' for our can say that our achievements have been
people, because, like individuals, socie- considerable. But this is just part of the
ties exist through their memories. When way, and a very major project awaits us ±
the lifestyles of a past so recent that it that of acquiring the section of the
could be described as `yesterday' are con- Ibrahim Pasa Palace which is still in other
signed to oblivion, so that people have hands, and transforming it into new ex-
difficulty remembering even how the hibition galleries for the objects lying in
previous generation lived, it is our duty our storerooms. Considering the obstacles
to remind people and our society of that we have already managed to overcome, I
lost world. Therefore we want individuals am confident that this too can be
and institutions to be aware of this, and to achieved. ■
preserve the documents and objects of
their own private histories. Perhaps in this
ß UNESCO 1999 37
An ongoing dialogue: the Museum of
the Institute of the Arab World in Paris
Brahim Alaoui
The Institut du Monde Arabe (IMA) in Before considering the presentation of Through its temporary exhibitions, the
Paris is home to a museum with a Islamic art in France, the attitudes of the museum is projected into the public areas
mission: to foster a greater dialogue French public to this specific art form and and extended by cultural events (music
between the two civilizations that have the particular role played by the Institute and performing arts), information brought
developed on the opposite shores of the of the Arab World, a brief reference to the together in the library and specific pro-
Mediterranean. Presenting the art of the history of the creation of the IMA, its initial grammes set up on the occasion of these
Arab-Muslim world to a largely mission and subsequent development is exhibitions (lectures, debates). The inten-
European public is the challenge appropriate. A reference to the status tion is to understand the unity and
described by Brahim Alaoui, head of the enjoyed by the museum and the exhibi- diversity of the Arab world, its past and
Contemporary Art Department and tions organized at the institute may also be its future. Many different cultural instru-
director of the Museum and Exhibitions helpful. ments are used for that purpose. How-
at the IMA. Moroccan born, he began his ever, the fact remains that the museum
career as a researcher at the Paris City In 1987, when it was inaugurated, itself plays a dominant role because a
Museum of Modern Art and has Parisians discovered a centre which was majority of the cultural events at the IMA
contributed to several collective works astonishing for its originality, distinctive are shaped by the programme of tem-
and published many catalogues, notably character and architecture. As a Franco- porary exhibitions organized there.
on Arab artists. Through his writings Arab cultural foundation, the IMA brings
and the exhibitions he has organized, together twenty-two founder states. Its
Brahim Alaoui is one of the few mission is to develop the study and know- An evolving museum
mediators to establish a living link ledge of Arab culture and civilization and
between the Arab-Muslim world of the to promote dialogue and exchanges At the outset, the IMA was designed to
past and present and the European art between France and the Arab world. With accommodate some of the collections of
scene. He is a member of the that aim in view, the IMA has created a the Museums of France. The creation of
International Association of Art Critics venue for all kinds of activities, with the the Grand Louvre deprived it of these
and the International Council of museum as its epicentre. This is part of a important works and might even have
Museums (ICOM). complex programme which includes endangered the existence of the IMA
various activities and facilities. museum. Under difficult conditions, it
completed the transformation imposed
At the IMA, the library, audiovisual depart- by this withdrawal of exhibits. The insti-
ment and cultural actions programme tute lacked the resources to compensate
weave a plural web around the museum its loss by acquisitions. Today, the ap-
in which literature, music and the cinema proach consists in presenting Arab-
all enrich the audience. Through its Muslim art through a new, more educa-
underlying concept, the IMA favours a tional museography receptive to the new
pluridisciplinary approach. This gives the technologies and better able to put across
museum an opportunity to unite and its message and facilitate an under-
disseminate knowledge of the heritage of standing of the nature of this civilization.
the Arab world and foster a better
understanding of its civilization. At the same time, the museum has
attained a state of equilibrium and found
This `globalizing' concept enables links to a new vocation through the organization
be established between the different of major temporary exhibitions. These
functions and activities, and conveys an attract an audience that is less interested
image of dynamic continuity. We in the permanent activities of the institute.
therefore tend to choose themes and The IMA museum has progressively
events that are shared by all the different developed its activities and acquired a
entities present within the institute. fund of experience, which now goes back
38 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
An ongoing dialogue: the Museum of the Institute of the Arab World in Paris
ß P. Maillard, IMA
ten years. It has laid down cultural roots, merely a specific feature of the IMA, but View of the exhibition Secret Lands of
with the emphasis less on conservation also create an awareness of the contem- Samarkand.
