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    Physics Practical

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    yimisa2927

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    Chopter 3 OHM'S LAW EX PVEIR | MEN T [am To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current. [Arraratus AND MATERIALS REQUIRED Two resistance wires (of constantan and nichrome and of about 1 m lengtin), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a milliammeter (0-500 mA), a low resistance rheostat, two dry cells (or a battery eliminator), plug key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, screw gauge and a metre scale. [eon According to Ohm's law, the current / flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference V applied across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature and pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged, Vel or V=IR or R-¥ I where Ris the resistance of the conductor. Obviously, the graph between the current Land the applied voltage V will be a straight line passing through the origin _— = Slope of I-V graph But theresistance R of a wire of length |, area of cross-section Aand specific resistance p is given by where ris the mean radius of the wire. © Specific resistance, p= Larcurr oucram Fig. 3.1 Circuit to study I-V relationship Fig, 3.2 Assembly circuit diagram, for a resistance wire, wm te wire [Lproceou cctance of the et 5 rre resistance nn in Fig. 9° +} a Toe lg a5 sho" (conetantan wite) and Z (ee ie, : s th Fig, 3.2 tp 4, Draw 2 jstance Wires # sin accordance with Fig. two resi ing table # 2, Let us be rats ‘on the ee af he connecting WiTes with the help of sand pa. Ce tion from the ends d tight connections as shown in f MB, insula! neat ant 3, Remove Re K and make Sox with a milliammeter mA, the key Ké din ser ove the lg HOM TT ire Ais connect Tg voltmeter V is joined in parale Te resistance eae & wet Jow resistance aa Pe eccar and the po le een connectey se see that the postive FFT ary and the rheast connected through sop. the patie tering ofits ower eon at the other end ste a Teast counts of the milliammeter and the voltmeter. fy ecard He Tang 474 07 ameter andthe voltmeter 2°60 BE eo morkithe oe goincide with the zero mark by aéjus 7, Note that the pointer adjust their pointers Hh: bage of the Front penal vein © scr pero errors of the milliammeter and voltmeter the sliding contact of the theostat at one ate f, Insert the plug in the Dr hi see connection of the rheostat has been mas away from oe ar current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly adjusting the ee oo that the pointer of the milliamme’er lies exactly on same marking graduated scale and notin between 70 markings. Note the readings of the volimet the ammeter. 49, Now increase the current in steps Dy adi i step note the readings of the vollmeter and the milliami serrations Note that the pug inthe Rey is inserted only atthe time of taking a reading sh the resistance wire does not get heated. ew driver. Even then ify the screw provi error persists, note the sting the sliding contact of the rheostat andine meter for at least six-sets of sud (b) To measure length of the resistance wire : Experimental wire 40. Mark sharp marks on the resistance wire at ; the points where it just comes out of the ¥ binding terminals. Measure the length | of i the wire between these two marks with a ' ' metre scale, keepit i ping the wire fully stretched. 3g, 5.5 To measure lenath of a resistance wie (0) To measure diameter of the resistance wire : 11, Find the pi ae alae, ee of the screw gauge. Determine its n 7 eee pele e resistance wire with screw gauge at g bit ie wire and that also in tw: 1 ‘ Perpendicular directions aq’ and bb’, as shown in Fi oo . Find mean corrected diameter an observed diameter. ‘14, Repeat all the above observations f i fn ares : for second wire B. Record observations in a tabular form, by applying zero correction to the ————- ¥ OlM’S LAW A. For determination of resistances of wires A and B Range of voltmeter= to V Range of milliammeter=____to___s mA Least count of voltmeter = v Least count of milliammeter =_____s mA Zero error for voltmeter, ¢, = Vv Zero correction for voltmeter, c, =-e, =__A Zero error for milliammeter, ¢, mA Zero correction for milliammeter, c, =-e, =_ mA Least count of metre scale = _cm Length of the resistance wire, |=___cm Table 3.1 ; Voltmeter and milliammeter readings | Wottmeter reading V(¥) | _—_Milliammeter reading 1 (mA) _ SNo. | observed ¥, oe Observed I’, ie l 7 t Wire A 2 3. 1 Wire B 2 3. Choosing suitable scales, plot current-voltage graphs by taking corrected values of V along X-axis and corrected values of | along Y-axis for both wires A and 8. We obtain straight line graphs passing through the origin, as shown in Fig. 35 and 3.6, respectively. From V-1 graph for wire A Slope of the graph 4 paveac. Mach zy ey (h,-1,)x103A = Q Fig. 3.5 Graph between current J and potential difference V for wire A. hopter 3. OM'S LAW For wite B: Mean observed diameter, dy = om Mean corrected diameter, d=d,sc~ cm Mean radius of the resistance wire, r=. em = m piemumeeeanea ot Wemstenalotthe wire, pe 2t™™ Gn Standard value from the lable of specific resistances, py =__Om % Error =P Posy) Po [sesuir 1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference across its ends. 2. Specific resistance of wire A=___ Om 3. Specific resistance of wire B= m [precautions 1, All the connections should be neat and tight 2 The ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper. 4. The resistance wire should be wound on a card-board strip (~3 cm x 6 cm) so that two distant points on it may not get short-circuited A Aruneler should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel withthe circuit. The pointers of the ammeter and the voltmeter should be adjusted for zero devlection when no current passes through them. 1Fit is not possible, then zero corrections should be determined for the two meters, $+ Always connect the positive terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal of the battery, so that current enters at a #ve terminal and leaves at a -ve terminal 6. Use a low resistance rheostat to change the current and not a resistance box as smooth variation of current is Possible only with a rheostat and not with a resistance box. 7. The ammeter and voltmeter used should be of suitable range. For low currents, a milliammeter should be used Current should be passed fora short time only while taking a set of readings, otherwise the resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating, 9. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies outside the binding terminals, 30, ds the diameter of the wire is a small quantity and its second power occurs in the expression for specific resistance, it should be measured accurately at a number of places along the Jength of the wire and that also along two mutually perpendicular directiens [sources ‘OF ERROR 1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section 2 Resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating. $ There may be an erzor in the measurement of length [if the wire isnot taut or itis not along the scale in the metre bridge 4. There may be an error in the measurement of radius of the wire due to backlash error in the screw gauge. MANU - resistances have Ben cone = nts Aand B therefore, poteninr” connected ye same tWO PO" " ances are the the ees each of them. By Ohms i, renter of rene ge su IME yi sae a On vidual resistances yy since all the ald, ‘when @ eae quent resistance currents through 1 a F individual resistance 44 shows (h ee. 1, * = Parallel. Figure “ lel 2 R R. Resistancet in Faraley aes 1 2 ; resistances Ry Lan at ¥ be the poten! i R, is the equivalent resistance of the p, between points ne combination. Fs fe must have alg difference applied actor es combination, ey R, ia l=ht+hth or or ‘Thus, when a number of resistances are cone, paral, the reciprocal ofthe equioalent resstnce 9 rael combination is equal to the sum of the reciproc the individual resistances. Teh +ht+h sail (EXPERIMENT Law ; ii rr me [Lprpararus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance wire about 1m long, (of material ix resistance is to be determined), resistance box, a dry cell (or a battery eliminator), plug ke) jockey, connecting wires, sand paper and a screw gauge. Linton With the known resistance Pin the left i 3 gap and the unknown resistance Sin the right gap 0! metre bridge, suppose the null point Bis obtained at a distance of | cm from the left end By Principle of Wheatstone bridge, aR a8 & Seetatis ote ABR Resistance of wire BC § i. eR ques Resistance « Length of "" Chopter 4» METRE BRIDGE Larcurr DIAGRAMS Galvanometer (Sf Fig, 4.5 Measurement of resistance by 2 metre bridge Lrroceou RE 1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a), 2, Assemble the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig, 4.5(b), 3, Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist. 4. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance $ across the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points Band D, Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug key K. This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig, 4.5(0). 5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box RB. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the Tight end C of the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. If there is one-sided deflection, check up the circuit again, particularly the continuity of the junctions. yar PHYSICS AB MAN tance box so that when the jockey is n., eer ere is no deflec from the Tes! visions), ther n lection nce B romen 30-70 m divi glia wales Ale F the null point B from the ol tion : istance box ma Fe ind ite asflactton gets out of senle, 2 shu from introduced , wth na : through the gotoanomnete™ a, valoanometer for obtaining a p - ° s oi ct balance poin' Se Tae Sa Tr oraining te exact Balance P a changing slightly the value of resistan. - n divisions. ogc jes between 30 - 70 cm division ye 7. Repeat the experimen taking care 8, Record all the observations ! LLosservarions AND CALCULATIONS Table 4.1: Resistan na tabular form. ce of the given wire a LengthBC = (100-1) (em) Mean value of S=___ [assur Resistance of the given wire = ce [ erecautions 1. All the connections should be neat and tight. 2, The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting | 3, The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage te uniformity of the metre bridge wire. 4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire am reverse order should be followed at the time of break. " a the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire. current iT ‘i ee eeu ge bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essen 7. The known resistance R ; Maer ene see always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the nul por 8. The galvanometer shou (aoa ees Ree a Tow resistance wire toavoid excessive cure! 4 m: en the brid i ust be removed while getting the exact balance GA ge is not balanced. The shunt mu [ sources oF Error 1. The bridge wire ma ay not be if * oe ection along its entire length hopter 4. METRE BRIDGE ry 2. End corrections. The resistance offered by the copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire \ are called ond resistances, errors due to these resistances are called end errors and corrections are ‘end corrections. To avoid this error, the balance point should be obtained near the midpoint of called tances Rand & the wire. This error can be totally eliminated by interchanging positions of resis 3, Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes. 4. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a serew driver. me He « al EXPERIMENT Jam “To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge. [Larraratus ano Materiat ReguineD ‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two resistance coils R, and R,),a resistance box, ajockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper Lory (@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the unknown resistance $(R, or R, or series combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the metre bridge, suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance / cm from the left end, then the unknown resistance is given by s(t) (@) Law of series combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in series, their equivalent resistance R, is given by: R, = R, + R, Lircurr piacram € “ fo R | t Si per anne ate sn Pe asc ? a0 ms Jockey | u Co if ae a Ls Fig, 4.6 Circuit to study law of resistances in series, ap Mal i 46 and ass as shown i Fi : ingly’ working table 6 ve RB. across HE jeft gap #2 ‘connect a jockey anda s the points 4 an the points Band D pee et ne resist the jockey @' from the resistance pox RB. in sud ‘AC Note the gets of observations BY SU across the right 6@P aby sets of observations for Te 6 Now connect both the and R, in seri across the right gap 4b that the effective length Mat at the point where the {WO wires are j ‘unchanged. This means ve the ends that were ingerted into the of observations twisted together. Take three sets 4, Record your all observations in a tabular form. [Losscrvations AND CALCULATIONS Table 4.2 : For determining resist sistance R,. ances R,, R, and R, the omnton 2 ist res tthe left end Aand then a4 at prose Mwo cases should be in opposite direc te sa way that the balance p, ie yas cl the resistance R and un ightly changing teas cemble the required apparaty 8 Ont nd the unknown resistance R, nitive galvanometer ben .d C through plug k ae ance R from the resistance, in place of resistance Ry. Obtain es (end to end), as shown in Fig, 4 each resistance wire rei ing joined end to end, th pinding terminals in steps 5 and 6 shou for the null point of this tel * Length Length AB=1 | BC =(100-1) ; (cm) (em) ree Ae 3. R=_ a & 2, 3. Ry and | 1 : a in series |_ 3. 2 Experimental vahi i ie of series combination of resistances R . = Q Theoretical value of seri nati ies combination of resistances R! =R, +R Bae wot ait hopter 4 METRE BRIDGE [parcauions 4. All the connections should be neat and tight 2, The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting, them. 43. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the uniformity of the metre bridge wire 4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and reverse order should be followed at the time of break '5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire. 6 The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential for getting a null point 7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point between 30-70 cm divisions. 8 The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and hhence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be removed while getting the exact null point 9, Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires R, and R, are used for determining R, as have been used for determining R, and R, individually. [ sources oF Error 1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length 2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire 3 Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their resistances may change. 4. The effective lengths of the resistance wires used while measuring R, may not be exactly same as those used while measuring R, and R, individually ra YF va — EXPERIMENT of resistances using a metre bridge. Larparatus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED. A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two ‘resistance coils R, and R,),a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. (@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the resistance $(R, or R, or parallel combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the a. veg waite? multimeter is an instrument designed to measure a the currents, potential difference and senate over several FAN ges phat i another name for multimeter? ‘avo meter because itis used to measure amperes, volisand ohms. why does the 20 We seale Hie at extreme High whl the eros of curtont and voltage scales afoxteome let? ‘This is because when resistance is minimum, current jgmaximum and the pointer lies at the extreme right. 4 Can the mensurement of de voltage/current be done (deqacvellage/current anction ? Justify your answer We can measure de on ac setting, The rectifier in the ‘multimeter converts ac into de. However, de will be ‘ero ifthe polarity is reversed Thediyisions of currentaind volta shaw whereas those of resistance jn size for higher yalues of resistance. Why ‘An ohmmeter measures resistance by measuring the ‘current through the resistor when a known voltage is Since resistance = voltage/current, so ohms ‘ue inversely proportional to current, That is why the | ghauneter seale is non-linear that senses the current. ale goon decreasing ABCa lel Te Y. Jan . While measuring feststance why di inte 1. Why is the adjustment of » Section A : ACTIVITIES deflect ever when. ni mr mi connected to the multimet When 0 multimeter is set in resistance measuring mode, a battery of 3 V gets connected within the multimeter which sends the current through the coil and deflects the pointer. measuring resistance by a multimeter When the metal ends of the multimeter leads are touched, the multimeter should show zero resistance. Ifit is not so, then its pointer is adjusted to zero using ‘zero Adj knob’ on the multimeter. If it is not done the resistance measurements are not reliable, How can we check the continuity of any component by using multimeter We ean check the continuity of any component by measuring its resistance using multimeter. An infinite resistance across the two ends of a component indicates a discontinuity. A very low resistance (< 0.19) between the two ends of the component indicates that the component has a short-circuit E. Fowsehold eiroult comprising three builbe, three on/off switches, a fuse source, [arrararus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three on/off switches, a socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible connecting wires, main switch. [tirory 1. Ahousehold circuit works on ac mains of 220 V, 50 Hz. From the mains we get two supplies of different current ratings » (Light tine of 5 A for low power appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans, fluorescent tubes, ete. (i) Power line of 15 A for heavy duty appliances like room heater, aif conditioner, geysers, hot plates, ete. iii 4 “5 ve currents, a fuse of r vn the mais E cure 1 to excess 0 ec apanss damage os ormected in series with the live wire To protect the ly drawn nor ; higher than en live and neutral wires, Bac a re of powet in peal ere E app e wi res any Yeakage of current t0 the metalic ar the earth wire (zer0 volt) and the as Jicircurr Diacram i Gr a Earth Neutral wire _} wire diagram for household appliances. TJ, Les lens ee gO om pe Fig, 8 Greuit [LProcepure 4. As shown in Fig. 8, connect the three bulbs B,, B, and B; separately in series combina as aaiott switches, Sy and S, respectively. +. Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral vires 4, Connect a fuse F of proper rating in the live wire of the circuit 4, Connect a thee way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from is earth pin. 5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board. 6 By pressing the switches 5,5, and S, one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and cif independently ofthe other. 7, Press the three switches simultaneously and note what happens. [Lconcwusions 4. Each bulb functions independently of the other through a separate switch. 2. The three bulbs can function simultaneously with the installed fuse safely. [precautions 1. The rating of the requit ‘ en is icin must be determined carefully by calculating the maxim 2, Never use safety fuse of ; Never use allt fuse of mich higher rating than the current normally drawn fom 3, The safety fuse and the on/ off swi a: 4, Take care while working with nee must be connected in live wire. Section A» ACTIVITIES Pa aplstn ces aa heusttold trey aro afferent OF When a large number of appliances are switched on 7 > $F in parallel to one another nia oenete He wultaneously and they draw more current from the ip sach appa” 5 the same constant voltage. mains than the safety limit, then this is known as Faneeeanfunetionindependently, fone overloading, This causes heating of live wires and Cae te is switched off, other remains unaffected, may damage the appliances, This can be avoided by cio safety measures used in electric circuits g RC ca ae ae ree @ mr 6 What is an electric fuse 7 What role does i and appiianes® N dl ‘and (ii) Electric fuse. Sea carn emthing: TU aL el 4 nn Electric fuse is a safety device to protect an electri ky et cree from overloading and shorl-cireuiting. It i8 2 geese) 1) t piece of wire of a material of low melting point (pure ring of an appliance means connecting the tin or tin-copper alloy) which is connected to the live je body of a high powered appliance to the Wire in the circuit. When an excessive current flows, Pik a salety measure which encures any the fuse melts and the circuit is broken iesegeloe cument to the metalic bady of the 7, What is fuse rating 7 Why should a fuse of proper applies Reepeits potential equal o that ofthe earth rating, be use a fees vol) and the user may not get a severe shock ‘The maximum safe current allowed to pass through a 4g Whats short-cireulting in. supply line ? fuse before it melts is called fuse rating, A fuse of Pie defective or damaged witing the live and Proper rating should be used in 2 1% uit, Ifa fuse of higher rating is used, it will not blow and will not protect the circuit. Ifa fuse of lower rating is used, it ‘will blow before the circuit is fully loaded, eata wires come in direct contact, the resistance of fe areuit becomes zero and a large current flows the circuit, This is called short-circuiting, It Tid Uprttl live wires ond’ may damage the | 8 What is the function of main switch in dom It can be prevented by using an electric Why rating: be used ? thould a fuse of prope The maximum safe current allowed to pass through a fuse before it meits is called fuse rating, A fuse of Proper rating should be used in a circuit. Ifa fuse of higher rating is used, it will not blow and will not Protect the circuit: Ifa fuse of lower rating is used, it ‘will blow before the circuit is fully loaded, cites ? ‘The main switch is used to switch off the main supply required at the time of repairing or any other emergency. ients of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm's law circuit used A resistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a voltmeter (0-5 V), a battery/battery eliminator, one-way key, theostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Lion For assembling, the components of any circuit, it is advisable to connect the components in the following order, 7 1. Source of power (battery/battery eliminator). 2. Plug key (near the battery). 3. Resistors, bulbs, inductors or any other load (to be connected end to end). Section A ACES ACTivity [om ' ‘To study the variation in potential, 7 drop with length of a wire for a steady current. pores AND MATERIAL REQUIRED. ‘A potentiometer, a battery of three di ry cells/battery 2A), plug key, jacket, alow resistonce sheer’ A eee Vis ane connecting wires and a piece of sand paper [ror ee iia eae Sagat Principle that ia constant caret flows through a wire of ition, yagh a wire of uniform directly proportional to the length | the potential drop V across any length | of the wire is VEIN OVE or k=. : 1 Here k is the potential drop per unit length and is called potential gradient Jorcur DIAGRAM Fig, 10 Cixcuit to study variation in potential drop with length. [ proceoure 1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 10 and arrange the required apparatus accordingly on the working table. 2 Connect the positive terminal of the battery 1 the end A (zero length) of the potenometet wire and negative terminal to the end B (400 cm length), through a plug key K, ammeter A and low resistance rheostat Rh. 3. Now connec the positive terminal ofvollmeter Vo the end Aof the potentiometer wire and ite negative terminal tothe jockey J which can slide along the wire AB 4 Note that he poner oft wolimelrewttiezero marcwfien 7 caret is peso SATE aoe ee Pot past ite pointer withthe help of readjustment even provided on is (Fon panel. 