GREEK LITERATURE heritage continues to be studied and celebrated
for its timeless themes, enduring characters, and
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - The historical
background of Greek literature dates back to the
8th century BCE and spans several centuries. Here
are some key points:
1. Archaic Period (8th - 6th century BCE): This
period saw the emergence of Greek literature with
the composition of epic poetry, most notably the
works of Homer, including the "Iliad" and the
"Odyssey." These epic poems were initially
transmitted orally and later written down.
2. Classical Period (5th - 4th century BCE): The
Classical period is considered the golden age of
Greek literature. It witnessed the flourishing of
various literary genres, including tragedy, comedy,
lyric poetry, and historical writings.
3. Tragedy: This period saw the rise of renowned
tragedians such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides. Their plays, such as Aeschylus'
"Oresteia," Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex," and
Euripides' "Medea," explored complex themes of
fate, morality, and the human condition.
4. Comedy: Greek comedy developed alongside
tragedy and was popularized by playwrights like
Aristophanes. Aristophanes' comedies, such as
"Lysistrata" and "The Birds," used humor and satire
to comment on social and political issues of the
time.
5. Lyric Poetry: Lyric poetry, characterized by
personal expression and emotion, was also
prominent during this period. Notable lyric poets
include Sappho, known for her passionate love
poetry, and Pindar, famous for his odes celebrating
athletic victories.
6. Historiography: Greek literature also includes
historical writings, most notably the works of
Herodotus, known as the "Father of History."
Herodotus' "Histories" documented the Persian
Wars and provided a detailed account of ancient
civilizations.
7. Hellenistic Period (4th - 1st century BCE):
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great,
Greek literature spread throughout the Hellenistic
world. During this period, there was a shift towards
more individualistic and philosophical writings,
with notable figures like Plato and Aristotle.
Greek literature had a profound impact on
Western literature and culture, influencing
subsequent literary traditions. Its rich literary
profound insights into the human experience.
GENRE
 Epic narrative - An epic poem is a lengthy,
narrative work of poetry. These long poems
typically detail extraordinary feats and
adventures of characters from a distant past.
The word “epic” comes from the ancient Greek
term “epos,” which means “story, word, poem.”
These tales were meant to be heard out loud
rather than read, and were important for
teaching the Greek people their shared history
and ethos, and for instilling in them a sense of
heroism. The versions that were written down
shifted and changed with each new generation
of poets, shaped over many years of recitation.
 Lyric poetry - is traditionally accompanied by
music. The name lyric takes its origins from the
ancient Greek instrument, the lyre. A lyre is a
small harp-shaped string instrument. As a
result, lyric poems are often thought of as
song-like. Lyric poetry is normally short poems
where the speaker expresses their emotions or
feelings. Traditional, classical Greek lyric
poetry had strict rules for rhyme and meter.
Today lyric poetry encompasses many forms
with different rules regarding how they are
structured. In ancient Greece, lyric poetry was
seen as an alternative to dramatic verse and
epic poetry.
These forms both contained a narrative. Lyric
poetry did not necessitate narrative, allowing
poets to concentrate on a speaker's feelings and
emotions. Lyric poems have always been
considered emotional and expressive. Many
different poetry forms are considered to be lyric
poetry. The sonnet, ode and elegy are famous
examples of poetry forms that fall under the
category of lyric. This can make lyric poetry difficult
to classify. In addition to experimenting with
different meters, lyric poets also sang their songs
to the accompaniment of a lyre, a stringed
instrument plucked with the hand—if Homer had
musical backup, it's not evident in the text of his
epics—thus, the name "lyric poetry."
 Mythology - Myths are traditional stories,
especially ones concerning the early history of
a people or explaining some natural or social
phenomenon, and typically involving
 supernatural beings or events. A collection of
and the study of myths is called mythology.
Greek mythology is the body of myths
originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a
genre of ancient Greek folklore, today
absorbed alongside Roman mythology into the
broader designation of classical mythology.
 Tragedy - is a genre of story in which a hero is
brought down by his/her own flaws, usually by
ordinary human flaws – flaws like greed, over-
ambition, or even an excess of love, honor, or
loyalty. In any tragedy, we start with the tragic
hero, usually in his prime. The hero is
successful, respected, and happy. Tragedy in
literature is defined as a genre that focuses
around a noble character who struggles
against strong external challenges. This
character will usually suffer greatly and fail as
a result of their own flaws.
 Prose - Prose is verbal or written language that
follows the natural flow of speech. It is the
most common form of writing, used in both
fiction and non-fiction. Prose comes from the
Latin “prosa oratio,” meaning
“straightforward.” Prose in English literature is
a very common type of writing - it refers to any
writing that follows the conventions of speech
and language. As such, it's grammatically and
syntactically correct, and flows like speech.
Most of the writing that you read and produce
will probably be prose.
