processes
Article
Numerical Modelling and Simulation of Heat Transfer during
Magnetic Moulding of Al/SiCp Metal Matrix Composites
Arun Prakash Chandran *, Suraj Ravimanalan and Anand Ronald Bennet
Citation: Chandran, A.P.;
Ravimanalan, S.; Bennet, A.R.
Numerical Modelling and Simulation
of Heat Transfer during Magnetic
Moulding of Al/SiCp Metal Matrix
Composites. Processes 2022, 10, 2144.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102144
Academic Editor: Alfredo Iranzo
Received: 6 September 2022
Accepted: 12 October 2022
Published: 20 October 2022
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4.0/).
Processes 2022, 10, 2144. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102144
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering,
Kalavakkam 603110, India
* Correspondence: arunprakashc@ssn.edu.in
Abstract: In traditional casting, sand is used as a mould material to carry heat away from the melt.
However, sand has certain disadvantages, such as poor thermal conductivity, burning of binders,
undesirable transition resulting in mould failure, and defects in the components. To overcome
these limitations, magnetic moulding technology was introduced more than a few decades ago, but
the process never achieved the required industrial developments to commercialise this technology.
It is essential to reconsider and develop this technology further to use it as a regular production
process. In this paper, processing of Al/SiCp composite using magnetic moulding technology is
discussed. The heat transfer results of magnetic moulding process are simulated using COMSOL
Multiphysics software and compared with the sand casting process. The temperature distribution,
thermal conductivity, and phase change have been studied, finding that steel shots as mould materials
show better heat transfer results when compared with sand. This better heat transfer led to a decrease
in solidification time by 25%, which in turn improved the hardness (by 70%), impact toughness
(by 4 times), and wear resistance (by 42%) of the Al/SiCp cast produced. These results very clearly
illustrate the unique signature of the magnetic moulding process.
Keywords: heat transfer; magnetic moulding; mould materials; phase change; sand casting
1. Introduction
Casting is the building block of all manufacturing processes, where the liquid metal
is transformed into solids of different shapes and sizes. Although this method is the
simplest manufacturing path, it involves various challenges that depend on the parameters
such as melting, moulding, alloying, pouring, solidification, and finishing. All the above
parameters need to be controlled simultaneously for a better cast. A sub-optimal choice of
these parameters may lead to defects in the cast product. Amongst the above parameters,
the mould material used in the casting process is profoundly influential. The mould and
the casting always co-exist for a sufficiently long period at high temperature, and both
significantly influence to the quality of the cast. Conventionally, silica sand is used as a
mould material because of its wider availability, appropriate particle size distribution, and
high melting point [1]. However, the use of silica sand has its own limitations [2]. Studies
have shown that the phase transition from alpha quartz to beta quartz at 530 ◦ C results
in volumetric expansion of about 2.5% accompanied by length changes of the mould of
around 1.5%, leading to mould failure and loss of accuracy [3]. Chromite sand, which
has relatively low thermal expansion and good cooling power, can be used as the mould
material to overcome the defects of silica sand. However, chromite sand produces castings
with a poor surface finish. Other alternate mould materials used are olivine and zircon
sand, but both have their own limitations, one of them being the high cost involved in
processing those materials.
These disadvantages can be overcome by using steel shots as the mould material as a
part of the magnetic moulding process. Magnetic moulding is a technique developed by
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 2 of 16