than on dissemination. Temporary exhibi- porary prolongations of Islamic art and its
tions have become a vital part of its impact on the plastic arts in East and West
prestigious reputation. The museum alike.
regularly invites the public to witness
presentations of particular facets of Arab-
Muslim art in order to enable French and A privileged setting
European visitors to discover the rich
Arab-Muslim civilization from different At a time when rejection and withdrawal
angles and in an attractive presentation. into isolation are again becoming preva-
lent on both shores of the Mediterranean,
The museum has the benefit of extensive the IMA for its part is trying to become the
spaces for temporary exhibitions, and privileged setting for the expression of the
organizes major events devoted to the strength of projects that promote meetings
heritage of particular countries ± for and exchanges between cultures. The
example: Syria, Memory and Civilization; mission of the IMA must be seen in this
Sudan, Kingdoms on the Nile; Yemen, in context in a Europe that is itself in the
the Country of the Queen of Sheba; throes of change. As the instrument of an
Lebanon, the Other Shore ± as well as outward-looking approach, the institute is
exhibitions on more specialized themes. a focal point for the encounter between
The former often break out beyond the Europe and the Arab countries. The
framework of Islamic art to focus on institute facilitates contacts between these
`archaeological' periods. The latter seek two cultures and plays a privileged role in
to highlight the major arts of Islamic promoting good conditions for this
civilization, for instance: ceramics in Secret encounter.
Lands of Samarkand; textiles in Colours of
Tunisia; Carpets, Presence of the East in Of course, the confrontation between two
the West; and Silk and Gold, Maghreb cultures is just as difficult and hazardous a
Embroidery; and areas in which the Arab venture as a meeting between two human
world has played a dominant role beings. It may be happy or tempestuous.
(Medicine in the Days of the Caliphs). But while the meeting between two
individuals is a matter of chance, the
Then there are ethnographic events meeting between two neighbouring cul-
(Memory of Silk, Palestinian Dresses) tures is in a sense predetermined. Geo-
and, above all, those devoted to modern graphy fashions history. But despite this
and contemporary Arab art. These are not proximity and a relationship that has
ß UNESCO 1999 39
ß P. Maillard, IMA Brahim Alaoui
Ancient works from the exhibition existed for over thirteen centuries, Arab- diversity of the Arab world are better
Jordan, in the Footsteps of the Muslim culture remains largely unknown appreciated.
Archaeologists. in Europe today. The decisive historical
contribution made by the civilization of The aim of the IMA museum is to create a
Islam to the development of knowledge greater familiarity between two civiliza-
and skills is unfortunately not appreciated tions. It wants to help the men, women
at its true value. and children who are at one and the same
time heirs and players to escape from their
The Greek and Latin sources of European historical logic of mutual distrust and
culture, to which reference is constantly reach out to meet each other with a
made, are accompanied by Arab sources human desire for mutual enrichment,
that generally remain concealed. Across peaceful exchange and partnership.
the Mediterranean, relations between Because of that sometimes contradictory
Europe and the Arab world exist in a reality, the IMA has an acute awareness of
historical and cultural continuum that is its task. After developing its activities to
rarely understood. The action taken by respond to needs or wishes and making
the IMA is built on this common founda- obligatory choices, its duty now is to
tion, which must be constantly consoli- organize a programme ± and it is well-
dated. The institute has an important role equipped to do so ± which will be
to play in valorizing the Arab cultural structured to give it a distinctive image
heritage and identifying, through pre- by determining its priorities and shaping
sentation, research and debate, the factors its future.
which make for solidarity and tension
between the Mediterranean civilizations;
by fostering links between the common A museum for which audience?
sources, bringing the interaction between
these two cultures to light and, above all, The new approach which underlies the
by acting to ensure that the unity and action of the IMA is directly inspired by
40 ß UNESCO 1999
An ongoing dialogue: the Museum of the Institute of the Arab World in Paris
ß P. Maillard, IMA
the expectations of the public and prag-
matically seeks appropriate ways and
means of enabling the exchange and the
process of discovery to take place in an
intense and effective manner. We do not
want to appeal to an anonymous body of
visitors, but to audiences whose habits
and needs vary.
