Ia.
This passage is from John Locke's "Two Treatises of Government," and it discusses the concept
of the state of nature and the origins of political power. Here's a breakdown of the key points:
1. State of Nature: Locke begins by describing the "state of nature." In this state, all people
have complete freedom to control their actions, possessions, and bodies. They are not subject
to the will of any other person. Everyone is equal, and no one has more power or authority
than another.
2. Equality: Locke emphasizes the natural equality of all individuals. Since they are created by
the same omnipotent and wise maker, share similar faculties, and are meant to fulfill their
roles in the world, there should be no inherent subordination or domination of one person
over another.
3. Law of Nature: Locke introduces the concept of the "law of nature." This law, guided by
reason, teaches that people should not harm each other in their life, health, liberty, or
possessions. It is the foundation for mutual love and duties toward one another.
4. Limitations on Liberty: While individuals in the state of nature have liberty, it is not absolute
license. People cannot use their liberty to harm themselves or others unless there's a greater
purpose than mere self-preservation.
5. Preservation of Others: In the state of nature, individuals should, as much as possible, not
only protect themselves but also ensure the well-being of others unless it comes into conflict
with their self-preservation. This means they should not harm others and should protect their
life, liberty, health, and property.
6. Punishment and Execution of the Law: To uphold the law of nature, individuals in the state
of nature have the right to punish those who violate it. This punishment should be
proportionate to the transgression and serve the purposes of reparation and restraint. It is not
an arbitrary exercise of power but should be guided by calm reason and conscience.
7. Execution of the Law of Nature: In the state of nature, it is the duty of every individual to
execute the law of nature. This is necessary to maintain peace, preserve the innocent, and
restrain offenders. Each person has the right to punish wrongdoers, and this right is rooted in
the need for mutual security and the preservation of mankind.
In simpler terms, John Locke's text discusses the state of nature, a state of perfect freedom and
equality where people are guided by the law of nature and have the right to protect
themselves and others. This includes the right to punish those who violate the law of nature to
maintain peace and security. This concept is foundational for understanding political power
and its origins.
Ib.
In this passage from John Locke's "The Second Treatise of Government," Locke discusses the concept of
the state of nature and the origins of political power. Let's break it down:
1. The State of Nature: Locke begins by talking about the "state of nature." In this state, individuals are
free and equal. They have the liberty to govern themselves and their possessions without relying on the
will of others. No one has more power than another in this natural state.
2. Punishing Offenses: Locke argues that in this state, everyone has the power to punish offenses against
the law of nature as they see fit, based on their judgment of what is right and reasonable. In other words,
they have the executive power of the law of nature.
3. Right to Seek Reparation: When someone harms another person, the injured party has not only the
right to punish the offender but also the right to seek reparation for the harm they've suffered.
4. Authority of Magistrates: Locke explains that in civil society (as opposed to the state of nature),
magistrates or governing authorities have the common right to punish offenders to maintain order and
prevent crimes. They can sometimes remit punishment for the common good. However, they cannot
remit the right of an injured individual to seek reparation.
5. The Right of Self-Defense and the Right of Punishment: Locke emphasizes that the right to punish is
based on the principle of self-defense, protecting oneself from harm. The offender has essentially
declared "war" against all of humanity through their unjust actions, so others have the right to punish
them. This is the foundation for the principle, "Whoever sheds man's blood, by man shall his blood be
shed."
6. Punishment for Lesser Offenses: Locke also notes that even lesser breaches of the law of nature can be
punished in the state of nature, proportionate to the offense. The goal is to discourage offenders, make
them repent, and deter others from committing similar offenses.
7. Government as a Remedy: Locke acknowledges that civil government is the remedy for the
inconveniences of the state of nature. While self-preservation and self-interest might lead individuals to
be partial or extreme in their judgments, government can restrain such behavior. However, Locke also
raises questions about absolute monarchies, where rulers have unchecked power.
