1.1. INTRODUCTION Fluid plays a vital rote in many aspects of ¢ in them. They circulate through our body, veryday life. We drink them, breathe them and swim control the weather etc. Air planes fly through them and is known as fluid dynamics, Pressure and buoyancy. Though complex, some Simple idealized models and familiar principles 'erBy. Fluid in motion possesses various forms of nergy like kinetic energy, potential énergy and gravitational energy. In case of fluid flow, fluid y predominant role. Fluid that flows Steadily, such as Watt or gasoline have smaller viscosities than thick liquids such as honey or motor fall Huds is strongly temperature dependent, increasing for Bases and decreasing for liquids as. the temperature increases. Lava is an example for viseous fluid, The viscosity decreases with Increasing temperature. The hoter the lava, more easier fori to flow. An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible (its density do not change) and hes no intemal friction (viscosity). Viscous. - © A Fluid is a substance whic the body in the opposite direction), | + Liquids which are perfectly mobite (cero viscosity) and incompressible (cero i Cabressibliy oF infinite butk modulus) are called ideal lquids * Gases which perfectly obey Boyle's and Charle’s law are called ideal gases, 12. FLOW LINE The path of an individual particle in moving fluid is calle | does not change with time, then the flow is called steady or ie flow lines. The flow lines Passing through the edge of an imaginary element of area say ‘A’ form a tube, called flow tube as shown inFig.t..Area A Flo Flow tube “es Fig.1.1: Illustration of flow lines and flow tube 1.2.1, FLUID FLOW dimensional, two dimensional or three dimensional, rotational or irrotational. 1.2.2. RATE OF FLOW OF LIQUID. Rate Gf flow of liquid is defined as the volume of the liquid that flows across any section of pi in unit time. It is also known as volume rate of flow of the fluid, denoted by V. of flow and ‘t’ be the time taken by the liquid to flow from A to B. The flow of liguid through a pipe will be steady or streamline if the velocity of the particle remain constant at any point inside the flow ice, all particles passing through a point have the same velocity. Fig.1.2: Rate of low of liquid through a pipe As distance = velocity x time, we have . lavxt a= (1.1) ‘The volume of the liquid flowing through a section AB in time ‘t’ is given by ' ——(1.2) | Substituting (1.1) in (1.2), we get ie 4 Vevxtxa —~ (1.3) This eq, (1.3) represents the volume rate of flow of liquid flowing across the section AB per unit f time ‘t’ is given by } yxtxa t . = velocity of liquid x area of cross section of the tube. xa — (14) FPS units: cubic feet/sec (c. ft/sec)1.2.3. MASS RATE OF FLOW OF LIQUID ‘The rate of flow of 2 liquid is also expressed in teri of the mass of the liquid flowing across any section in unit time, referred as its mass rate of flow. Thus Mass rate of flow of liquid = mass of liquid flowing across any section pér unit time. = velocity of liquid x area of cross-section x density of liquid =vxaxp ‘ ——— (1.5) 13.VISCOSITY . Viscosity is due to friction between neighbouring particles of the fluid that are moving at different ~ yelocities. When fluid is forcéd through a tube, it generally moves faster near the axis and very slowly near the walls, therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For the same velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid’s viscosity. Viscosity of a liquid depends on the size, shape of its particles and the attraction between the particles. A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures, in super fluids. Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity. A liquid whose viscosity is less than that of water is sometimes known 2s a mobile liquid, while a substance with a viscosity substantially greater than water is called a viscous ~Aquid. Honey has a higher viscosity than water. The backward dragging force of one liquid layer (on another liquid layer which is in opposite direction of the force applied by the liquid or other | liquid layer is known as viscous force and the opposing tendency of tangential force of the liquid _ iscalled viscosity. Consider the liquid flowing slowly and steadily over a fixed horizontal plane surface. Imagine that the liquid is