Name – Anshika Sharma

College – Lady Shri ram college for women.

Course – M. A. History
Assignment topic- Graeco-Roman
Historiography
Submitted to – Vijay Lakshmi mam
 Graeco– Roman Historiography

Abstract
This in-depth research paper embarks on a meticulous examination of the Graeco-Roman tradition of
historiography, spanning from the pioneering works of Herodotus to the nuanced narratives of Tacitus.
The study delves into the unique characteristics, objectives, sources, and challenges faced by ancient
historians, unravelling the evolution from theocratic history to scientific inquiry. By scrutinizing
humanistic orientations, the influence of substantialism and shifting perspectives on methodology, this
paper offers a thorough understanding of the multifaceted nature of Greco-Roman historiography.

Introduction
The Graeco-Roman tradition of historiography stands as a testament to the intellectual prowess and
diverse approaches employed by ancient historians. From the early inquiries of Herodotus to the
psychological-didactic approach of Tacitus, this paper aims to unravel the intricate tapestry of historical
thought within this rich tradition. The evolution of methodologies, philosophical tensions, and the
impact of cultural shifts will be scrutinized to illuminate the nuanced developments in Graeco-Roman
historiography.

The Roots of Greco-Roman Historiography

The word "History," derived from the Greek ‘historia, reflects the curiosity of ancient thinkers.
Herodotus, often called the father of history introduced this term, marking a shift from the less
prominent role of historiography in the 5th century BC. Before Herodotus, historiography coexisted with
epic poetry, holding a peripheral position and lacking the objectivity seen in modern times. The genre's
authority was based on the historian's intellectual abilities rather than a scientific approach. It
encompassed various forms like epic poetry, tragedy, ethnography, and biography, challenging
contemporary genre boundaries. According to Collingwood, R.G. , “ The idea of history” the four
characteristics of history: its scientific inquiry, humanistic focus on past human actions, reliance on
rationality and evidence, and its purpose to reveal human nature through past deeds. Herodotus,
considered father of history, embodies these traits by introducing the term “history” as a Greek
invention, approaching history with a humanistic perspective, emphasizing rational analysis of human
actions, and aiming to ensure the remembrance of significant deeds for posterity. Herodotus is credited
with transforming legend-writing into the science of history, marking a fifth-century literary revolution.

Herodotus(484 BC. 425 BC)

Objectivity and Authority

According to Emma Nicholson Before Herodotus, historiography relied on the intellectual capabilities of
the historian rather than objective or scientific methods. The authority of a historical account rested on
the historian's competence, leading to polemics against predecessors. Sources, ranging from eyewitness
observations to traditions and oracles, were interwoven into narratives, reflecting a reliance on the
historian's credibility preserving memories of significant events. Eyewitness observations were valued,
but other sources like tradition, religious centres, chronicles, and interviews were tapped. The
acknowledgment of conflicting versions led to strategies for resolution, as seen in Herodotus' multiple
perspectives on the history of Persian ruler Cyrus.

While warfare and battles often dominated narratives, other goals like providing full, interesting
narratives with ethnographic elements were evident, blurring the lines between reality and fantasy. The
Augustan age further emphasized the restoration of traditions, showcasing the intersection of historical
inquiry with societal values.

Thucydides' Analytical Shift

Thucydides, a contemporary of Herodotus, marked a deliberate shift towards a more analytical and
critical approach. His meticulous style, self-awareness, and reliance on evidence reflected a departure
from the earlier reliance on personal intellectual capabilities. Thucydides' reflections on sources and
attitudes towards the past demonstrated a heightened awareness of historical methodology

Thucydides (c.460 B.C.–c.400 B.C.)

 The Greco-Roman Transition: Theocratic History to Scientific
Inquiry
The Greco-Roman transition from theocratic history and myth to scientific inquiry is a noteworthy aspect
of historiography. While theocratic history focused on divine actions shaping human societies, scientific
history, pioneered by Herodotus, emphasized human actions, inquiry, and rational analysis. This
emphasis on human actions, inquiry, and rational analysis marked a departure from the divine-centric
narratives. This transition mirrored the evolving intellectual landscape of the classical world. Greek
metaphysics posed challenges to historical thought, with a preference for permanence and unchanging
entities. The ever-changing nature of historical events conflicted with this view, necessitating a departure
from traditional Greek thought. The evolution of historical inquiry represented a dynamic shift in
perspective.