Wittmoser wherein the magnetic field is developed by a coil surrounding the cast setup
when excited by a direct current [4]. This induced magnetic field fixes the steel shots, which
are ferromagnetic in nature. Due to the magnetic field, the steel shots are held together,
increasing the contact area between them. As a result, its thermal conductivity increases,
resulting in faster heat transfer from the molten melt to the edge of the setup walls. Heat
transfer also occurs due to natural convection of air around the setup. This method is
advantageous over conventional casting because of the better thermal conductivity of the
steel shots over sand, resulting in a faster cooling rate and reduction in the solidification
time of casting, with a decrease in production time. Studies by Desai and Heinen have
shown that the use of metal mould reduces casting expenses by about 30% due to the
shortening of the time required for forming the mould cavity [5]. Furthermore, magnetic
moulding leads to improved mechanical properties through grain refinement. Gelfroy et al.
proved that the mould cohesion induced by the magnetic field to prevent the deformation
of the mould during casting contributes for better dimensional tolerances [6]. They also
studied the mechanical and thermal behaviour of Aluminium Silicon Alloy cast processed
using the magnetic moulding technique. They then compared the results with the result
obtained from the cast of same material processed using the lost foam process. In addition,
they developed a mathematical modelling based on Chvorinov’s rule to compute the
solidification time of magnetic moulding and the lost foam process. It is known that
solidification time is based on the thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat of the
mould. Hence, by changing the mould material, the solidification time can either increase
or decrease. Suganthkumar et al. estimated the theoretical strength of the mould based
on the pattern of arrangement of the balls and verified it experimentally [7]. The magnetic
moulding process seems to be one of the potential processes for replacing sand castings
in many critical areas of applications. With this requirement, it is very much essential to
study the process through simulation and by performing detailed experiments in order to
translate this lab scale process to the industrial scale. Furthermore, the magnetic moulding
process is environmentally friendly, and steel shots can be reused and recycled. Studies by
Goni have also proven that the magnetic field has little impact on the health and safety of
workers [8].
In this paper, parameters such as temperature distribution, thermal conductivity,
and phase transition for Al/SiCp metal matrix composite are examined. In addition,
these results are compared with a conventional sand casting material (olivine sand). The
computer simulation was carried out using COMSOL Multiphysics software to extract the
temperature profile at specified locations, which are compared with the experimental values
later in this paper. Experiments were performed to show that the cast produced using the
magnetic moulding technique under optimal conditions (as determined from simulation)
has better properties—such as impact strength, wear resistance, and hardness—when
compared to the cast produced using sand casting.

2. Experimental Validation Setup

2.1. Magnetic Moulding Setup
The cast setup consists of a cylindrical container made of stainless steel with 100 mm
diameter and 150 mm height, with 4 mm thickness on the bottom and sides of the container,
as shown in Figure 1. The container is then filled with steel shots of a particular diameter
up to 50 mm from the bottom. From the works of Bates et al., it can be understood that
Expendable Polystyrene (EPS) coated with Fuller’s earth is generally used for the lost foam
process [9]. In the current work, EPS foam coated with Fuller’s earth is held at the centre,
and the remaining steel shots are filled around it up to the top of the cylinder. The EPS foam
used is cylindrical in shape with 30 mm diameter and 100 mm height. It is coated with
Fuller’s earth, as the research work of Karimian et al. shows that the Fuller’s earth coating
provides optimum permeability for the hot gases to escape [10]. A copper coil of standard
wire gauge (SWG) 19 is wound along the circumference of the cylindrical container. The
ends of the coil are connected to an AC-to-DC converter that has an inbuilt transformer
2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Processes 2022, 10,earth

2144coating provides optimum permeability for the hot gases to escape [10]. A copper 3 of 16
coil of standard wire gauge (SWG) 19 is wound along the circumference of the cylindrical
container. The ends of the coil are connected to an AC-to-DC converter that has an inbuilt
transformer for varying the the
for varying supply voltage
supply andand
voltage current. The The
current. current supplied
current to the
supplied to coil
the coil produces a
produces a magnetic field around the cast setup.
magnetic field around the cast setup.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. (a) Schematic
Figurediagram of the magnetic
1. (a) Schematic diagram moulding setup showing
of the magnetic thesetup
moulding front showing
and top view.
the front and top view.
(b) Actual magnetic
(b)moulding setup. moulding setup.
Actual magnetic