made up of number of horizontal layers, different liquid layers move with different __ Velocities. The bottom most layer liquid molecules have minimum speed on account of adhesion "and speed of the layer increases from bottom to top; their top most layer has maximum speed. > Thus, greater the distance of the layer from the fixed surface, greater is the velocity (v; > vz >v3> a> ¥s) as shown in Fig.1.3. This creates velocity gradient (vtdv) between the layers. Consider __ layers P and Q, which are in contact with each other, lower layer Q, which has more speed exerts force on the upper surface P, tending to drag it in the backward direction. Similarly the upper layer exerts equal viscous force in the lower layer, tending to drag in forward direction. This viscous force tends to destroy the relative motion between the adjacent layers, because of different {endencies at different layers. Force is created between the two layers, which tries to oppose the relative motion between different layers (i. it tries to reduce the difference between their speed) called viscosity, also known as fluid friction. Fig.1.3: Flow of liquid on solid surfaceIn order to understand the concept of viscosity, let us stir water in a beaker with a glass rod. Water rotates in coaxial cylindrical layer. When some pieces of paper are added on the surface of the|fi) rotating water, their movement shows that the speed of the inner most cylindrical layer is maximum and the speed of the successive layer goes on decreasing as we approach the wall of the beaker. Thus, there is relative motion amongst different layers of water. If we stop stirring, water continues to rotate’for some time and then stops. According to Newton’s first law of motion the] liquid can stop only when an opposing force is acting on the layer, which destroys their relative) motion. Since no force is applied from outside, the opposing force must be arising within the} liquid. This opposing force is called internal frictional force or viscous force and this property is called viscosity. 2 The property of liquid by virtue of which, it opposes the relative motion between different layers, is known as viscosity. 1.3.1. CAUSE OF VISCOSITY Viscosity is due to intermolecular forces, which are effective when the different layers of the liquid are moving with different velocity. Due to these forces, every fast moving liquid layer tends to retard the adjoining fast moving layer of liquid. As a result, a backward dragging force called viscous drag come into play, which accounts for viscosity of liquid. COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY - NEWTON’S FORMULA ‘Newton showed that the viscous force (F) acting tangentially on any liquid layer is directly proportional to its surface area (A), velocity (v) and inversely proportional to the distance (x) from the stationary layer. ie., viscous force Fad . av Negative sign indicates that the direction of viscous force is opposite to that of velocity. an x = Fa ¥ = F-- ' ~~ (1.6) | ¥ is Where, 1 is proportionality constant, known as coefficient of viscosity (or dynamic velocity), depends on the nature of the liquid, This equation is known as Newton’s law of viscous flow in stream line motion. Considering the rate of change of velocity “v’ with distance or velocity gradient as & eq.(1.6) modifies to ’ f 6 P=-9A— eee (LL A =z (7) a IfA=1 and i =1 then F= 1 (numerically)font of viscosity of a liquid is defined as the tangential force required per unit area to pointing unit veloclty gradient(unit relative velocity) between two layers a unit distance apart. Mopnetent of viscosity of a liquid is defined as viscous force per unit area / unit velocity nee mnt, given by ye ——(1.8) “a [UNITS OF COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY é Fi Force "=" de Areax velocity gradient de =N-sec/m? (or) Pascal—sec 10 dynes-see/em* CGS physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise (P), named after Jean Louis Marie euille. Deca poise is the unit of coefficient of viscosity in $.1. system. 