ß UNESCO 1999 41
Brahim Alaoui
Maghreb origin. Once again lecturers the outset to evolve as the collection
introduce the Arab-Muslim world and grew. Over the past ten years it has,
present Islamic art. however, become apparent that the way
in which objects are presented must be
Unless they are students of Islamic art, constantly rethought so as to better guide
individual visitors often have no bearings the eye of visitors, especially those from
and need the explanations provided in the Europe. The collections of Islamic art
exhibition journal, explanatory panels and bring together objects that are essentially
posters. They do not come simply to part of daily life, even if they owe their
admire the art of the past but are also existence to a princely household or have
looking for answers to questions that a ceremonial character. Visitors must
concern a civilization that is well and truly therefore be helped to understand their
alive, but whose contours they often have aesthetics and meaning, especially if they
difficulty in tracing. They want to arrive with their own personal criteria as
understand today's Muslim world by to the nature of an art work. There is no
discovering and contemplating objects of single solution but several different ways
the Muslim civilization of bygone times. of rising to this challenge. The IMA
museum therefore intends to explore all
The museum furniture was designed at these different possibilities. ■
Note to readers
42 ß UNESCO 1999
A literary legacy: the National
Steinbeck Center in Salinas
John C. Stickler
After twenty long years of fund-raising, `It is a literary museum like no other in this Of course The Grapes of Wrath and East of
the dream of the Steinbeck Foundation country,' says Amanda Holder, communi- Eden played a major part in Steinbeck's
in Salinas, California, came true on 27 cations director of the sparkling new $10.6 literary career and they are well
June 1998 with the gala opening of the million National Steinbeck Center Museum. represented here. A video shows actor
National Steinbeck Center Museum. One Unlike most sites honouring celebrated Henry Fonda in his cinema role as the
thousand guests enjoyed the event, writers, this one goes beyond just showing elder Joad, and posters of James Dean
celebrating this agricultural valley's most you where so-and-so slept, wrote, or died. illustrate the film version of East of Eden.
famous son, Nobel prize-winning author Way beyond! This one reaches out, grabs As one moves through the exhibits, Henry
John Steinbeck, who died in Salinas in you by the shirt and pulls you right into Fonda reappears, this time reading aloud
December 1968 and is buried there in Steinbeck's life and the very pages of his from America and the Americans.
the Garden of Memories Cemetery, about books.
3 km from his birthplace. California- For those unfamiliar with the books,
based freelance writer John C. Stickler Building on contemporary museum splashes of relevant text are stencilled
tells the story. design which strives to involve the viewer everywhere, integrated into the sets, even
with actual artefacts of the time, video on fabrics such as pillowcases. A row of
snippets, tape recordings and sensory period jackets and hats on pegs represents
effects, exhibit designers Formations Inc. Of Mice and Men. In dialogue stencilled
of Portland, Oregon, pushed the envelope on the wall Lenny disclaims killing the
even further here to create a full multi- mouse in his pocket. `I found it dead!' he
media experience. Keeping the educa- swears. A really interactive viewer might
tional value of the displays in the put a hand into one of the pockets of the
forefront, they borrowed from San largest jacket and find a little furry object
Francisco's Exploratorium concept and inside.
provided numerous props for children to
handle, climb and inspect within a 745 m2 Not to deprive any of the senses, the
exhibition hall. On `The Red Pony' set, complete Steinbeck ambience includes
kids can mount a realistic pony manne- odours. Sardine scent adds to the realism
quin and sit in a beautifully hand-tooled of Monterey's historic canneries, the Red
leather saddle. At the `laboratory' of the Pony stall smells of hay, and a dog collar
Spreckels Sugar Company, where Stein- mounted on one wall will, when
beck worked between college semesters scratched, give off the odour of an old
at Stanford University, magnifying glasses dog. Standing before the open railroad
invite inspection of rock-sized sugar boxcar of `iced lettuce', a visitor may feel a
crystals. In the `Cannery Row' set, flow of chilled air spilling out of the
magnifying glasses are also handy in realistic display. An adobe Mexican plaza
Doc's Western Biological lab to examine expresses the Hispanic images of The
real Monterey Bay marine specimens in Pearl, The Forgotten Village and
glass jars: starfish, sand dollars and squid. Steinbeck's film script for Viva Zapata!