 Literary Criticism - (or literary studies) is the
study, a genre of arts criticism, evaluation, and
interpretation of literature. Modern literary
criticism is often influenced by literary theory,
which is the philosophical discussion of
literature's goals and methods. Genre criticism,
a method within rhetorical criticism, analyzes
texts in terms of their genre: the set of generic
expectations, conventions, and constraints
that guide their production and interpretation.
 Greek mythology - has had an extensive
influence on the arts and literature of Western
civilization, which inherited much of Greek
culture. Like the myths of many other cultures,
those of ancient Greece tell how the world
was created and help explain why things
happen. Greek mythology is a series of myths
from ancient Greeks. These myths tell the
origin and nature of the universe, involving
various gods, heroes, and mysterious creatures.
They also talk about the origins of various
mysteries and. religious rituals that the Greeks
themselves participated in.
 Epic - The genre was traditionally associated
with heroism and masculine strength,
mythology, and the shaping of national
identity, religion, and war, and with the poet's
own desire to compete with and surpass his
predecessors much as epic heroes seek to
prove their own supremacy. In ancient Greek,
'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic
hexameter (epea), which included not only
Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod,
the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the
strange theological verses attributed to
Orpheus.
 Ancient Greek novel - constitute a coherent if
flexible genre, but no name for this genre is
known from antiquity. Contemporary literary
critics usually omit the extended prose
narratives of antiquity from discussions of the
novel. There are no clear distinctions of genre
between the five 'romantic' novels and other
works of Greek prose fiction, such as Lucian's
True Story, the Alexander Romance and the
Aesop Romance. Although the plots of the
surviving novels appear to be relatively
conventional, entailing the fulfilled
heterosexual desire of a beautiful and usually
virtuous young couple, this impression of
uniformity and moralism may be an illusion
created by later Christians, who decided which
to copy for posterity.
CHARACTERISTICS
In its early days, Greek literature was intended for
oral "consumption" and therefore did not depend
on books or readers. Although the alphabet arrived
in Greece around 800 BC, ancient Greece was in
many ways a society in which the spoken word
prevailed over the written word
1. Utilizing talk and oratory
In a few social orders, the control of liquid and
enticing dialect has been more esteemed than in
Greece. Within the utilization of dialect, individuals
did not raise or lower their voices. In this sense,
the Greeks talked with a really uproarious voice
and utilized genuine words that communicated
mockery, intrigued, cherish, skepticism, and
antagonistic vibe. Feeling markers have been
protected, particularly within the passionate
demeanor of the speaker/author. Characteristics
that have been acquired in current discourses.
Later this sort of rhetoric gave a incredible
motivation to study and be taught within the arts
of government influence, particularly in political
talks about within the assembly, and for assault
and defense within the courts. In reality. The
foremost vital speakers in history Took their
procedures from the old Greek.
2. Significance of Emotion and Affection
Ancient Greek writing displayed an incredible
bargain of feeling, whether within the behavior of
the characters within the story or within the
reaction incited within the gathering of people or
the perusers. Additionally, there was a broad
lexicon of feelings in antiquated Greece. These
feelings are feeling sorry for (kindness), outrage,
fear, cherishing, and envy. In expansion, it was
based on a set of emotional capacities, such as
sympathy, Animosity, weakness, and connection;
Feelings common to all human creatures.
3. Utilize the epic narrative
The Iliad and the Journey are prime illustrations of
the epic story, which in relic was a long account
sonnet, in a hoisted fashion that celebrated
accomplishments. Both lyrics were based on plots
that trap the peruser, and the story is told in a
dialect that's straightforward and coordinated, but
eloquent. They were verbal lyrics that were
transmitted, created, and included in an endless
period, on which unreservedly ad-libbed artists
without names.
4. Incorporates verse poetry
Lyrical verse, characteristic of Greek writing, was
primarily related to the revere of the divine beings
or to the celebration of the victors within the
extraordinary Hellenic games. The expressive coral,
which had backups of lira and aulos, was
exceptionally complicated in its structure since it
did not utilize conventional lines or stanzas. Thus,
it was never reused in precisely the same way,
even though the metric units from which the
stanzas were developed were drawn from a
common collection. The shape of the stanza was
ordinarily related to the move that went with it.5.
5. Nearness of a human divinity
The old Greeks created a devout understanding of
the world based on divine habitations and
conventional histories. The to begin with
imperative and most regularly watched include of
the Greek divine beings was their human frame.
Not at all like other religions, the Greeks did not
deliver conspicuousness in their devout
progression to unusual creatures, creatures, or
nonexistent animals (even though there are a few
in Greek mythology, but they are clearly smaller).
Thus, the Greek divine beings were included inside
a tremendous family of divinities fair because it
happened within the family of the Greeks. Thus,
within the Greek devout creative energy, the most
noteworthy and most idealized signs of presence
had shapes and qualities precisely like those of
their human worshipers. In truth, but for their
control, magnificence, and interminability, the
Greek divine beings were precisely like human
creatures in their way of looking, feeling, or
adoring.