2.2. Material Modelling

2.2. Material Modelling
The material to beThe material
cast to be cast inisthis
in this experiment experiment
Al/SiC p composite, is Al/SiC p composite,
consisting of Alumin- consisting of Alu-
ium alloy Al-6063 matrix reinforced with silicon carbide particles of 3 µm. The reason for3 µm. The reason
minium alloy Al-6063 matrix reinforced with silicon carbide particles of
for choosing aluminium ◦
choosing aluminium as the cast materialasis the cast material
its melting pointisofits melting
around 655point of around
°C, which is 655 C, which
◦
below the Curie is below
point the Curie of
temperature point temperature
the mould materialof steel
the mould material
shots (900 °C). Ifsteel shots (900 C). If the
the melt-
melting
ing point is above point
the Curie is above
point the Curie
temperature point
of the temperature
mould material,ofthen
the the
mould
steelmaterial,
shot’s then the steel
shot’s ferromagnetic
ferromagnetic behaviour behaviour
is lost, leading is lost, leading
to non-induction to non-induction
of the magnetic field by theof the
cop-magnetic field by
the copper coil [3]. Casting Al/SiC composite by using
per coil [3]. Casting Al/SiCp composite by using the magnetic moulding process, where
p the magnetic moulding process,
where the melt is stirred before pouring it into the mould, has the following advantages:
(a) according to Zhilong et al., the magnetic field induced helps in grain refinement of the
cast [11], and (b) according to Sijo and Jayadevan, the stirring of the melt before pouring
results in proper distribution and more wettability of SiC particles in the matrix, ultimately
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

the melt is stirred before pouring it into the mould, has the following advantages: (a) ac-
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 cording to Zhilong et al., the magnetic field induced helps in grain refinement of the 4cast of 16
[11], and (b) according to Sijo and Jayadevan, the stirring of the melt before pouring results
in proper distribution and more wettability of SiC particles in the matrix, ultimately in-
creasing thethe
increasing fracture
fracturetoughness
toughness [12]. The
[12]. Themagnetic
magnetic moulding
moulding setup
setupasasshown
shownininFigure
Figure1 1
has
hasbeen
beencarefully
carefullychosen
chosentotobe bemade
madeup upofofgrade
grade304 304LLstainless
stainlesssteel.
steel.The
Thereason
reasonfor for
choosing
choosingthis
thismaterial
materialisisthat
thatitithas
haslow
lowrelative
relativepermeability
permeability(compared
(comparedtotootherothergrades
grades
ofofstainless
stainlesssteel)
steel)and,
and,according
accordingtotothe theBritish
BritishStainless
StainlessSteel
SteelAssociation,
Association,ititallows
allowsthe the
magneticlines
magnetic linesofofforce
forcetotopass
passthrough
throughthe thewalls
wallsofofthe
thesetup,
setup,thus
thusbinding
bindingthethesteel
steelshots.
shots.
Otherwise,all
Otherwise, allthe
theflux
fluxlines
lineswill
willremain
remaincontained
containedwithinwithinthethewalls
wallsofofthe
thesetup,
setup,resulting
resulting
ininno
nomagnetization
magnetizationofofthe thesteel
steelshots.
shots.Harvey
HarveyPD PDhashasshown
shownthatthatgrade
grade410410stainless
stainlesssheet
sheet
hasvery
has veryhigh
highrelative
relativepermeability
permeability[13],[13],and
andBoyer
Boyerand andGalls
Gallshavehaveshown
shownthatthatvery
veryhigh
high
relativepermeability
relative permeability allows
allows the magnetic
magneticflux fluxlines
linestotoorient
orientthethesteel shots
steel accordingly
shots accordingly [14].
Hence,
[14]. the mould
Hence, material
the mould steel shots
material have been
steel shots have chosen to be made
been chosen to beof gradeof410
made stainless
grade 410
steel. The
stainless materials
steel. which were
The materials whichfound
wereto found
be suitable
to bein the simulation
suitable are listed along
in the simulation with
are listed
their properties in Table 1, with corresponding references.
along with their properties in Table 1, with corresponding references.