The humour inherent in Steinbeck's work One of Steinbeck's last books was Travels
sneaks delightfully into the displays. Doc's with Charley: In Search of America,
bunk bed is neatly made with an army published in 1962. An illuminated map
blanket. The observant museum-goer will traces his route around the United States
notice the lacy undergarments and the red with Charley, the French poodle.
high-heel shoes scattered casually under `Rocinante', Steinbeck's actual camper,
the bed. mounted on his carefully restored 1960
ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999) 43
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
ß Stuart Schwartz John C. Stickler
44 ß UNESCO 1999
A literary legacy: the National Steinbeck Center in Salinas
ß UNESCO 1999 45
ß National Steinbeck Center John C. Stickler
46 ß UNESCO 1999
A literary legacy: the National Steinbeck Center in Salinas
cost of the centre. He plans to finalize the collection of 54,000 cards, entries in a new
capital campaign by the end of May 1999. home giveaway promotion that benefited
the centre. (That list is still being mined.)
`We did not expect to fund the restaurant,' After that, mailings went out to target lists
says Pastori. `That $500,000 expense was selected by postal code.
allocated to a food-service lessee. But
there were no acceptable bidders for the `We picked names that lived within a
space, so we had to add that amount to certain geographical radius of Salinas, all
our capital goal.' The museum manages home-owners in single-family residences,'
the restaurant itself. says Pastori. `Before the June opening we
had dropped 100,000 solicitation letters
Pastori's background is in the field of and another 60,000 after. So far we are
fund-raising for public television, so he is averaging about 1 per cent joining.'
experienced in providing coffee mugs and Within an eighteen-month period Pastori
CDs in return for pledges. The software expects to send out a million letters,
on his computer is the same as that used locally and nationally.
by public broadcasting stations nation-
wide. It works just as well for tracking At Number One Main Street, the new
museum memberships, he says. The museum anchors the tree-shaded Old-
centre offers six levels of membership, town Salinas, not much changed since
all including a quarterly newsletter, from a the 1940s. City officials are counting on an
$40 individual pass up to the Nobel Prize influx of tourists to help revitalize Salinas'
Circle, a lifetime membership at $2,500. ageing core. Boarded-up retail shops and
`We are five months ahead of schedule on a vacant cinema adjacent to the new
our membership target,' Pastori reports. National Steinbeck Center underscore
`The goal was 5,000 members at the end the important role it is expected to play.
of the first twelve months. We are already ■
past 2,500 and I'm raising the bar to 5,700.'
ß UNESCO 1999 47
Access denied: can we overcome
disabling attitudes?
Raj Kaushik
The museum world has still a long way Perhaps since the evolution of life on the present `equal opportunities for all'
to go if it is to become a welcoming earth, the word `disability' has had era, disability is being dealt with in a
environment for disabled visitors, a negative connotations inextricably asso- `politically correct' way ± that is to say, it
problem addressed with insight and ciated with it. The Bible, Vedas, Puranas gets paid lip service in all social arenas,
sensitivity by Raj Kaushik. Trained as a and other religious books are full of including museums and cultural centres.
physicist and with a Ph.D. in Museum examples to this effect: bad people being
Studies, he entered the field of science cursed with disability and good people In this article, I shall explore how
museums in 1987 and worked for five being rewarded with a cure. The Greek museums deal with the chapter of dis-
years at the National Council of Science philosopher Plato in his Republic believed ability and disabled people. The discus-
Museums, India, as Curator (Physics). In that if we want citizens to behave prop- sion and suggestions that follow are the
1992, he joined the Department of erly, we should ensure that they receive expressions of my own interpretations of
Museum Studies at the University of care and instruction from the finest the findings. Nevertheless, care has been
Leicester, United Kingdom, as people. Disability can be a punishment taken that they do not get polluted by
Commonwealth Scholar, and since 1996, for bad behaviour and evil thoughts or for institutional loyalty, personal biases and
has been Exhibits Manager at the not being a good enough person. On idiosyncrasies.