5, Insert the plug in the key Kand press the jockey J atthe extreme end Bot the posentomle: vrine_ Adjust the sliding contact ofthe rheosta 0 that voles shows full scale deflection. Lap MANUAL pHysicS-XI! how zero deflection 6. Now press the jockey at point arthe voltmeter will sh 7. Now press tne ock x 40 cm (Fmt ee ame corresponding readi 1 Sie Sr oe 1022 ON 1 Aand note the potential drop ¥ ine at the anuneter nonnen fonstant throughout Record oll Your abeervations in a tabular form Feading 4 | 9, Calculate potential gradient & =V/Lfor each observation. m, [osseavations anP CALCULATIONS ange of the voltmeter =0 1° ——~ vi aatersnr onthe volsoeter = —— Range of the ammeter =0 0 —— Ai Least count of the ammeter = —— A Steady current in the ammeter = ——— A ee in potential drop with length gan | 22a oF ee 1 oe | Potential gradient L 0 Won) a 40 ms 80 s 120 5 160 S 200 z 240 | | & 280 | 9. a 10. a 1, és Mean value of k=___ Vem I PLOTTING GRAPH Chater el oosing guitable scales, plot straight line graph is ae . a ofV cou Wy cu ws shown in Fig, 11. axis and | along Xs Pokenkial gradient =Slope of V:I graph V,-Y; oF Potetaldidp V (val) > ee rssun ‘Mean value of 2 Vis. [graph is straight line which again shows that V xl Value of potential gradient from the 8taph, k= Van? [prcautions 1, ll connections should be neat, clean and tight Peete inal of He anstiary battery shoutd be carwecied 10 wre of the potentiometer wire Se ee Mette! Prseine trrongh the pocentiometer wire must remain aig on acer in the uxilany creat de ee shanges, it should be readjusted with the help of the low resistance accuse 4 Zero erro, if any, in the voltmeter and ammeter should be eliminated by adjust the sc provided at the front panel, resistance of the potentiometer wire. & Do not drag the jockey along the wire while moving it from one point to another. It should be pressed gently at different positions of the wire. [sources OF ERROR 1. The area of cross-section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform. 2. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may chanye due to heating 3. Voltmeter readings may not be accurate. ‘Se viva voce questions based on potentiometer on pages 61 and 62. 107 rsics-X ap MANUAL Ll nee muy. greit comorising at least aa oper meter. Mark the components that are not ee ad ee tert and circuit diagram 3 a battery, PIVB key, resistor, theostat, ammee, sing at leas Pres and a pacce OF sand paper ae tis functional only if all the componen Functional cleric oon ssouring that all lrcuit components/devices are = i. in proper der key all components sats the property of continsty . Open electrial cient. An open Iga micans there toa break in 20m part of the circuit. This | ‘preak may be either deliberate such as a Key left in open position or & fault such as broken wire, t shows discontinuity for onecr | ‘more component [crcurr Discrams ——_—e — | ——_@ Some open circuit diagrams ef gs ¥ | are given in Fig. 12 Students are advised to aa a mark the components g which are not connected in proper order. Then draw Rk iy correct circuit diagrams i —— ew and assemble the circuit accordingly by connecting components in 3 order in each case. " —_—_@-_} ; 7 uaa a Re | rs = J aye “ti ae : @) Hig. 12 Some open circuits. —— Section A: ACTIVITES ouRE 1, Draw the given circuit diagram (see Fig. 12 , Inthe above diagram, mark the components 3, Make alist ofall components in the observaticy against each component Weion able and mark (¥) in appropriate column ye ()] in your notebook which have not been connected in Proper order. 4, Now draw the correct circuit diagram. ions of circuit components. Mark a (¥) in appropriate column Battery Resistor Rheostat, Key Ammeter Voltmeter | sm Gireuit component | Correct connection | tneonrect connection | 2 3. 4 5. 6 For example, in given circuit diagram of Fig, 12(b), voltmeter has been wrongly connected. To measure resistance R, it must be connected in parallel with R. Now students should draw the correct circuit diagram. [resurr The cireuit assembled by connecting components in proper order is functionally correct as verified by passing current through it. [precautions 1. Before making the connections, ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with a piece of sand paper. 2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter in pasallc! with it. 2 3. The positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive ‘terminal of the battery. 5 y 4 Rheostat should be connected in the circuit using its one end terminal and the other variable terminal. ' gS The plug key should be kept open throughout. It should be closed only st the time of checking the continuity of the circuit. acts OF ERROR sr ‘The uprights may not be vertical 2 Parallax might not have been removed coyey, Errors may occur in the result if the top of the o ee fs cles and te Pole oy a tical bench is Soncave mirror are not at the same EXPERIMENT [a™ “fo find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens, ‘ApparATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED An optical bench with four uprights (for holding lens, mirror and ftv ri needles), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, two optical needles, a knitting needle and a halt Metre scale, EAE PeIAF of 0 conver lens [0 real, inverted and magn cd image 1 between the To locate the point C, the convex mirror is removed without disturbing the positions of object O and lens L An image needle is placed at the position of image of ‘object O, formed by the convex lens and parallax is removed between the image of object O and image needle. oo ae a Lev DIAGRAMS 9.6.16 Image formed by (0) convex mirror and convex ‘rsinage 1’ coincides with the (tfc AB (b) convex lens-image ‘Sinverted and magnified. [ proceourt ole 6 of the e of the sun or focal lent sharp imaB 2 dlotany To find the 008 OO Oye ight hand omecboot) vm | | 1. Hold the conve™ f your practice e with a half sharp image