Suitablematerials
Table1.1.Suitable
Table materialsand
andtheir
theirproperties.
properties.

Properties Al/SiC Grade

Grade 410410
SSSS
[15,16] Olivine
Olivine Sand Grade
Grade
Properties p
Al/SiC p Sand 304304 L SS
L SS [15,16] Copper
[15,16] Copper
3 [15,16]
Density (kg/m )3 2770 7880 3150 8000 8960
Density (kg/m ) 2770 7880 3150 8000 8960
Thermal conductivity, K
Thermal conductivity, K (W/m K) 200 200 25
25 7.5 7.5 16.216.2 400400
(W/m K)
Specific heatheat
Specific at constant pressure,
at constant
CpCp(J/kg K) K) 775 775 460
460 c.f Figure 2 2
c.f Figure 500500 385385
pressure, (J/kg
Relativepermeability
Relative permeability 1 1 750
750 - - 1.008
1.008 1 1
Electrical
Electricalconductivity
conductivity × 10×7 107
1.11 1.11 1.74 77
1.74 ××1010 - - 1.37
1.37 ×7 107
× 10 × 7107
6 ×6 10
Porosity
Porosity - - 0.4804
0.4804 0.440
0.440 - - - -

Figure
Figure2.2.Variation
Variationofofheat
heatcapacity
capacitywith
withtemperature
temperaturefor
forolivine
olivinesand
sandatatconstant
constantpressure.
pressure.

Thediameter
The diameterofofthe
thesteel
steelshots
shotswas
wasvaried
variedasasaaparameter
parametertotostudy
studythe
thetemperature
temperature
distribution. These diameters are expressed in the form of porosity (Φ), given
distribution. These diameters are expressed in the form of porosity (Ф), given by by

VV
ΦФ==11−− void
V
(1)
(1)
V
where
whereVVisis the
the total volume occupied
total volume occupiedbybythe
thesolid
solidmaterial
material and
and Vvoidisisthe
Vvoid the volume
volume occu-
occupied
pied by the
by the voids. voids.
InInthis
thisstudy,
study,three different
three diameters
different (0.18,
diameters 0.6,0.6,
(0.18, andand
1mm) of steel
1 mm) of shots were con-
steel shots were
sidered
considered and their corresponding porosity estimated, under the assumption thatthe
and their corresponding porosity estimated, under the assumption that thesteel
steel
shots are distributed uniformly. Table 2 gives the porosity of the three differently sized
steel shots.
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 5 of 16

Table 2. Porosity of steel shots.

Diameter (mm) V (mm3 ) Porosity Porosity in %

0.18 0.5218 0.4782 47.82
0.60 0.5196 0.4804 48.04
1.00 0.5245 0.4755 47.55

2.3. Theoretical Formulation

Numerical simulation of the moulding process to predict the temperature involves
multiple physical processes. The magnetic field, air gaps in the compacted steel, pattern
material, steel box, and the surrounding air environment need to be considered for the
simulation. Hence, COMSOL Multiphysics software was used in this study. In this section,
the governing equations and the corresponding boundary conditions are discussed.

2.3.1. Magnetic Field

The equations defined in this section are used to compute the magnetic field and
induced current distribution in and around the coil and the conductor. Maxwell’s equations
are used to correlate Ampere’s Law with the constitutive equations, as it employs the
magnetic vector potential as a dependant variable.

J = ∇ × H = σ ( E + (V × B)) + Je (2)

∂B
∇×E = − (3)
∂t
∇×A = B (4)
∂A
E=− (5)
∂t
where σ is the electrical conductivity, H is the magnetic field strength, B is the magnetic
flux density, Je is the current density in the coil, V is the velocity of the conductor, E is the
electric field strength, and A is the magnetic vector potential. The magnetic flux density
and the magnetic field strength are related by

B = µ0 ( H + M ) (6)

H = µ0−1 B − M (7)
where M is the intensity of magnetisation and µ0 = 4π10−7 H/m is the permeability of a
vacuum. The externally generated current density is given by

NIcoil
Je = (8)
Acoil

where N is the number of turns in the coil and Icoil and Acoil are the current given to the coil
and the cross-sectional area of the coil, respectively. Ampere’s law is written as

∂A    NIcoil
σ + ∇ × µ0−1 (∇ × A) − M − σ(V × (∇ × A)) = (9)
∂t Acoil

The magnetic vector potential and the magnetic flux are computed by solving
Equations (2) and (9).