1 Nes /m? = 10 Poise a = decapoise : ‘ Poise: The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is one poise if the tangential force of 1 dyne/em? Is required to maintain a relative velocity of 1 cnvsec between two layers I cm apart. _ DECAPOISE: The coefficient of viscosity of @ liquid is one decapoise if the tangential force of. IN/n? is required to maintain a relative velocity of 1 m/sec between two layers 1 m apart. the dimensions of coefficient of viscosity in terms of mass, length and time are ML"T* rom’ the dimensions, units of coefficient of viscosity can be expressed as kg.'m''.sec’! in M.K.S. system and gm.cm’',sec"' in C.G.S. system1.4, STREAM LINE FLOW AND TURBULENT FLOW Let us consider a liquid flowing over a plane surface or through a tube. As long as the velocity of the liquid is less than critical velocity, the flow is said to be stream line flow or laminar flow. In stream line flow, the velocity of the liquid at a given point is always constant in both magnitude and direction as shown in Fig.1.4(a). The lines representing the direction of motion of the liquid are called stream lines. The stream line at any point gives the direction of flow of the liquid at that point. When liquid flows steadily such that each particle-of the liquid passing through a point follows exactly the same path and has the same velocity as its preceding particles, the flow of the liquid is called streamline. If the velocity of the liquid is greater than critical velocity, liquid looses all its order and does not flow steadily, this type of flow is known as turbulent flow. In such flow, the velocity of the liquid at a given point does not remain constant but goes on changing in a random manner, both in magnitude and direction as shown in Fig.1.4(b). At some points the liquid may have rotational ‘motion giving rise to eddies or whorls. Ex: When river is in flood, the flow of water is turbulent. Similarly in hurricanes or storm, ¢he flow of air is turbulent. Flow of smoke rising from incense sticks is laminar up to certain extent and then becomes turbulent. The flow in which the liquid looses all its order and becomes unsteady above certain velocity called critical velocity is known as turbulent flow. x) Fig.1.4: Illustration of (a) Streamline flow (b) Turbulent flow. Critical velocity of a liquid is the velocity below which the flow of a liquid is streamline and above which the flow becomes turbulent. The maximum velocity of the liquid up to which its flow remains stream line is called critical velocity. ‘ . Critical velocity of a liquid is the velocity of flow, above which the flow ceases to be streamline.Table 1.1: Differences between stream line and turbulent flow NO. ‘STREAM LINE FLOW TURBULENT FLOW T, | Iishighly ordered flow Tris less ordered flow 2, | Occurs at low velocities ‘Occurs at high velocities 3, | Flow pattern does not change with time _ | Flow pattem changes with time “| Velocity ofthe Tiquid is Tess than or equal | Velocity ofthe Tiquid is greater than the | to the critical velocity. critical velocity. 5, | Velocity ofthe Tiquid is constant Velocity of the liquid particles changes . ' : continuously and haphazardly. %, | Eiquid particles move in orderly manner | Liquid particles move in zig-zag manner. 7, _ | Flow of the liquid is steady. Flow of the liquid is unsteady. _ | Tubes ofnarrow bore leads to streamline | Tubes of wide bore leads fo turbulent "| flow. flow. a Romi ‘number is less than or equal to | Reynold’s number is greater than 2200. [= Ex: Steady still water, flow of water through a fine capillary tube. Ex: Flow of water in floods. 1.4.1 EXPRESSION FOR CRITICAL VELOCITY Osbome Reynold’s was the first one to experimentally show that the critical velocity a liquid (v,) depends on coefficient of viscosity (1), density of the liquid (p) and the radius of tube (r). These parameters are related to each other by the relation ka vk aw —— 0.9) Constant k in this relation is called Reynold’s number. Let us derive this relation by using the method of dimensions as follows- ‘Let v, = k(n fo} {0° soom= (1.10) Where a, b, c are the numbers to be determined. k is constant and hence do not have any dimensions. Substituting the dimensions of v,, 7, p, ras in eq, (1.10) and by using the method of dimensions, we get (METS ML" PLY Impey "(r7* n=ML'T", p=ML* and r=LBy using the principle of homogeneity of dimensions, the dimensions on both the sides of the ‘equation must be same. . a+b=0 -a-3b+c=1 = =a=1 Substituting a=1 in a+b=0,we get 145=0 Substituting a =1 and -a-3b+ce=1,we get -1-3(-I)+e=1 Sex-l After substituting the values of a, b, ¢ in €9.