Discovery Centre, Halifax, Canada, screen and stage, disabled people are
where he is responsible for all aspects of depicted as ugly, freakish, evil, villainous, Museums belong to people and are
exhibit design, development and antisocial, pitiable and pathetic. Obvious committed to delivering specialized ser-
installation. He has written research examples are Long John Silver with his vices to a growing public. In the 1970s,
papers on such topics as science wooden leg, Captain Hook with his hook, museums, particularly in the United
museums in India, Indian science and Richard III with his crutches. From the States, made a conscious effort to attract
education, adult education and attitude director's point of view, Captain Hook disabled people. The concept of `disabled
development in museums, and has also without his hook would be a less access' was appreciated worldwide. At its
published numerous popular science impressive character and Richard III is eleventh general conference the Inter-
articles. not quite villainous enough by virtue of national Council of Museums (ICOM)
his actions alone. In fact, his character recommended that museums take active
collapses totally when it is visualized steps to ensure maximum accessibility and
without crutches. The parallel between to expand adequately adapted pro-
twisted minds and twisted bodies is found grammes. The editors of various museum
almost everywhere ± in religious books, joumals allocated more space than ever
films, classic stories, Victorian fiction, and before to articles dealing with questions
so on. concerning disabled people and some
even brought out special issues dedicated
Images created by the media are not to this subject. In 1988, the first inter-
passive. Rather, they actively create mean- national conference on `Museums and
ings for their viewers. According to the Disabled People' was organized by the
contemporary post-modern French Fondation de France. The mission of the
theorist Jean Baudrillard, our ideas of the conference was to send a clear message
world are a set of media images through that culture is not a luxury but an essential
which reality is constructed and in this link between the members of a com-
reality there can be seen four prominent munity. Disabled people must have the
models of disability: `evil and horror', opportunity to share our common cultural
`overcoming all odds', `charity' and the heritage and reap its benefits.
`medical' model. In these stereotypes,
disabled people are mostly judged in Today, we see almost everywhere in
terms of their deficiency and rarely in museums nicely hung or placed signs
terms of their individual personalities. In showing our great concern for the disabled
48 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Access denied: can we overcome disabling attitudes?
ß UNESCO 1999 49
Raj Kaushik
The Crafts Museum, Delhi. The main Museum of Natural History one has to about the number of wheelchairs avail-
entrance makes it a `museum with climb a few steps to be able to use an able from information desks on request
barriers'. elevator which is officially provided for instead of talking about how many of
the convenience of the museum staff. It them are in regular use. We proudly
appears really surprising, and frustrating mention that we have provided Braille
as well, that designers do not take into labels in galleries, but hardly divulge that
account the long-established physio- out of 1,000 exhibits we have placed
logical measurements of metalogical labels on only 30 and that only a few
functions. For example, it is known that visitors use them. Government leaders
climbing stairs requires twice as much and their advisers also mainly focus on
energy as walking on level ground.1 provisions. Carolyn Keen, then disability
adviser of the United Kingdom's Museums
During my visit to the Experimentarium: and Galleries Commission, speaks for
The Danish Science Centre, in Copen- many when she says: `Disabled people
hagen, I saw two staff members physically are often excluded from or unable to
lifting a pushchair and negotiating it up to participate fully in what are considered to
the first-floor entrance. `It saves time and be ``normal'' activities of all kinds because
avoids many operations like picking up appropriate provision is not made to meet
the elevator key from the office, operating their needs.'2
it and then returning the key,' one of the
staff members told me. Many museums A hastily prepared package of measures to
throw up their hands in horror at the boost disability rights in the United
financial prospects of putting in an Kingdom also lays stress on the need for
elevator. While an elevator may be ideal provisions. `A new right of access to goods
in the long-term, an inexpensive ramp can and services would require modification
work well for immediate purposes. A of trading premises where change was
classic example can be seen in the college ``readily achievable'' subject to a financial
campuses of Cambridge University in the limit,' reads a recent report.3 In museums,
United Kingdom, where nearly all the provisions alone will not achieve the
steps are fitted with inexpensive ramps. agreed objective of sharing our common
cultural heritage and reaping benefits. The
In developed counties, we talk about British Museum once offered sign-
provisions rather than services. We talk language interpretation for hearing-
50 ß UNESCO 1999
Access denied: can we overcome disabling attitudes?
impaired visitors. The arrangement could go out. From personal experience I have
not work because there were not many found them extremely sensitive, touchy
users in the first place. and self-conscious ± they can sense their
victimization in no time. In his classic
In developing countries we tend to boast book, The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon
about disabled-access provisions when Allport catalogued fifteen effects of
they rarely exist. Even worse, we yodel victimization which may be reduced to
about them when we have a couple of two basic types: those that involve blaming
flights of steps, in purpose-built buildings, oneself (withdrawal, self-hate, aggression)
to be negotiated by one and all to reach and those that involve blaming external
the exhibition halls. We see a sign in front causes (fighting back, suspiciousness,
of the main entrance which reads increased group pride). In the event of
`Disabled Access This Way Please.' But any obvious hostility, needy visitors, in my
on venturing further we find a ramp, view, are more likely to adopt the simplest
meant for taking exhibit materials directly strategy ± withdrawal ± which is both
into storage, which mostly remains closed undesirable and unfortunate. In order to
for security reasons. find a solution, we need to evaluate our
basic approach to the issue.