6. Utilize philosophical prose
Philosophical exposition is considered the most
noteworthy scholarly accomplishment of the
fourth century. He was affected by Socrates and
his characteristic strategy of educating driven to
discourse. His most noteworthy example was Plato.
In truth, the fashion of this creator is considered a
magnificence without rise to, even though the
ancient pundits saw it as well lovely. Their works
Have too impacted descendants.
7. Utilize Greek Mythology
The Greek myth endeavors to clarify the
beginnings of the world, to detail the lives and
undertakings of a wide assortment of divine beings,
goddesses, heroes, champions, and legendary
creatures. These legendary accounts were at first
dispersed in an oral-poetic convention. The most
seasoned Greek scholarly sources are the epic
sonnets of Homer, and the Iliad Y Odyssey, Which
centers on the Trojan War and its aftermath. The
sonnets Theogony and the Works and Days,
Contain accounts of the beginning of the world,
the progression of divine rulers, the progression of
human ages, or the root of human disasters.
8. Originality
This writing was created with a small exterior
impact, and among all the scholarly expressions
the Greek is characterized and stands out for the
awesome inventiveness of the writings and genres.
The inventiveness of Greek writing is due to the
incredible jump that his compositions gave in
making a break with the past. The verification of
this peculiarity is that Greek writing has been
overseen to final until the days and is more often
than not taken as a referent to get it indeed the
current writing.
9. Consideration of tragedy dramatization
Tragedy could be a frame of the show in which a
solid central character or legend, at last, falls flat
and is rebuffed by the gods. Generally, in Greek
catastrophes, the saint incorporates a lethal
blemish that causes his fate. Frequently the awful
truths were committed automatically, as in the
scene in which Oedipus slaughters his father
without knowing it. Even though others were made
aware, as when Oreste revenges his father to
murder him. For numerous a long time, Aeschylus
was the foremost fruitful writer in Athens winning
a few competitions. One of his rivals, the Athenian
author Sophocles composed the popular work
Oedipus Rex (Oedipus the King). A third vital
author named Euripides centered more on
individuals than the divine beings in his composing.
Among Euripides' most popular works is Electra Y
The Trojan Woman.
FAMOUS WORKS AND WRITERS
 Homer (8th Century B.C) - is known for his
epic poems that continue to be studied by
literature students and enthusiasts alike. He is
one of the greatest literary artists in the world,
and, through these poems, he affected
Western standards and ideas. Famous works:
Iliad and Odyssey
 Sophocles (496-406 BC) - Was an Asian Greek
Tragedian who wrote 123 plays during his life.
He developed theater by adding a third actor,
reducing the importance of the chorus, and
introducing scenography. Famous works:
Antigone, Oedipus the king and Electra
 Euripides (480-406BC) - Was another Greek
tragedian. He wrote about 95 plays, 18 of
which have survived completely and many
more as fragments. Famous works: Alcestis,
Medea and The Bacchae
 Aeschylus - Often referred to as the father of
tragedy, Aeschylus was one of the first
playwrights to allow conflict between
characters on stage, creating a lifelike storyline
that enticed audiences. Famous works: The
Persians, Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants,
and many more.
 Herodotus (484-425 BC) - is considered the
father of history in Western culture. He
approached history as a science by collecting
his material systematically and testing its
accuracy. Herodotus was also a gifted narrator.
Famous works: The Histories
CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD LITERATURE
 The ancient Greeks pioneered, developed, and
in fact, named many familiar genre of World
literature: epic, lyric, and pastoral poetry,
tragic and comic drama, prose history,
philosophy, and the novel all have deep roots
in the literature of ancient Greece. The Greeks
did this despite not having adopted a writing
system capable of recording these literary
forms until relatively late in their cultural
history. Alongside Latin, ancient Greek
(sometimes called “Classical Greek”) is one of
the professional Classicist’s most powerful
tools for identifying and analyzing culturally
significant texts, events, objects, and ideas.
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, for instance,
Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Plato’s dialogues,
the Hippocratic Oath, and Aristotle’s treatises
on ethics, politics, and physics were all written
originally in Greek over two thousand years
ago. Our researchers and students use their
understanding of the Greek language and its
various dialects to further our understanding
of these influential texts and of the ancient
culture that produced them.
ILIAD AND ODYSSEY
AUTHOR
Homer - The Greek poet Homer is credited with
being the first to write down the epic stories of
'The Iliad' and 'The Odyssey,' and the impact of his
tales continues to reverberate through Western
culture. The Greek poet Homer was born
sometime between the 12th and 8th centuries BC,
possibly somewhere on the coast of Asia Minor. He
is famous for the epic poems The Iliad and The
Odyssey, which have had an enormous effect on
Western culture, but very little is known about
their alleged author.