metre scale, ¥ con a wall (oF at Jens and the fonvex Hens The the ale eee focal enh of Cauca v gives a rove? gost anny bet Yor I the image he = ; pene poth conve® Jens and convex mirror To locate image obtained ly on te worKiNS table ee vex mirror Min three separate uprights on, mathe convex lens Lis greater ae the bench hy 3, Place the optical Jens Land the com) he needle © £0 mmedle 0, optical centre O of lens Land the pole P Mat the same heieht «it necessary, 20 that areal neil 0 nee real inverted s Now ie poston mir msi nile self. Remove the parallax pi ‘erie O and its inverted image by adjusting the position of mirror M. Note tig w is aeatt eaves « ‘Mon the optical bench. ‘To locate the image oblained bY using conver 6 Remove the mirror upright altogether without Mount the second needle Tin the fourth upright other side of the convex Jens. 4. Adjust the position of the image needle | without disturbing O and so that ther isn he Pom tis needle [and the image of needle 0: Note Pe pellilon cliceedihl the optical bench. ui 8 ape he experiment (eps 107) four times with different positions of m eed Toe 1 Record all the observations in a tabular form _~ To determine the index correction 9, Again place the upri ‘ i i 2 er i upright holding the mirror Mon the optical bench. ae : Imiting needle, determine the index correction between the back surface of the mirror Mand the image needle 1. [osstrvarions AND CALCULATIONS Rough focal length of the convex lens = x Reslleegi of he baiting nenile, x= Observed length of the knitt _ y=___an 1g needle between the convex mirror and the image needle, Index correction, ¢=1-y= ‘a * t Jens only disturbing the positions of needle O and len and place it on the optical bench oe PHERICAL samnce: Table 8.2 + Determination of the radius of cu ——- of curvature Of the convex mirror Observed radius | Corrected radivs of curvature of curvature Rar RoR +e "4 sar a imc foc eign Slunit of power is m i ipa opie ts the power of @ le two thin Tenses are separated 5 When the ns chose prin nee a, their equivalent Focal length fis pve) f Ry 2 fh f fh | [EO Lens combinations .d_ in combinatior 1d by the prec mn, each lens of en lenses are use’ Ml ceding, lens magnifies the image forme EXPERIMENT Lam plotting graphs between u and v or To find the focal length of a convex lens by between + and +. uy I APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘An optical bench, three uprights with clamy length less than 20 em, index neede/knitting needle ps, two sharp-edged needles, convex lens of fat and a half-metre scale. [ triconyworkine Formuta 1. If an object needle is placed between f and 2f of a convex lens, its real, mogailied image is formed beyond 2 on the other side of the lens. By placing anote needle, called image needle there, we can locate the image of the first needle by removing the parallax between the image and the second needle itself. 2, The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of a conve lens is given by the thin lens formula, eer _ fou uno According, to new Cartesian sign convention, int i ao 1vis negative and v is positive when a convex lens forms a real image. Also, f is positive for a convex lens, {| ray inca See Fig, 9.11 Ima seed! Fig. 9. “-9.11 Ray diagram for finding the focal length of a conves le ples 9: SPHERICAL LENsEs fn focal length of the convex lens eer find 10U8 ota the conver Tens in the right hand. Obta btain Hot wall (or atthe back of y ee aee fe ‘Our practical notebook Measure the distance Between the lens and th ; Mrtance gives a rough value for the focal le nage of the sun or a di a distant objec sharp image mth of the eae rh 8 hall-metze scale. This goik Do not see the image of the sun directly ex lens, as it may hurt your eyes, sotest the image formed by convex Tens 4, lace the optical Dench horizontally on the workin syount te convex Tens Lin the clamp of central a vemaining uprights. Make the plane of the ral upright and the paralie)t the length of the optical bench. Adjust ‘a Piste of the Tens to the same height, Fix a small € tips of the two needles and the optica needle O. piece of white al Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece se rough focal length and twice the ciel ae ee Te alicistarces eal to 6 lac the object needle O between and 2F but closer to2F L 1, respectively form azeal, inverted ancl magnified image on the other side ofthe a eae et the needle 1 tll its tip coincides with the tip of the image anne forward or backward, remove the parallax between the eee | itself. Note the positions of the three uprights on the scale af ae ae +. Now move the object needle 2 cm closer to the lens Land locate the A os maze Moving the object needle close to the lens Leach time, take tee or pees a tendings. Check that the object needle always remains beisveen F and? gee ot 4 two needles O and I in th al so that its principal axis become Paper on the tip of the object [Note that the image moves away from the lens ns the object neale moves closer fo the lens and vice versa, 4 Record all these observations in a tabular form, Find v and vin each case 4, Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and vin qbservations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foc To determine the index correction 10, Measure the length of the index/knitting needle with a half-metre scale, Let it be x em 11, Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the convex lens and the tip of the object needle O, Read the distance between the two uprights on the scale on the optical bench. Let it ‘be ym, Determine the index correction (a4) for the object distance 12. Now hold the knitting needle between the centre of the lens and tip of the image needle 1 Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be z cm. Determine the index correction (x-z) for the image distance 0 13. After adding, the respective index corrections, find the values of 7 and -, in each cave record the corrected values of wand» Also [otseevarions AND CALCULATIONS om Rough focal length of the convex lens = —— at = 131 Actual length of the needle, «= _— ————— siCs-Xl tas MANUAL PHYSIC | Observ die and the convex lens, y eon object need ey fe and the convex lens sth of the knitting Ne in SE ee or he kittingneedieberveen e Observed length of # — | Index correction for object distanc es. | ve distance © Index correction for image dista and f for the convex lens Table 9.1; Determination Ca a fae eee 2 te S.No. Se an. com) | om | bag needle | lens L | needle F pad —|texs"| J (en) | (co)_| (om) | } | | | None ene Mean value of f =___cm "NDIE Uae the tandard table of recprocas for writing the valves of wand e Determination of fby Graphical Methods 1. Focal length from graph between 1 and x. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both axes, plot the s-v graph by taking the #-valués along, X-axis and v-values along ‘Y-axis because is negative aid v is positive in this experiment according to the Cartesian sign ‘convention. As the values of and vare greater than the focal length, the origin Oshould be given i a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a larger scale for the graph. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in Fig, 9.12 Draw a line from the origin O making an angle of 45° with the X-axis. It meets 1-0 graph for a convex lens the -v graph at point P. Obviously, for any point on this line Mean value of f=____em Tig. 9.12 Graph between u and v for a convex lens. Chapter 9 SPHERICAL Lenses sToesing i Axes, mark the values of y ae alot postive Recor ies nesjoining the points u,, Og points», M20 s,ete; Of the Y pines OF, these ines rect 8 common p. coordinates (~f, f) so, wxis, [See Fig. 9.13)" int Owhich should a tag MANUAL pxysics-* [| precautions ena ae paral ote rh F theo 4. The principal axis ofthe lens ghould be horiz rag t. The uprights should be rigid and 4, The tipe of the object and imaBe n adjusted at the same heis! bene 4. To locate the position of the image, the eve mus the image needle. vertical e ical centre of the conve ew vere the convex lens ng eld at a distance of about 36 , behing 5. Parallax must be removed tip 10 HP: ; Fer eteira for scan oust Po carefully determined and correctly applied vi not be placed between the forus and the optical centre of he : he eng I 7, The object needle shou! because it produces only 2 8. The object needle should be white paper over it 9, ‘The object and image n 10, The values of wand 0 shou! of f- + [[ sources oF Enron 4, The uprights may not be vertical 2. Parallax might not have been removed completely §. Errors may oceur in the result if the top of the optica! bench ig not horizontal and if the if the two optical needles and the optical centre of the convex (ete ato not at thee, horizontal level. vyirtual image: distinguished from the image needle by fixing a small pic cadles should not be interchanged during the course of the exporim, et Idnot differ much, This minimises the error in the determina DK DG EXPERIMENT fam Li tit fa ce is sn comes [ppparatus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED An optical bench with f i i omens i eee geaepial needles (one thin and one thick), a thin concave eng cree ergo al ene }) smaller than that of the concave lens, index/knittin, [taeonyworkine FORMULA A concave lens alwa i ys forms a virtual and erect i accurately. The difficulty is overcom | erect image. So its focal length termi concave lens and ei im: by interposing a convex lens a tears and ‘ age. oe Ficlets fier Ea For this the focal length of the convex lens must be snl be the real i ; real image of the obj interposed between the lens bject O formed by a convex | i ‘ lens L,. conca' 1 and image 1,, the rays after pe a a Chapter 9 SPHERICAL LENsEs ve lens 1p 40 that the real image ig shifted by the eonea! away from the convex lens to J The image 1y Serves asa virtual object for the concn’ Hens Which forms real imoge 1, ss this 08° Object distance =u 1,1, ; Image distance «y= 1,1, | _f of the concave lens can be determined from the thin lens, formula, | aed | ptr concen Mess} are poate ar w « f 00 f 19 negative converging combination with the must be Joss than that of concave lens. the sun or a distant object. ag MANUAL PHYS sm the convex [ens han itaf wo at-a distance sf the lens by removin, 4 Adjust the object needle 7G the ther ide of the fens BY removing Parallax i,t (tei el mere PME, ie 1 Note the positions of object needle O, Jon, 6m cates ra the second ECL a) bench my ee As on the scale of the optical . i image needle | on vex and concave lenses locate th formed by the combination of convex and ca ie To locate the image ir interpose it between the conver | ts upright an : lens 6 Mount the concave lene Fin cave let Fairly elose to needle I. It willbe fou u image edie [Fist KOE 1 Sj te comes jens. Bring the concave lens qj 1 is fairly larBe- : > tip parall real inverted image the convex lens unti 7. Now shift the needle [te the two. See that the post the second part of the experimen’ 8, Repeat the experiment three oF relitive to convex lens L, or that of obje the image 1, formed by the combination ™ distinctly visible, try to locate it by bringing concave In any case, the object needle O must lie between F an these observations in a tabular form. 1, by it, by removing Ui 1 this shift | 2X betnee | renner iene te 10% data focate the image abject necdle ‘positions of concave ‘oar times by changing the position of concave len ‘relative to convex lens L, or both, j. ct needle f convex and concave lenses is blurred ens closer to the position of iman image 2 F of the convex lens. Ri cond 4 lens L, and the image "" Oand # ons of the 1, Note the To determine the index correction jedle with a half-metre scale. Let it be xem, 9, Measure the length of the index/knitting ne 40. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of rede 1. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be y cm. The index correctig ction for both the object distance u and image distance v will be, e=x—y f the concave lens L, and the tip of th imap [ osservarions ano Carcutations Rough focal length of the convex lens 1, ‘Actual length of the knitting needle, x=___cm Observed length of the knitting needle between concave lens L, and image needle 1, y 2 Ty om om cm. Index correction for both wand v, ¢=x—y ‘Table 9.2 ; Determination of u, v and f for convex lens Corrected distances |Foat eng Positions of uprights Concave} First | Second w lens Z, |image 7, | image =v] w=uw' or Wises feat [en | fon)? aims cel on of a beam of light incident obiquely on te * gular glass slab (preferably of larger size), a drawi P ), a drawing board, white paper sheet, [drawing pins, alpins, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil and eraser, e E. por oe Path ABCD of a ray suffering refraction through a rectangular glass slab ‘Fig. 5 Refraction through 2 glass slab. i to the incident ray AB But the emergent ray gets laterally Bice ray, The perpendicular distance between the incident and hen light is inci abliquely ona refracting slab with paral faces called lateral shift 1d by a glass slab increases with se in thickness tof glass slab, ae the value of angle of incidence and “refractive index 1 of the glass slab. 1. Fixa white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing Pits 2. Place the glass slab breadthwise on the white sheet [Fig. 6(a)]. Mark its boundary PQRS with *® sharp pencil. 3. Remove the glass slab. Take a point B, on face AB Draw normal BN, on PQ With the help of * protractor, draw an incident ray 4, B, making an angle of incidence of 40° with the normal 5, 8 4. Again, place the glass slab within its boundary PORS. Fix two alpins P, and P, vertically & the incident ray A, B,, about 8 to 10 cm apart. 5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face SP, position the eye in such a way that the feet pins P, and P, appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P, and P, vertically le with pins P, and P, as viewed through the slab. 6. Remove the alpins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the path o! ‘ray of light 4, B,C, D,.Draw perpendicular C,E, on A,B, produced and measure the lenet* of C,E,. This gives a measure of lateral displacement d. 7. Place the glass slab |engthwise as shown in Fig. 6(b). Repeat the experiment for the same angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement. 8. Place the glass slab thicknesswise as shown in |. Repeat the experiment for the pie atte bekconen Awe ovat aogier =. 9. By placing the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Figs, 6(4) and (c), repeat the experiment 8° for anges of incidence of 50° and 6°. Measure the laters! cioplacerent in cach cote Section B ACTIVITIES the length, breadth ae and thickn jons in a tabular form, ess of the glass slab using a ruler. Record all your IS AND CALCULATIONS of the protractor — eis Se cm; Leng .. ie igth of the glass slab, t, cm Blass ett; Thickness of the glass slab, 1, cm Angle of incidence | Angle of emergence | Difference i~ e | taterat iy HU Casgrees) € (degrees (degrees) Se ratio 2 oe aaa : 40° 4, 4, © = a ieee Ee 5 Ie 50" i | 60° : | rence i~ ¢is small, so i=e When light refracts through a glass sleb, the emergent ray sl to the direction of incident ray. limits of experimental error, from observations 1, 2 and 3 we see that the ratio tant. The lateral displacement of the emergent ray is directly proportional to the , of the glass slab (for constant ). evations 2, 4 and5, we note the lateral displacement of the emergent ray increases se in the angle of incidence i (for constant #)- of the glass slab should be marked with a sharp pencil. be fixed vertically and about 8 to 10 cm apart. ¢ the alpins and not their heads should be adjusted in the same straight line. er removing an alpin, encircle the pin-prick with a sharp pencil. ‘of incidence should lie between 30° and 60° fence, the lateral, shift 3. For what) angie of incids ed if ss slab is zero? prostucel By 2 parallel sided sla For r= 0"; lateral shift is 7er0. { incidence, the lateral, shilt 1 sided glass lab is maximum ? 4 Ror what angle Oo! produced by a paral sor 1 = 907, lateral shift is tees sickness of the glass slab. and is equal 10 Section B - Activities edges of the two blades should be held es Parallel and quite close to each oth electric bulb should be held at a distan meas lee more than 2 m form the slit fraction is prominent when we use a narrow slit ‘of bending of light around the having parallel edges. Such a slit can be obtained by ‘obstacles or apertures and its using two blades and not by using two fingers 5: Why does the intensity of secondary maximum become less as compared fo central maximum The central maximum is due to the constructive interference of wavelets from all parts ofthe slit. With the increase in the value of n, the wavelets from lesser and lesser parts of the slit produce constructive interference to form a secondary maximum. Hence the intensity of secondary maximum decreases with the increase in the value of nent through a a slit formed Ave TVA y ‘by a convex lens on a screen by Ma atanees ofthe candle om the lens). ERI £D Ee eee a convex lens of smal focal length, a conde a cardboart tre scale and a match box. LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl [tutory The position, nature and size of image formed by é object with respect to the lens. Following ray diagrams show the various ‘a convex lens depends on the position of the possible cases, (f Object between F and optical centre ig. 9 The position, nature and size ofthe image 4'8' formed by a convex lens for different positions of object AB. l WORKING DIAGRAMS: i Screen | in Iinage z a £ (\ | F 2 a 2F = Ove e Object @ ‘ 0 v ) Fig 10 Real images of Ughted candle fora conver lens: a) u- f? be the effective value of the combination ? When the lenses are placed d distance apart, ‘he Here f,=+20cm, f,=~10cm formula (1 au pe AIO oy ee ae % Sir a 2 fa conver lens is dipped completely in water, what Nill not be valid will be the effect on its focel length ? ‘The modified formula is 1 Tera “The refractive index of glass with respect to water is. Jess than the refractive index of glass with respect to. = air Le, “Hg

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