ß UNESCO 1999 51
Photo by courtesy of the author Raj Kaushik
52 ß UNESCO 1999
A city confronts its past: Nuremberg's
Documentation Centre on the Reich
Party Congress site
Franz Sonnenberger
An unconventional museum is being In Germany today, some 1,500 memorials catalysts were the events organized to
created in Nuremberg to offer German and places of remembrance are specific- mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Nazi
youth a window onto the history of the ally dedicated to the country's National seizure of power in 1933 and the fortieth
Third Reich, a part of their country's past Socialist past. Their task is generally to anniversary of the end of the war two
that is often shrouded in myth and remind visitors of the fate of all those who years later. The events held to mark the
silence. The author has been director of lost their lives because of their political fiftieth anniversary of the 1938 November
the Nuremberg Municipal Museums since persuasion, race, religion or philosophical pogroms had a similar impact.
1994. Prior to that he was head of creed under the violent rule of the Nazis.
department at the Nuremberg Centre for The documentation of these crimes ranges In the eastern part of Germany, formerly
Industrial Culture from 1981 to 1991 from a simple memorial tablet at the place known as the German Democratic Repub-
and served from 1992 to 1994 as where the events occurred to complex lic, the background to the remembrance
personal adviser to the Lord Mayor of exhibitions. These presentations can be of the victims of National Socialism was
Nuremberg. seen in sixty-five historical locations, totally different. In the official memorials
where expert staff are generally em- at such places as Buchenwald and
ployed. The work done by them to Sachsenhausen concentration camps, the
remind visitors of the victims of the Nazi main emphasis was on the `anti-fascist
dictatorship and perform historical and struggle' of the Communist prisoners. The
political educational tasks is widely memorials that were built accordingly
acknowledged. mirrored the ideological concepts of the
East German state.
In western Germany, the history of these
memorials and places of remembrance is
still very recent. With the exception of the Nuremberg ± the double burden of
memorials in the former concentration history
camps of Dachau and Bergen-Belsen that
were inaugurated as far back as in 1965 Like few other German cities, Nuremberg
and 1966, most of the others were not is still confronted today with the historical
opened until the 1970s. There are several heritage of the National Socialist period.
reasons for this. One decisive factor is Vast remains of the buildings on the
certainly the growing interest, especially former Reich Party Congress site still
on the part of the younger generation, in stand. They were built between 1933
the country's National Socialist past, and 1939 as a backdrop to the events in
which had previously been a taboo which the National Socialists staged
subject. Local initiatives were often taken popular participation during the Reich
in which young people, working with Party Congress. Here, the National
former internees and their organizations, Socialist movement celebrated its own
militated in favour of the construction of glory in bombastic style, backed by the
places of remembrance. For the institu- euphoria of enthusiastic throngs of
tional promotion of the new memorials by people. Even today, the sheer scale of
the federal provinces, districts and local this megalomania testifies to the intention
authorities or foundations, one important of the National Socialists to demonstrate
factor was the growing public awareness their power to the masses, while at the
of the need for such testimonies beyond same time giving the individual the
the comparatively small circle of dedi- impression of sharing that power. During
cated advocates. The American television the Reich Party Congresses, Germany and
series Holocaust broadcast in the spring of the whole world witnessed the show of
1979 played an important part here. Other strength of a regime which orchestrated
ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999) 53
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
È rnberg
ß Stadtarchiv Nu Franz Sonnenberger
A parade on the site of the Reich Party displays of military might, endless parades second obstacle to a specific historical
Congress in 1937. and military manoeuvres. By doing so, it process in situ resided in the under-
openly put the people in the mood for standable ± if unjustified ± fear of many
war. Unlike the many memorials, which in positions of responsibility that, despite
remind visitors of the Nazi terror and its all the educational efforts, the former
victims in the former concentration Reich Party Congress site might become
camps, prisons and other such sites, this a place at which the `eternal followers of
is not a place of horror. But the link with yesterday' might celebrate what they
them is evident: the terrible seed sown in regarded as Germany's days of glory.