The mystery of Homer - Homer is a mystery. The
Greek epic poet credited with the enduring epic
tales of The Iliad and The Odyssey is an enigma
insofar as actual facts of his life go. Some scholars
believe him to be one man; others think these
iconic stories were created by a group. A variation
on the group idea stems from the fact that
storytelling was an oral tradition and Homer
compiled the stories, then recited them to memory.
Homer’s style, whoever he was, falls more in the
category of minstrel poet or balladeer, as opposed
to a cultivated poet who is the product of a fervent
literary moment, such as a Virgil or a Shakespeare.
The stories have repetitive elements, almost like a
chorus or refrain, which suggests a musical
element. However, Homer’s works are designated
as epic rather than lyric poetry, which was
originally recited with a lyre in hand, much in the
same vein as spoken-word performances.
When was Homer born? - Much speculation
surrounds when Homer was born because of the
dearth of real information about him. Guesses at
his birth date range from 750 BC all the way back
to 1200 BC, the latter because The Iliad
encompasses the story of the Trojan War, so some
scholars have thought it fit to put the poet and
chronicler nearer to the time of that actual event.
But others believe the poetic style of his work
indicates a much later period. Greek historian
Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC), often called the father
of history, placed Homer several centuries before
himself, around 850 BC. Part of the problem is that
Homer lived before a chronological dating system
was in place. The Olympic Games of classical
Greece marked an epoch, with 776 BC as a starting
point by which to measure out four-year periods
for the event. In short, it is difficult to give
someone a birth date when he was born before
there was a calendar.
Where was Homer born? - Once again, the exact
location of Homer’s birth cannot be pinpointed,
although that doesn't stop scholars from trying. It
has been identified as Ionia, Smyrna or, at any rate,
on the coast of Asia Minor or the island of Chios.
But seven cities lay claim to Homer as their native
son. (Smyrna, Athens, Ithaca, Pylos, Colophon,
Argos and Chios) There is some basis for some of
these claims, however. The dialect that The Iliad
and The Odyssey are written in is considered
Asiatic Greek, specifically Ionic. That fact, paired
with frequent mentions of local phenomena such
as strong winds blowing from the northwest from
the direction of Thrace, suggests, scholars feel, a
familiarity with that region that could only mean
Homer came from there.
The dialect helps narrow down his lifespan by
coinciding it with the development and usage of
language in general, but The Iliad and The Odyssey
were so popular that this particular dialect became
the norm for much of Greek literature going
forward.
What Was Homer Like? - Virtually every
biographical aspect ascribed to Homer is derived
entirely from his poems. Homer is thought to have
been blind, based solely on a character in The
Odyssey, a blind poet/minstrel called Demodokos.
A long disquisition on how Demodokos was
welcomed into a gathering and regaled the
audience with music and epic tales of conflict and
heroes to much praise has been interpreted as
Homer’s hint as to what his own life was like. As a
result, many busts and statues have been carved of
Homer with thick curly hair and beard and sightless
eyes.
“Homer and Sophocles saw clearly, felt keenly, and
refrained from much,” wrote Lane Cooper in The
Greek Genius and Its Influence: Select Essays and
Extracts in 1917, ascribing an emotional life to the
writer. But he wasn't the first, nor was he the last.
Countless attempts to recreate the life and
personality of the author from the content of his
epic poems have occupied writers for centuries.
What Was Homer Like? - Virtually every
biographical aspect ascribed to Homer is derived
entirely from his poems. Homer is thought to have
been blind, based solely on a character in The
Odyssey, a blind poet/minstrel called Demodokos.
A long disquisition on how Demodokos was
welcomed into a gathering and regaled the
audience with music and epic tales of conflict and
heroes to much praise has been interpreted as
Homer’s hint as to what his own life was like. As a
result, many busts and statues have been carved of
Homer with thick curly hair and beard and sightless
eyes.
“Homer and Sophocles saw clearly, felt keenly, and
refrained from much,” wrote Lane Cooper in The
Greek Genius and Its Influence: Select Essays and
Extracts in 1917, ascribing an emotional life to the
writer. But he wasn't the first, nor was he the last.
Countless attempts to recreate the life and
personality of the author from the content of his
epic poems have occupied writers for centuries.