(1.10) ext velocity redtices to ve =ky!- «pt == Hence, the critical velocity (v, is @_ Directly proportional to the Reynolds number (k) (ii) Directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity (n) ii) Inversely proportional to the density of the liquid(p) and (iv) Inversely proportional to the radius of the tube (F) 1.4.2, SIGNIFICANCE OF REYNOLD’S NUMBER From the relation for critical velocity, it is clear that Reynolds number (k) is a pure numeric value, with no dimensions, also known as critical variable. This constantik, which is a combination of four factors (k, 1, p and r )determine the nature of flow i.e., whethér the flow is streamline or turbulent. This number determines the process taking place inside the cylindrical tube during the flow of a liquid or fluid. For geometrically similar apparatus, but of different dimensions the turbulence sets in at the same constant value of Reynold’s number. Even though the values of n, P. F are different from edch other, as long as ‘k’ remains constant, liquid flow will be same in all the cases. Even in the case of the motion of bodies through viscous media, Reynolds number leads to the law of similarity, so that for geometrically similar bodies, the stream lines will be similar if their Reynolds number is same. The direction of motion anc: the shape of the streamline of the body at any. point depend upon the value of Reynolds number. This law was experimentallyecified with different experimental set ups and found to be valid. We can also predict the results vrrthe motion of the body through air from those,obtained for its motion through water. © For narrow tube, Reynolds number kis near about 1000. «For Reynolds number k less than or equal to 2200, the, , flow is streamline. « For Reynolds number k greater than 2200, the flow is turbulent. 1.5. POISEUILLE’S EQUATION In 1940, a French physicist Poiseuille’s derived a formula for the volume of the liquid flowing per Second through a horizontally placed capillarity tube of cieular cross section. This derivation is based on the following assymptions- : ; ‘Assumptions © The flow of the liquid in the tube is steady, streamline and parallel to the axis of the tube. ‘* The pressure over any cross section normal to the axis of the tube is constant. «The velocity of the liquid layer, which is in contact with the walls of the tube is zero and goes on increasing in a regular manner asthe axis ofthe tube is approached. Felorq Where kis dimensionless numerical constant ASSUMPTIONS ‘ “The following assumptions were made by Stoke's in deriving the aw: The medium through which the body falls is infinite in extent «The moving body is perfectly rigid and smooth There is no slip between the moving body and the medium © There are no eddy currents or waves set up in the medium due to the motion of the body through it In other words, the body is moving very slowly through it. ‘buoyance {one 4 Fig 1,7: Demonstration of Stoke’s law PROOF Proof of Stoke's law can be obtained by the method of dimensional analysis as follows- “The viscous force F depends on n, r, v. Expressing dimensionally, Fk EP OY —— (1.23) In eq.(1.23), kis numerical constant with no dimensions, a,b, are to be determined. “Writing the dimensions of F, v, rand 7 as F=M'LT? n=M'L'T* r=L vet" Substituting all these quantities in eq.(1.23), we getWr =r pin pple AMET} = yeagresia peo) Equating the powers of M, L and T on both the sides, we get a=1 catbtcsl -a-c=-2 Substituting a=1 in ~a~c=~2,we get -l-cs-2 esl Substituting a=1 and c= 1 in ~atb+c=l,we get ~1+b+1=1 =b=1 After substituting the value of a, b, ¢ in eq.(1.23) viscous force reduces to F=kyv . (1.24) The value of the dimensionless constant ‘k’ can be determined only from the experiment. Stoke found that the value of k is 67. Substituting this in eq. (1.24), the viscous force (or) resistive force (01) frictional force (or) retarding force (F) reduces to F=6arv (125) This relation is known as Stoke's law. Coefficient of viscosity can also be determined from aw. DETERMINATION OF TERMINAL VELOCITY OF SPHERICAL BALL FALLING INALIQUD From Stoke's law, an expression for terminal velocity acquired by a small sphere falling through viscous medium can be determined. Let us.consider a sphere of radius () and density (p) falling (under gravity) through a medium of density (a) and