8. The Reality of the State of Nature: Locke argues that since independent governments around the world
operate in a state of nature, it is clear that there have always been and will always be individuals in the
state of nature.
9. State of Nature as the Default: Locke further asserts that everyone is naturally in the state of nature
and remains so until they voluntarily join a political society. He believes that the state of nature is the
default human condition.
In simple terms, Locke is discussing the natural state of freedom and equality where individuals have the
right to protect themselves, punish offenders, and seek reparation for harms. He also highlights the
importance of government as a means to address the potential problems of individuals being judges in
their own cases, although he raises concerns about oppressive forms of government. According to Locke,
all people are naturally in the state of nature until they choose to form political societies.
II.
In this section of John Locke's "The Second Treatise of Government," Locke discusses the
concept of property and how individuals come to own things. Here's a breakdown of his
ideas:
1. Common Ownership: Locke starts by acknowledging that according to both natural
reason and religious revelation, the Earth was given to mankind in common. In other
words, everything on Earth was provided by God for the benefit of all humans.
2. Ownership through Labor: Locke argues that even though all the fruits of the Earth and
animals in their natural state are common property (belonging to everyone), people can
acquire property rights through their labor. He uses the example of a wild Indian who
hunts for food; once they catch an animal, it becomes their property because they have
mixed their labor with it.
3. Labor Mixes with Nature: The act of an individual removing something from its natural
state and adding their labor to it makes that thing their property. This process
distinguishes it from the common state and excludes others from claiming it. It's this labor
mixing with nature that starts the concept of property.
4. Ownership Timeline: Locke raises questions about when this appropriation happens. Is
it when someone first gathers something, eats it, cooks it, brings it home, or picks it up?
He argues that it occurs at the point when an individual removes an item from the
common state, typically by collecting or gathering it.
5. Consent and Property: Locke counters the argument that property requires the explicit
consent of all commoners. He points out that without this natural process of individuals
appropriating resources through their labor, the concept of common property wouldn't
function effectively.
6. Property Example: Locke provides an example of this principle in action. If someone
gathers acorns or apples in the wild to nourish themselves, they have effectively made
these resources their property through the act of gathering, which is a form of labor.
In simple terms, Locke argues that while the Earth and its resources are initially held in
common by all, individuals can acquire property rights through their labor. This is based on
the idea that labor adds value to natural resources and that taking something out of its
original common state, even without the consent of others, is the basis for establishing
ownership. So, property rights are not solely dependent on unanimous agreement but are
created through an individual's labor.
III.
John Locke, in this part of his work, talks about the formation of political societies
and how individuals transition from a state of nature to living in a civil society.
Here's a simplified explanation:
1. Natural Freedom: Locke begins by reminding us that all human beings are
naturally born free, equal, and independent. This means that nobody has a right
to rule over another person without their consent.
2. Transition to Civil Society: To leave this state of nature and come together to
form a civil society, people need to agree with one another to create a
community. This agreement is based on the idea that they can live together more
comfortably, safely, and peacefully as a group, ensuring the protection of their
property.
3. Majority Rule: Once a group of individuals has agreed to form a community or
government, they become a single political entity. The majority within this
community has the power to make decisions and pass laws. In other words, the
will of the majority determines the actions and rules of the entire society.
4. Individual Consent: By becoming part of this community, every individual
agrees to be bound by the decisions and rules made by the majority. If they didn't
agree with this arrangement, they wouldn't have joined the community in the first
place.
5. Practical Necessity: Locke argues that without such an arrangement, where the
majority's decisions hold, a civil society would fall apart. Individual agreements for
every action or decision would be impractical and make any collective action
impossible.
In simple terms, Locke suggests that when people form a community and enter
into a civil society, they agree to be bound by the decisions of the majority. This
collective decision-making helps ensure a functioning and orderly society. Without
such a system, practical cooperation among individuals would be nearly
impossible.