Legacy - "Plato tells us that in his time many
believed that Homer was the educator of all
Greece. Since then, Homer’s influence has spread
far beyond the frontiers of Hellas [Greece]….”
wrote Werner Jaeger in Paideia: The Ideals of
Greek Culture. He was right. The Iliad and The
Odyssey have provided not only seeds but fertilizer
for almost all the other arts and sciences in
Western culture. For the Greeks, Homer was a SUMMARY
godfather of their national culture, chronicling its The Iliad - is an ancient Greek epic poem also
mythology and collective memory in rich rhythmic attributed to Homer. It primarily focuses on the
tales that have permeated the collective Trojan War, a conflict between the Greeks
imagination.Homer’s real life may remain a (Achaeans) and the Trojans. The central character
mystery, but the very real impact of his works is Achilles, a Greek hero known for his exceptional
continues to illuminate our world today. combat skills but also his flaws and pride. The
poem begins with the anger of Achilles, who
CHARACTERS withdraws from the war after a dispute with
The Iliad (main characters) Agamemnon, the Greek leader. The narrative
 Achilles follows the battles and events of the war, including
 Agamemnon the heroic deeds of various warriors on both sides,
 Menelaus the interventions of gods and goddesses in mortal
 Ajax affairs, and the tragic fate of Hector, the Trojan
 Diomedes prince. Throughout the epic, themes of honor,
 Odysseus glory, fate, and the consequences of war are
 Patroclus explored.
 Nestor
 Hector The Odyssey - The narrative follows the battles and
 Paris events of the war, including the heroic deeds of
 Priam various warriors on both sides, the interventions of
The Odyssey (main characters) gods and goddesses in mortal affairs, and the tragic
 Odysseus fate of Hector, the Trojan prince. Throughout the
 Telemachus epic, themes of honor, glory, fate, and the
 Penelope consequences of war are explored.
 Athena
 Zeus The connection between The Iliad and The Odyssey
 Menelaus - “The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" are two of the
most famous ancient Greek epic poems, both
SETTING attributed to the poet Homer. While they are
The Iliad - The Iliad is primarily set during the distinct works, there are several connections
Trojan War, which is believed to have taken place between them:
in the late Bronze Age (around the 12th or 13th - Shared Authorship: Both epics are traditionally
century BCE). The war was fought between the attributed to Homer, indicating a common
Greeks (Achaeans) and the Trojans. The main authorship.
setting of the Iliad is the city of Troy (also known as - Thematic Continuity: The two poems are part of
Ilium). a larger epic cycle known as the "Epic Cycle" or
The Odyssey - The Odyssey is set in the aftermath "Trojan Cycle," which includes various stories
of the Trojan War. It follows the protagonist related to the Trojan War and its aftermath. "The
Odysseus (also known as Ulysses) on his journey Iliad" focuses on the events of the Trojan War itself,
back to his homeland of Ithaca. The story spans while "The Odyssey" deals with the adventures of
several years, as Odysseus faces numerous Odysseus after the war as he tries to return home.
challenges and encounters various mythical Together, they provide a comprehensive narrative
creatures and gods. of this mythological world.
The Odyssey takes place in various locations, - Chronological Sequence: "The Iliad" precedes
including: "The Odyssey" in terms of the events they depict.
- Troy "The Iliad" covers the final year of the Trojan War,
- Aeaea while "The Odyssey" picks up after the war's
- Land of the Cyclopes conclusion and follows Odysseus' arduous journey
- The Underworld back to his homeland.
- Calypso's Island - Overlapping Characters: Several characters
- Phaeacia appear in both epics. For example, Odysseus is a
prominent character in both poems, with "The
Odyssey" being a continuation of his story from
"The Iliad." Other characters, such as Achilles and
Agamemnon, are central to "The Iliad" but are also
mentioned in passing or alluded to in "The
Odyssey."
- Similar Themes: Both epics explore themes
central to ancient Greek literature and culture,
such as heroism, honor, fate, the relationship
between mortals and gods, and the impact of war
on human lives. These themes resonate
throughout both works.
THEME
The major themes in Homer's epic poem The Iliad
are :
– revenge
– war and mortality
– love and friendship
– fate and free will
– honor
The three central themes of the Odyssey are :
– Hospitality
– Loyalty
– and Vengeance
MORAL OF THE STORY
The Iliad - The Iliad is set during the Trojan War
and primarily focuses on the hero Achilles. The
poem explores themes such as honor, glory, fate,
and the consequences of war. One of the central
moral lessons of the Iliad is the destructive nature
of excessive pride or hubris. Achilles, driven by his
pride, withdraws from battle after a dispute with
Agamemnon, causing great suffering for his fellow
Greeks. This highlights the importance of humility
and selflessness in leadership.
The Odyssey - The Odyssey, on the other hand,
follows the adventures of Odysseus as he attempts
to return home after the Trojan War. This epic
poem explores themes such as perseverance,
temptation, hospitality, and personal growth. One
of the central moral lessons in the Odyssey is the
power of perseverance and determination in
overcoming obstacles. Despite facing numerous
challenges and temptations, Odysseus remains
steadfast in his goal to return home to his family.
Oedipus Rex
AUTHOR - Sophocles (Ancient Greek Tragedian)
 Born around 496/5 BCE in Colonus, Greece.
 Came from a wealthy and aristocratic family.
 Enjoyed a quality education and cultural
exposure.
Achievements
 Wrote over 120 plays, but only seven survive
intact.