coefficient of viscosity (n) with terminal velocity (v). te Under such condition{two forces act on the spherical ball simultaneously, namely (@ Downward force due to gravity (F), : il) The upward force, which is the sum of upward thrust due to buoyancy which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced (B) and viscous force. is‘Downward force (F) ‘Buoyancy force (B) Famg Bamg , m m pa map o=tam=v0o v v => F=pg |>B=pe Z a 4 Substituting vega weeet Substituting va fat,weast 4 4 Fez mpg 4 ure g , 4 en the total downward force = weight of the sphere == 7” PS a+ (1.26) ‘The total upward force = [viscous foree] + [upward thrust exerted by the medium on the body due to displaced liquid (B)] From Stoke’s law, the viscous force is given by F 26am = (127) ‘The upward thrust due to buoyancy is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the sphere is given : by 4 sarog 5 wane (1.28) 3 Substituting eqs.(1-27) and (1.28) in eq.(1.26), we get the total upward force as, 6eqryssareg . (1.29) ‘The sphere attains a constant terminal velocity ‘v’, when the total downward force acting upon it is exactly equal to the upward force. rae ward force duet gravity ~ Total upward force due viscous force ‘and buoyancy force 4 epg = fer wimpg = Sanrvtzerog 3 3 a 6rnrv=Sa'g(o-2) 4c) 22 Pgte-o) a A aa (1.30) veg fi (or) v= om (1.30) This expression gives terminal velocity of the sphere. ak 'e terminal velocity of the sphere falling through 4 viscous medium is (i) Directly proportional tothe square of its radius(7);i) Directly proportional to the difference in the densities of the sphere and the medium (p- 9 : (iii) Inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity of the medium (n). Terminal velocity is defined as uniform velocity attained by the ball when it is dropped into the liquid. This happens when the apparent weight of the ball becomes equal to the retarding viscous forces acting on it. Hence the resultant force on the ball is zero. In terms of terminal velocity, the coefficient of viscosity is given by ; ——— 31) APPLICATIONS * Coefficient of viscosity of unknown liquid can be determined; * Terminal velocity of the spherical body dropped into the viscous medium can be determined; * Radius of the spherical body dropped into the viscous medium can be determined. 1.7. OSTWALD’S VISCOMETER Ostwald’s viscometer is a well known commercial viscometer, which is used to determine the Coefficient of viscosity ofa liquid or to compare the coefficient of viscosity of two or more liquids or the same liquid at different temperatures. CONSTRUCTION The apparatus consists of U-shaped tube FEBADCH with two glass bulbs M and N, a capillary portion AB, and a side tube H, fitted with a stop cock S, three marks being engraved on it at E, D, C as shown in Fig.1.8. The whole apparatus can be kept immersed in a suitable bath to maintain Constant temperature. The end G is connected to an exhaust pump. Liquid A having coefficient of viscosity mis introduced into bulb M through the funnel F of the tubs, The liquid is sucked up above the mark C with the help of exhaust pump. The stop cock is closed and the exhaust pump is disconnected, Now the stop cock (S) is opened and the liquid is allowed to flow through the capillary tube. The time taken by the liquid to flow from level C to D fs noted with the help of stop watch, Let this time be t). Similarly, the experiment is repeat with liquid B, having coefficient of viscosity as n2. Let the time taken by liquid B to flow from level C to D be tz. If the rate of flow the liquids A and B are V, and V2, respectively then ‘ Ke =e ——~ (132) i ‘ : 1 se (1.33) 2 sOFig.1.7: Ostwald viscometer ‘Taking the ratio of eq,(1.32) and (1.33), we get art Bn > —— 1.34) m Pah ‘Though the pressure difference keeps on changing during the flow of the liqui, it is proportional to tiie density of the liquid for every position of it. In the corresponding positions of the two Tiquids of densities p, and ps, let the pressure difference be Py and P2. Henee “Ra p, and Pra p, (-: Hydrostatic pressure P= hpg) oom 3 (1.35) Py Pa Substituting eq. (1.35) in eq. (1.34), we getmh _ Pls tr aM > == (1.36) The rate of flow of liquids V; and V; vary during the flow of the liquid due to variations in the pressure difference P. But the time for the flow of unit volume of two liquids in corresponding positions vary inversely as V; and V2, Hence the total times t, and ty for the flow of the liquid vary inversely as V; and V2, respectively. Hence vy a anseenee (13 ts (37), Substituting eq. (1.37) in (1.36), we get MiP ft ™ Pr ty Thus, by knowing the densities of the two liquids p and p2, and the time for their corresponding, flows t; and ty, we can easily compare their coefficients of viscosities n; and m2. From eq.