Roman Historiography
Roman historiography is indebted to Greek historiography. The historiography identified with the
Romans, came from sources such as Caesar, Sallust, Livy, Tacitus, and other minor authors, owing much
to its early roots as well as the Greek predecessors. However, contrary to the Greek form, the Roman
form included various attitudes and concerns that were considered strictly Roman. The Roman style of
history was based on the way that the Annals of the Pontifex Maximus, or the Annales Maximi , were
recorded.

Quintus Fabius Pictor is known as founder of Roman historiography. Before the second Punic war
there was no historiography. The second Punic was a major event which was recorded by Pictor in Greek
and not in Latin because he wanted a larger audience. He used Olympia dating and Hellenistic approach.
His writings became the base of Roman historiography. The later historians Polybius, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, and Livy all used Fabius’ work as a source.

Quintus Fabius Pictor (c. 270 BC, fl. C. 215–200 BC)

Historiography in Roman society was popular among upper class. Almost as soon as Roman
Historians and Historiography started being used by the Romans, it split into two traditions:

1. The Annalistic tradition

2. Monographic tradition

. The authors who used the Annalistic tradition wrote histories year-by-year, from the beginning, which
was most frequently from the founding of the city, usually up until the time that they were living in.
Some annalistic authors include: Gnaeus Gellius (c. 140 BC) wrote his history from Aeneas until 146 BC.
Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (c. 133 BC) wrote trying to figure out why the Roman society had begun to
decline. His history chronicled Rome from the foundation until 154 BC, when he believed that the society
had hit its lowest point. Quintus Claudius Quadri Garius wrote that all Roman wars are just, and that the
Senate and all Roman dealings were honourable, in annalistic form. Monographs are more like the
history books that we are used to today; they are usually on a single topic, but most importantly, they do
not tell history from the beginning, and they are not even necessarily annalistic. An important
subcategory that emerged from the monographic tradition was the biography.

Polybius and Livy: Navigating the Roman Influence

Polybius, operating within the Roman context, showcased a departure from the Greek historical
consciousness. Influenced by Rome's emphasis on continuity and preservation of ancestral customs,
Polybius tackled a narrative spanning over 150 years. This departure reflected a shift towards a more
nationalistic and comprehensive historical approach. Livy, continuing in the Greco-Roman tradition,
undertook the ambitious task of composing a comprehensive history of Rome from its inception. His
work reflected a blend of historical narrative and moral purpose

Polybius, despite his utilitarian approach, couldn’t escape political biases in his narratives. Operating
within the Roman context, he faced the challenge of balancing historical accuracy with the political
expectations of his audience, particularly the influential Scipio family. While Polybius set high standards
for historical writing, his account of the Achaean League and Macedonia reveals traces of patriotism and
political bias, emphasizing the need for a nuanced interpretation of his work.

Polybius(c. 200 – c. 118 BC)

Livy’s contribution to Greco-Roman historiography is marked by his ambitious endeavour to compose a

comprehensive history of Rome from its inception. Despite his literary prowess, Livy’s approach faced
challenges. His reliance on traditional records and the uncritical acceptance of legendary elements
contributed to the integration of divine and human elements in Rome’s origin story. The Roman sense of
superiority and belief in unique virtues further shaped Livy’s narrative, reflecting the complexities of
intertwining historical inquiry with cultural identity.

Livy( 59 BC – AD 17)

Tacitus and the Psychological-Didactic Approach

Tacitus, a later contributor to Roman historiography, introduced a psychological-didactic approach.
However, this departure marked a decline in methodological rigor. Tacitus' biased perspective and
tendency to portray historical events as clashes of exaggeratedly good and bad characters compromised
historical truth. The reduction of historical events to clashes of characters demonstrated a departure
from the nuanced historical perspectives of earlier writers.

He introduced a philosophical groundwork to his narratives. However, his biased perspective,

especially favouring the senatorial opposition, raised questions about the credibility of his historical
truth. Tacitus’ reduction of historical events to clashes of characters demonstrated a departure from the
nuanced perspectives of earlier writers, highlighting the challenges faced by historians in maintaining
objectivity amidst political and philosophical

Tacitus(l. c. 56 – c. 118 CE)

Substantialism and Humanism in Greco-Roman Historiography
A significant weakness in Greco-Roman historiography was its adoption of substantialism – a
metaphysical system based on the category of substance. Collingwood, R.G. In his book “ The idea of
history talks about it. According to him this system, inherited from Greek metaphysics, posited that only
unchanging entities were knowable. The tension between historical inquiry and the metaphysical
concept of substance became evident in the works of Polybius, Livy, and Tacitus.