 Renowned for seven surviving masterpieces,
including "Oedipus Rex" and "Antigone."
Innovations
 Introduced the use of a third actor in Greek
theater, enriching character interactions.
 Pioneered the use of painted scenery and
props for visual enhancement.
Themes and style
 Sophocles' plays tackled intricate moral and
ethical dilemmas.
 He often examined the connection between
individuals and gods in his works.
 His plays frequently delved into the concept of
fate and the outcomes of human actions.
 Sophocles was renowned for his talent in
crafting well-rounded, multidimensional
characters.
Legacy
 Continues to be a prominent figure in theater
and literature.
 Influence seen in psychology (Oedipus
complex), philosophy, and literature.
 Innovations set the stage for future
developments in drama.
 His plays pose enduring moral and existential
questions.
CHARACTERS
 Oedipus - Oedipus, in Greek mythology, the
king of Thebes who unwittingly killed his father
and married his mother. Homer related that
Oedipus's wife and mother hanged herself
when the truth of their relationship became
known, though Oedipus apparently continued
to rule at Thebes until his death.
 Jocasta - Jocasta is mother and wife of
Oedipus. She left Oedipus to die when he was
baby after it was prophesized that he would
kill his father and marry his mother.
 Teiresias - The blind prophet of Thebes
appears in Oedipus the King and Antigone. In
 both plays, he represents the same force —
the truth rejected by a willful and proud king,
almost the personification of Fate itself.
 Sphinx - The Sphinx was a being with the head
of a woman, the body of a lioness, the wings of
an eagle and the tail of a serpent. She guarded
the entrance to the city of Thebes and would
pose a riddle to travellers who aimed to enter.
If they could not answer it, she would devour
them.
 Creon - Creon (brother in law of Oedipus) is
the round character in Oedipus Rex. He follows
the order of Oedipus and tries to find the truth
behind the murder of Laius.
 Polybus and Merope - are the gentle, childless
couple who are given the baby Oedipus to
raise as their own boy. Polybus and Merope
also happen to be the king and queen of
Corinth. They try to protect Oedipus from that
fact that he is not their biological child, but
some wandering drunkard tips him off.
SETTINGS - Oedipus Rex is set in the city-state of
Thebes in ancient Greece. Most of the action takes
place at the royal palace in Thebes
SUMMARY
Laius and Jocasta, rulers of Thebes, were expecting
a son. Upon learning from an oracle that their son
would kill Laius, they ordered a servant to abandon
the baby, Oedipus, on a mountain. Oedipus, saved
and raised by a shepherd in Corinth, learns he's
adopted. He consults the Oracle, who predicts he'll
marry his mother and kill his father. To avoid this,
he leaves Corinth, thinking his adoptive parents are
his real ones, hoping to prevent the prophecy.
Oedipus unknowingly kills his true father, King
Laius, during a chariot dispute on his way to
Thebes. He later solves the Sphinx's riddle, gaining
recognition. "What is the creature that walks on
four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and
three in the evenin?
THE SPHINX
There was a single sphinx in greek mythology, a
unique demon of destruction and bad luck A
winged lion with a woman's head The name
'sphinx' is derived from the greek sphingo, which
means "to strangle". The Sphinx throws herself off
the cliffside. Oedipus becomes King of Thebes and
marries Jocasta, his biological mother. A plague
strikes the city due to King Laius' unsolved murder.
Oedipus vows to find the killer and curses them for
causing the plague. Oedipus seeks Tiresias' help,
but Tiresias accuses him of murder. Oedipus
suspects Creon's manipulation. Jocasta dismisses
prophecies, mentioning Laius' false oracle. A
messenger reveals Oedipus' adoptive father's
death, easing one fear. Oedipus worries about
incest until learning Merope wasn't his real mother.
Discovering the truth, Oedipus curses himself,
blinds himself, and finds Jocasta dead. He laments
their fate, and their daughters are sent away.
THEME
It follows the story of King Oedipus of Thebes as he
discovers that he has unwittingly killed his own
father, Laius, and married his own mother, Jocasta.
Over the centuries, it has come to be regarded by
many as the Greek tragedy par excellence and
certainly as the summit of Sophocles'
achievements.
Free Will. Fate versus free will is the central theme
of the play. The story revolves around Oedipus'
attempt to use his own free will to escape the
prophecy given to him by the Oracle of Delphi. The
oracle prophesied that Oedipus' fate was to marry
his mother and kill his father.
MORAL LESSON
 The moral of the story of Oedipus Rex is that it
is impossible to escape one's fate. Oedipus,
the main character, is told his fate by the
Oracle of Delphi. Despite doing everything he
can to avoid it, Oedipus still ends up fulfilling
the prophecy.
 The moral of Oedipus Rex is that pride goes
before the fall. Oedipus has immense pride, so
much pride that he believes he can outsmart
the gods who prophesied, via the oracle of
Delphi, that he would kill his father and marry
his mother. When the oracle gave him this
prophecy, he decided that he would simply not
return home to Corinth, and he would avoid
his parents Polybus and Merope, so that the
oracle's words could not come true.