(1.38), itis clear that a @ pt =>n=kpt (1.39) where p is the density of the liquid, t is the time for its flow through the distance CD, k is proportionality constant, known as kinematic viscosity of a liquid, From eq. (1.39), we have (1.38) = heh ———-- (1.40) Th aPaa a If the coefficient of viscosity of any one liquid is known, the coefficient of viscosity of another liquid can also be calculated. : APPLICATIONS © To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid; of viscosity of two or more liquids; * To compare the viscosity of same liquid at different temperatures. © Tocompare the coeffici © To find out the unknown concentration of liquid in mixture of two miscible liquids. 1.8. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS «LIQUIDS ‘The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature for example; the viscosity of water decreases from 10” N-Sec/m? at 20° C to 0.65 x10" N- sec/m? at 40° C. Slotte suggested the empirical formula =‘ l4+attbr - where 1} and 7p are viscosities of the liquid at ° C and 0° C respectively , a and b are constants. On the basis of this theory of viscosity of liquid, Andrade derived another formula to study the variation of viscosity with temperature, given by ™ (1.41)hep 1 2S nv) = Ae” yoo 42) jere A and C are constants, ‘v’ is the specific volume of the liquid and T is the absolute temperature . a ‘This formula is in close agreement with experimental results for many liquids. « GASES tne viscosity of gases increases with temperature and the relation given by. Sutherland 3 T34C(_T a = ee (LAS m «THC (i) Ce i well with experimental results. Here C is called the Sutherland's constant and its value is -. different for different gases. 1.9. EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS «LIQUIDS Except for the unique liquid, water, the effect of pressure on all liquids is qualitatively similar. Viscosity of a liquid increases with pressure, but quantitatively vastly different, an almost negligible rise in the case of mobile liquids and a very large rise in the case of highly viscous liquids like mineral oils. In case of water, the viscosity decreases, instead of increasing, for the first few hundred atmospheres, but increases at higher pressure. No satisfactory relationship is established between viscosity and préssure which may have a general validity. GASES On the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, Maxwell showed that the viscosity of a gas is independent of pressure at ordinary pressures. At low pressures (different for different gases), when the mean free path of the molecules becomes comparable with the dimensions of the containing vessel, viscosity continually falls with decrease of pressure. At high pressures, it has been shown by Bridgeman that viscosity increases with pressure. . 1.10, APPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE OF VISCOSITY '* Viscosity plays the important role in selecting lubricants for different machinery application. '* The viscosity of air and some liquid is used for damping the motion of some instruments. Paddles or Vanes of such instrument move in the liquid or air. The viscous force opposes the motion thus moving parts of the instrument attempt the final position quickly. 1.11, LIST OF FORMULAE ‘© The volume of the liquid flowing through a pipe V = vx1xa ‘© Volume rate of flow of liquid flowing across the pipe per unit time ‘t’ is given by VavxaMass rate of flow of liquid M=vxaxp=Vxp © Hydrostatic pressure P=hpg nAv * Viscous fore F=—2™ (or) Fem © Critical velocity vp =X“ pr * — Poiseulle’s equation for the flow of liquids through the tube V ; _aPrt © Coefficient of viscosity T= 3yT Stoke’s law F =6anrv 2 Terminal velocity vag SOO © Coefficient of viscosity a3 Pree ¥ *” Viscosity of the fuid 7.