The Greco-Roman historians exhibited a humanistic approach by focusing on human actions, deeds,
successes, and failures. While divine agency was acknowledged, it played a limited role, with events
primarily attributed to the will of human actors. Polybius presented history not merely as a theoretical
pursuit but as a practical school for political life. Livy's emphasis on moral lessons in Rome's founding
period aimed to install virtues and uphold the foundations of Roman greatness.

Hellenistic Period and the Scissors-and-Paste Method

The Hellenistic period brought about a significant enlargement in historical outlook, driven by the
conquests of Alexander the Great. This era witnessed the adoption of Greek manners and customs by
non-Greek peoples, fostering a sense of cooperation and unity. Hellenistic historians, armed with an
imaginative connection to the past, compiled historical narratives using a “scissors-and-paste” method,
drawing from earlier historians’ works. This approach, while expanding the scope of historical inquiry,
also introduced challenges related to the reliability and critical evaluation of sources.

Greco-Roman Historiography and Style

The authors under consideration wrote for an elite, literate audience, carefully crafting each sentence
with consummate skill. Thucydides exhibited a self-conscious awareness of style. This attention to
literary craftsmanship reflects not only the commitment to historical accuracy but also an
acknowledgment of the importance of engaging and retaining the interest of the reader. The stylistic
choices made by these historians contribute to the enduring legacy of their works.

According to John Marincola,. Greek and Roman, try to Shape their audience’s perception of their
character. Roman rhetoric places a greater emphasis than Greek on character .The Belief that character
was far more important than any words spoken can be seen in Polybius when he says that” one must
measure The truth by what is known of a person’s character”. It was expected that the character most on
display in any history was that of the historian himself. Where moderns might speak of a narrator or
implied narrator, the ancients spoke of the man himself.

The other most apparent concern of these early historians was providing a detailed narrative of what
they regarded as central events. Rarely did they pause in their relentless sequencing of events to
speculate on the whys. Events were carefully located in space and time, but beyond that, there was little
obvious reflection on why a particular course of events occurred. The framing arguments occasionally
acknowledged the fickleness of human fortune, emphasizing the importance of the human agent in
historical developments.

Greco-Roman Tradition and the Oral Tradition

It is essential to recognize that the works of these historians were not only written for an elite audience
but might have also been disseminated orally. The oral tradition, rooted in epic poetry, continued to
influence historiography, contributing to the blending of genres and the fluidity of historical narratives.
The interaction between written and oral forms of historical transmission added layers of complexity to
the reception and interpretation of historical accounts.

The Historical Consciousness and the Greek Mind-set

The Greek historical consciousness, while not meeting modern scientific standards, held immense value
for them. Plato’s emphasis on right opinion as akin to perception highlighted the Greeks’ belief in the
power of humans to control their destiny. The recognition of fate as a destructive force stemmed from
human blindness to its workings, emphasizing the importance of acquiring right opinions. This
perspective influenced not only historical thought but also broader philosophical discussions on the
nature of knowledge and perception. Emma Nicholson ,in his article “The Nature of Ancient Greek
Historiography and Bias within Polybius ’Histories”, says “ The past held a very important place within the
mind-set of the Ancient Greeks, yet the narration of that past, especially in terms of recording it with any
Degree of accuracy, occupied a much more modest position”

Conclusion
The Greco-Roman tradition of historiography underwent a transformative journey, complex interplay of
intellectual, cultural, and political factors shaping the foundations of historical thought. From the vivid
narratives of Herodotus to the analytical approach of Thucydides, Polybius, Livy, and Tacitus, the
evolution reflects not only cultural and philosophical shifts but also an expanding historical
consciousness. Despite challenges posed by Greek metaphysics, these historians contributed to a rich
tapestry of inquiry, laying the groundwork for the development of history as a discipline in subsequent
centuries. The challenges posed by political biases, the adoption of substantialism, and the continuous
negotiation between tradition and innovation shaped the narrative structure and perspectives of these
ancient historians. This critical analysis sheds light on the intricate interplay between philosophical
frameworks and historical narratives in the Greco-Roman tradition of historiography emphasizing its
lasting impact on the understanding of human history.
Bibliography
1.Collingwood, R.G. (1994). The Idea of History. New York: Oxford University
Press., pp. 14-45, (‘Greco-Roman Historiography’).
2.Marincola, John. (1997). Authority and Traditions in Ancient Historiography,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 128-216.
3.Nicholoson, Emma Lousie. (Conference Paper). “The nature of Ancient Greek
Historiography and bias with Polybius Histories”
4. https://testbook.com/amp/ugc-net-history/greek-historiography.
5. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/44443/1/Unit-5.pdf