ENGLISH LITERATURE
Literature is the reflection of life. It mirrors the
society in which it is generated. The word literature
comes from the Latin word 'litaritura' meaning
"writing organized with letters". We classify
literature according to language, origin, historical
period, genre, and subject matter. English
literature, however, emerged with the beginning of
the history of English people. It refers to all the
literary works (novels, short stories, poems, fiction,
nonfiction, and plays) composed in English. The
earliest works of English literature mirror the life
lived by the people of that region at that specific
period.
HISTORY
The introduction and history of English literature
go side by side. You can't get the complete
introduction of English literature without going
deep down in its history. The history of English
literature initiated with the history of the English
race and kept on developing with the social
development of the nation. When we analyze the
history of English literature, we discover that it
consists of eight (8) major periods and several ages.
Each period or age of English literature is named
after the central literary figure, or the important
rulers of England, or certain literary movements.
Moreover each period or phase of English
literature has its distinct characteristics. The major
eight (8) periods in the history of English literature
are:
 The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450-
1066) - Heroic Tradition: poetry focused on
hero's bravery Elegiac Tradition: writers
mourned the passing of earlier, better times
 The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period
(1066-1500) - Popular forms of Writing:
Chronicles, Poetry, Drama, Religious and
Didactic writing.
 The Renaissance Period (1500-1660)- Trends:
Revival of learning, Rediscovery of classical
philosophy, literature and art. focus on
'Humanism' and 'Puritanism'. Major Forms of
literature: poetry and drama.
 The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798) - Trends:
Revival of classical art and culture of ancient
Greece and Rome, focus on order, accuracy,
and structure. Poetic Trends: Use of allusions,
heroic couplet and strict meter and rhyme.
Chief Contribution: The Modern Novel
 The Romantic Period (1798-1837) - Trends:
The Romantic Movement in Poetry, Gothicism
in literature. Chief Contribution: Romantic
Poetry and The Gothic Novel
 The Victorian Period ( 1837-1901) - Literary
Trends & Movements:Symbolism,
Utilitarianism, Oxford Movement, Romantic
Protestantism. Age of Prose & Novel. Main
Focus: individually, morality note, conflict
between religion and science, human beings
than nature.
 The Modern Period (1901-1945) - Literary
Trends: Dadaism, stream of consciousness,
futurism, cubism, expressionism and imagism
emerged.
 The Contemporary Period (1945-Today) -
Literary Trends: structuralism, deconstruction,
poststructuralism, postmodernism,
postcolonialism and magic realism. Main Focus:
horrors of war, genocide, life experiences,
real-life themes, alienation, transformation,
consumption & relativity of truth.
LITERARY GENRES - The four main literary genres
are poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and drama, with
each varying in style, structure, subject matter, and
the use of figurative language.
1.) Drama a play for theater told by character
dialogue (talking)
2.) Fiction a story that did not actually happen in
real life
3.) Nonfiction writing that is real and factual, or
that actually happened
4.) Poetry writing using language and sounds in
special ways to express ideas
CHARACTERISTICS
 Diversity: English literature encompasses a
wide range of genres, themes, and periods,
from classical to contemporary, reflecting the
diverse cultural and historical experiences of
the English-speaking world.
 Historical Context: Many works of English
literature are deeply rooted in the historical
and social context of their time, offering
insights into the values and beliefs of different
eras.
 Language and Style: English literature
showcases the evolution of the English
 language and the development of various
literary styles, from the poetic language of
Shakespeare to the modern prose of
contemporary authors.
 Exploration of Human Nature: Literature often
delves into the complexities of human nature,
exploring themes such as love, ambition,
morality, and the human condition.
 Imagery and Symbolism: English literature
frequently employs vivid imagery and
symbolism to convey deeper meanings and
provoke thought and emotion.