=k pt 1.12.SOLVED NUMERICALS 1. A plate of metal 107 m? aren rests on a layer of castor oil 2 x 10°m thick, whose coefficient of viscosity is 1.55 N- secim”. Calculate the horizontal force required to move the plate with a uniform speed of 3 x 107 m/sec. Solution: A = 107m? dy _3xt07 de 2x10 = 1.55 N- secim™ F=? =15/see , F ana a1s5x10" x15=0.2325N 2. A flat plate of area 10 sq em is separated from a large plate by a layer of glycerin 1 mm thick If the viscous coefficient of glycerin is 20 gm per em per sec, what force is required to Keep the plate moving with-a velocity of 1 cm per second? Solution: 11 = 20 gm/om seeA= 10sq..cm y=1 cm/sec x= Imm =0.lem iy _ 20x10x1 = = 2000 dynes. 5 mH 20 x 10 x10 = 2000 dynes. 15, Assteel ball of radius 2 x 10° m falls in a vertical eolumn of Sastor. oil. The coefficient of viscosity of castor oil is 0.7 Nim? and its density is 0.98 x 10 3 kg/m, The density of steel is 7.8 x 10° kg/m? and g= 9.8 msec’. Find its terminal velocity. ‘Solution: a 1=2x10°m 7 = 0.7 Nim? p=7.8x 10° kg/m? 6 = 0.98 x 10°kg/m? ya 28(o= 908 2% (2x10) x (7.810? - 0.98% 10") x9. om 9x07 4. Agas bubble of diameter 2 cm, at the rate of 0.35 em / sec. Caleul the density of the gas). Solution: = 84,8710? m/sec rises steadily through a solution of density 1.75 gm/ ce late the coefficient of viscosity of the solution. (Neglect em =>r= lem = 980 cm / sec? o= 1,75 gm/cc vy =0.35 cm/sec n=? e(p-9) oy Neglecting 0, (the density of the gas bubble), we have _2rgo _ 2 x x 980 x 1.75 oy 9%035 5, Find the limiting velocity of rain drop. Assume diameter = 10° m, density of air relative to water = 1.3 x 10° kg/m? and coefficient of viscosity of air = 1.81 x 10° S.L. units, density of water = 10°kg/m’. Solution: d= 10°m=>1=0.5 x 10° m n= 1088 poise=13x107 vila = 1.81 x 10% 81. units p=10°kg/m? v=? 9x1.81%10 Water flows through a horizontally capillary tube of 1 mm internal diameter and length 70 cm under a pressure of column of water 30 cm in height. Find the rate of flow of water through capillary tube. Coefficient of viscosity of water = 10° N-s/m*, Solution: d=Imm= r= 0.5mm =5 x 104m, 1= 700m =0.Im h= 30 em = 0.3m P= hpg=0.3 x 10°x 9.8 Nim” = 10° N- sec/m? v=? y 14 x 0.310? x9.8% (510 0303 «107m? /see 8x10 x0.7 7. Calculate the mass of water flowing in 10 seconds through a horizontal capillary tube of circular cross section of radius 107 m. The tube is fitted at the bottom of a constant level tank at a depth of 1m, Given, density of water=10° kg/m’, length of the tube is 0.3142m, 9 =10° N-s/m?. 7 Solution: t= 10sec r=10°m h=1m 1=03142m n= 107 N- sec/m? p=107kp/m? - P= hpg=1 x 10°x 9.8 Nim? M=?M=V.pt= aPr pt (-r=48] . 8yl Srl 3 5e(1073)4 10? Me 314x9.8x10' x00 yf x10? x10 _ 9 1p054g 8x10™ x0.3142 __ In Poiseuille’s experiment, the following observations are made. Volume of water collected in 5 minutes is 40 c.c. Height of water is 0.4 m, length of the capillary tube is 0.602 m and radius of capillary tube is 0.52x10” m. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of water. Solution: Volume of water collected per second ' 40, 40 6 2 10° m? va 5.0"! P = Flo h-0.4 m P=hpg= 04x10? x9.8=3.92%10° N/m? 1= 0.602 m . 1=0.52x10" m n= ‘ > -3y4 Prt _ 3,14%3.92% 10? x (0.52% 107)" X15 410 2N Vm? "evil 8x 0.602% 2x10 Calculate the mass of water flowing in 10 minutes through a tube 0.1 em in diameter, % 40 cm long if there is constant pressure head of 20 em of water. The coefficient of viscosity of water is 0.0089 C.G.S. units. Consider density of water as 10° kg/mand g= 9.8 m/sec”, Solution: (0 min = 10 x 60 = 600 sec 1= 40 cm=0.4m : = 0.0089 C.G.S. units=0.00089 deca poise(S.L. unit) h=20 om=0.2 m P =20 cm of water column = hpg = 0.2 x10° x 9.8 = 1.96x10? N/m d =0.1em=>r=0.05 x 107m M=? Prt _3.14x1.96x10" x(0.05x107)* 7 3 a EP HE, 3.14%1.96x10" x(0.05%10)" = 355 Rate of flow Y=" er 8x0.00089%0.4 35x10 Mass flowing/sec = rate of flow x density =1.35x1077 x10? =1.35x10“kg‘Mass flowing in 10 minutes =1.35x10™ x600=0.081 kg 10, Eight drops of water of the same size are falling through air with terminal velocity of JOm/see. If the eight drops combine to form a single drop what will be the new terminal velocity. Solution: ‘Vi=10mv/sec A liquid drop is spherical in shape, the volume of the drop can be considered as V = According tothe given condition, $m} =8x3m} 7, =2y As terminal velocity var? HN Ory PR =, =4xv, =4x10=40 m/sec 1.13, EXERCISES 1. Calculate the horizontal force required to move a metal plate of area 