Nuremberg was to germinate elsewhere.
Since the mid-1970s, there has been a new
For decades, there were two obstacles to a tendency to place greater emphasis on the
rigorous interpretation of the history of central role played by the Reich Party
the Reich Party Congress site and of its Congress site in German history. Particular
role in the Nazi apparatus of power and importance attached here to the public
propaganda. Firstly ± as was the case interest which grew as personal memories
everywhere in Germany ± the pragmatic of the Nazi era faded with the change of
attitude that had been adopted for generations. The number of visitors to the
decades to the stone testimonies of the site rose year by year, including many
National Socialist era needed to be young people and thousands of tourists
overcome. An awareness had to be from Europe and the whole world. In
created that the former Reich Party 1985, an exhibition entitled Fascination
Congress site was an eminently historical and Violence was held in the Zeppelin
venue whose buildings should not just be Stand designed and built by Albert Speer
used as depots, as a setting for all kinds of between 1934 and 1937. Its purpose was
open-air events or as a site for the to put forward strong and persuasive
construction of a popular suburb. The arguments against the stone testimonies
54 ß UNESCO 1999
A city confronts its past: Nuremberg's Documentation Centre on the Reich Party Congress site
ß UNESCO 1999 55
ß Luftbild Bischof & Broel Franz Sonnenberger
A chronological sweep
56 ß UNESCO 1999
A city confronts its past: Nuremberg's Documentation Centre on the Reich Party Congress site
ß UNESCO 1999 57
Forum
Museum International continues its excuse for profitable commerce and for
forum for current thinking on important a variety of peripheral cultural and social
museum questions in a slightly modified enterprises, more or less connected with
format. Readers are invited to reply to the museum itself. The museum world,
the questions at the end of the article so one might say, is what increasingly
that we may publish their views on the counts, rather than the museum itself.
most significant and perhaps How is one to decide, for instance,
controversial topics of the day. Kenneth whether the Metropolitan Museum in
Hudson, Director of the European New York is of greater significance than
Museum Forum, which includes the the commercial ventures that surround it?
European Museum of the Year Award, Perhaps the horse and the cart have
and author of fifty-three books on changed places.
museums, social and industrial history
and social linguistics, including the well- Yesterday's museums were very simple
known Museums of Influence, will affairs. They consisted, basically, of
continue to act as our agent buildings in which collections of objects
provocateur. He will set out the issues as were more or less effectively displayed.
he sees them, so as to elicit discussion One toured these exhibitions and one
and comment which we hope will was either interested or bored, according
provide a rich source of new ideas for to the kind of person one was and the
the international museum community. luck of the game. Under favourable
Do join in the debate! conditions, one came out feeling better
than one came in, but the opposite was
equally possible. And then, at some
In today's world, are a museum's point during the 1950s, two interlinked
activities more important than its things began to happen. The first was
exhibitions? that a small number of exceptionally
energetic directors became interested in
Is what goes on in the clubhouse and in marketing and selling their museum and
the newspapers more important than the in regarding the people who came in as
golf on the course outside? What does customers to be studied and pleased,
`golf' really consist of? If it is a way of rather than as mere visitors. The second
life, a set of attitudes, a substantial aspect of the revolution was the
industry, then it is possible to argue that enormous and quite rapid growth of
actually playing golf is only a small part what would at one time have been
of something much bigger and more regarded as no more than fringe
significant called `golf'. Much the same activities ± shops, cafeÂs and restaurants,
could be said about `eating' and `educational' programmes and Friends'
`sleeping', where the range of associations. It is fair to say that as a
commercially inspired behaviour extends result of these changes in emphasis,
far beyond the single core activity and, what was once fringe has now almost
under some circumstances, can well become central. The museum has
exceed it in prestige and economic become the raison d'eÃtre of the activities
value. We have now reached the point surrounding it. One recalls the well-
at which this is true of many of the known American socialite who declared,
world's bigger museums, where the `I am parties.'
museum itself has become merely an
58 ISSN 1350-0775, Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), No. 203 (Vol. 51, No. 3, 1999)
ß UNESCO 1999
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
Forum
ß UNESCO 1999 59
Forum
Correspondence
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60 ß UNESCO 1999