FAMOUS WRITERS AND LITERARY WORKS
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) - "Romeo and
Juliet" (1597): This tragic play tells the story of two
young lovers from feuding families, the Montagues
and Capulets, whose love ultimately leads to their
untimely deaths. "Hamlet" (1601): "Hamlet" is a
tragedy about the Prince of Denmark, Hamlet, who
seeks to avenge his father's murder by his uncle,
who has taken the throne. Charles Dickens (1812-
1870)
Charles Dickens (1812-1870) -"Great Expectations"
(1861) The novel follows the life of an orphan
named Pip and his journey from poverty to wealth,
exploring themes of social class and identity. "A
Tale of Two Cities" (1859): Set during the French
Revolution, this novel contrasts the lives of
characters in Paris and London and explores
themes of sacrifice and resurrection. Jane Austen
(1775-1817)
Jane Austen (1775-1817) - "Pride and Prejudice"
(1813) This novel focuses on the relationships and
social norms of the early 19th century in England,
particularly the love story between Elizabeth
Bennet and Mr. Darcy. "Sense and Sensibility"
(1811): It explores the contrasting personalities of
the Dashwood sisters and their experiences in love
and society. George Orwell (1903-1950)
George Orwell (1903-1950) "1984" (1949) - A
dystopian novel that explores the dangers of
totalitarianism, surveillance, and the loss of
individual freedoms. "Animal Farm" (1945): An
allegorical novella that satirizes the Russian
Revolution and the emergence of a corrupt
leadership among farm animals. Leo Tolstoy (1828-
1910)
Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) - "War and Peace" (1869):
A sprawling epic novel that follows the lives of
several Russian aristocratic families during the
Napoleonic era, exploring themes of love, war, and
historical change. "Anna Karenina" (1877): This
novel tells the tragic story of Anna Karenina, a
woman who defies societal norms to pursue an
adulterous affair. Mark Twain (1835-1910)
Mark Twain (1835-1910) - "The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn" (1884): A classic of American
literature, this novel follows the adventures of
Huck Finn and his friend Jim, a runaway slave,
along the Mississippi River, addressing themes of
race and freedom. Emily Brontë (1818-1848)
Emily Brontë (1818-1848) - "Wuthering Heights"
(1847): A Gothic novel that explores the dark and
destructive love between Heathcliff and Catherine
Earnshaw in the Yorkshire moors. F. Scott
Fitzgerald (1896-1940)
Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) - "The Great
Gatsby" (1925): A tale of decadence and
disillusionment in the Jazz Age, focusing on the
enigmatic millionaire Jay Gatsby and his obsession
with Daisy Buchanan. Gabriel García Márquez
(1927-2014)
Gabriel García Márquez (1927-2014) - "One
Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967): A magical
realist novel that chronicles the history of the
Buendía family in the fictional town of Macondo,
blending myth and reality. George Eliot (1819-1880)
George Eliot (1819-1880) - "Middlemarch" (1871):
A novel that delves into the lives and relationships
of the inhabitants of the fictional town of
Middlemarch, exploring social and political issues
of the time. These works represent just a fraction
of each author's literary contributions, but they are
among the most celebrated and enduring pieces in
the world of literature.
CONTRIBUTION TO WORLD LITERATURE
English literature has been a cornerstone,
influencing global literary traditions. Shakespeare's
plays are performed worldwide and translated into
numerous languages. The English novel,
particularly from the 18th century onward, set a
precedent for narrative storytelling. Modernist
works inspired literary experimentation in many
languages. English literature reflects diverse Type of work : Poem
cultural, social, and political perspectives, enriching Date of first publication: Around 1000 B.C
the global literary canon. Language: Anglo Saxon
Time and place written:
BEOWULF Estimate of the date of composition range
between 700-1000 A.D written in England
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
"Beowulf" is an Oldest surviving Epic poem in the THEMES
English Language. Written in the Old English, the  Heroism and Valor
language of the Saxons. It dates back to the 8th to  Good vs. Evil
11th centuries. The true identity of the author of  Fate and Destiny
"Beowulf" remains a mystery. The poem tells the  The Importance of Companionship
heroic story of Beowulf, a Geatish warrior.
MORAL LESSONS
The three races or tribes  Courage is Virtuous
1. Geats (Geatas): Beowulf's people, from  Beware of Excessive Pride
southern Sweden.  Accept the Impermanence of Life
2. Danes (Scyldings): Ruled by King Hrothgar,  Value and Shape Your Legacy
from what is now Denmark.
3. Sweons (Swedes): Closely related to the Geats,
also from southern Sweden.

CHARACTERS
 Beowulf: Heroic Geat warrior, protagonist.
 Hrothgar: Danish king seeking Beowulf's aid.
 Grendel: Malevolent monster tormenting
Danes.
 Grendel's Mother: Seeking revenge for her son
 Wiglaf: Loyal Geat warrior, Beowulf's ally.
 Unferth: Danish warrior, skeptical of Beowulf.
 Wealhtheow: Hrothgar's queen, central in
court life.

PLOT/SUMMARY
Beowulf arrives to aid Danes against Grendel. He
defeats Grendel in a mead hall battle. Grendel's
mother seeks revenge, but Beowulf kills her.
Beowulf returns to Geatland and becomes king. In
his old age, Beowulf faces a dragon threat. Beowulf
battles the dragon and is fatally wounded. He dies
and is given a grand funeral. The epic reflects on
his heroic legacy and the uncertainty of the future.

SETTING
Denmark - Most of the epic takes place in Denmark,
under King Hrothgar's rule, with Heorot as a
central location.
Geatland (Sweden) - Beowulf's homeland and
where the epic begins and ends.
Grendel's Lair - A mysterious underwater cavern
where Beowulf confronts Grendel's mother.