2m? with a velocity of 4.5 m/s when it rests on a layer of oil 2x10" thick. Coefficient of viscosity of oil is 2 N-s/m’. | [Ans: F=9x10°N] 2. Water is conveyed through a horizontal tube of 0.08 m in diameter and 4 km in length at the rate of 20 litre per sec, Assuming only the viscous resistance, calculate the pressure difference required to maintain the flow (Given: Coefficient of viscosity=10™ N-s/m?) [Ans: P = 79617 N/m’) A capillary tube 10° m in diameter and 0.2 m in length is fitted horizontally to a vessel kept full of alcohol of density 0.8x10° kg/m’, The depth of the centre of the capillary tube below the surface of alcohol is 0.3 m. Viscosity of alcohol is 0.0012 N-sec/m’, Calculate the volume of alcohol tHat flows in 5 minutes, 3. [Ans: Total volume =7.212x10° m’] 4, A wide vertical tube has a short capillary tube fixed horizontally at its lower end, When it is filled with glycerin it takes 45 sec for the level to fall between two fixed marks. When the tube is filled with oil it takes 67.5 seconds for the level to fall between the same two fixed marks. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity. of oil. Given the density of glycerin = 1.2 x 10? kg/m’, density of oil = 0.8 x 10? kg/m’, viscosity of glycerin = 0.85 N- sec/m?, [Ans. 1 2=0.85 N- sec/m?]5, A large bottle is filled with a Siphon made of capillary glass tube, Compare the coefficient of viscosity of water and petrol if the time taken to empty’the bottle in the two cases is in the ratio 2:5. Specific gravity of petrol is 0.8 gm/em”. [Ans: =n 6. Armetallic sphere of radius 2.2 mm is falling through a liquid of density 1.36x10° kg/m? ‘and 7=0.02 Ns/m?, Calculate its terminal velocity if density is 5x10” kg/m’, [Ans: 1.918 m/sec] 7. Calculate the terminal velocity of an air bubble of radius 0.5 mm rising in th liquid of viscosity 0.3 N/m’. Density of liquid is 900 kg/m’ [Neglect the density of air in comparison to that of water. ' [Ans: v=1.63x10"m/see] 8, Two drops of water of same size are falling through air with terminal velocity of Iim/sec. If the two drops combine to form a single drop, calculate the terminal velocity. [Ans, vy = 1.588 m/sec] 1.14, REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define the terms- (i) Viscosity Gi) Coefficient of viscosity iii) Streamline flow (iv) Critical velocity (v) Turbulent flow 2. Arrive at the dimensions of coefficient of viscosity in terms of length, mass and time? 3. Define the coefficient of viscosity. Give its dimensions and units. 7 4, Distinguish between streamline and turbulent flow of liquid with example: 5. Describe the way in which the different parts of a viscous liquid move when flowing through a fine tube. What changes take place if the motion is increased? 6. Explain the significance of the Reynold’s number. - 7. Explain the theory of Poiseuille’s method of determining the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid by clearly stating the assumptions made. 8 Derive Poiseuille’s equation for determining the rate of flow of a liquid through a horizontal capillary tube. 9. Derive Poiseuille’s formula to measure coefficient of viscosity of liquid and explain the velocity profile of the advancing. medium in the tube. 10. Explain the limitations of Poiseuille’s equation. 11. Obtain Stoke's law for the motion of small spherical body moving through the viscous medium from dimensional considerations. 12, Using Stoke's law, deduce an expression for terminal velocity of a spherical ball falling under gravity through a viscous fluid.ey 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Explain how Stoke's law is utilized in the determination of coefficient of viscosity of glycerin. Explain how Ostwald’s viscometer is used to compare coefficient of viscosities of two liquids. State the applications of Stoke’s law. Discuss the method of comparing coefficient of viscosity of two liquids using an Ostwald’s viscometer in detail. Describe Ostwald viscometer and explain how the unknown concentration of liquid in mixture of two miscible liquids can be compared by the method of capillary flow. Deserite a laboratory method for determining the coefficient of liquids at room temperature What is the effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity of liquids? ‘What are the practical applications of the knowledge of viscosity?