2.3.2. Heat Transfer

The heat transfer in the system is governed by the classical transient diffusion equation:

∂T
ρC p +∇·q = Q (10)
∂t
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 6 of 16

where q = k∇ T, k is the thermal conductivity (W/mK), Q is the internal heat source (W/m3 ),
ρ is the density of the solid medium (kg/m3 ), Cp is the specific heat capacity of the solid
medium (J/kg K), and T is the temperature (K).

2.3.3. Porous Media

Mould materials such as steel shots and sand used in this study are porous in nature,
and the heat equation used is similar to Equation (10), with small changes corresponding
to a porous matrix filled with a fluid. The governing equation for heat transfer through
porous media is given by [17]

∂T  
− k e f f ∇2 T = Q


ρC p e f f ∂t
+ ρ f C p, f u · ∇ T (11)

where

ρC p ef f
= Vs ρ p C p,p + (1 − Vs )ρC p,p
k e f f = Vs k s + (1 − Vs )k p
where ρ f and ρ p are the density of the fluid and porous medium, respectively; Cf,p and Cp,p
are the specific heat capacity of the fluid and the porous medium, respectively; u is the
fluid velocity (m/s); keff , ks , and kp are the effective thermal conductivity, the conductivity
of the solid, and the conductivity of the porous medium, respectively; and Vs is the solid
volume fraction.

2.3.4. Phase Change Medium

The phase change medium solves the heat equation for specifying the properties of a
phase change material according to the apparent heat capacity formulation. The aluminium
domain changes from a liquid to a solid state, for which the governing equation is given by

∂T
ρC p+ ρC p u · ∇ T − k∇2 T = Q
∂t
where ρ = Vs ρ phase1 + (1 − Vs )ρ phase2
1   ∂αm (12)
Cp = Vs ρ phase1 C p,phase1 + (1 − Vs )ρ phase1 + L
ρ ∂T
k = Vs k phase1 + (1 − Vs )k phase2

where αm is the coefficient of thermal expansion, which is given by

1 (1 − Vs )ρ phase2 − Vs ρ phase1
αm =
2 Vs ρ phase1 + (1 − Vs )ρ phase2

The boundary condition used here is convective cooling, where the air around the cast
setup cools the surface by natural convection. According to Nield and Bejan, the following
equation represents the heat transfer coefficient on the outer side walls of the vertical thin
cylinder [18]:
q0 = h( Text − T )
1/4 !
(13)

k 4 7Ra H Pr 4(272 + 315Pr ) H
h= +
H 3 5(20 + 21Pr ) 35(64 + 63Pr ) D

gαm | T − Text | H 3
Rayleigh Number, Ra H =
µ ∗ kf
where h is the heat transfer coefficient for thermal convection; D and H are the diameter and
height of the vertical cylinder, respectively; Pr is the Prandtl number; Text is the external
or ambient temperature; µ is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid medium; g is the
 Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Processes 2022, 10, 2144 7 of 16

where h is the heat transfer coefficient for thermal convection; D and H are the diameter
where h is the heat transfer coefficient for thermal convection; D and H are the diameter
and height of the vertical cylinder, respectively; Pr is the Prandtl number; Text is the exter-
and height of the vertical cylinder, respectively; Pr is the Prandtl number; Text is the exter-
nal or ambient
acceleration duetemperature;
to gravity; and 𝜇 is
k f the coefficient
is the thermalof viscosity of of
conductivity the fluid medium; g isThe
the
nal or ambient temperature; 𝜇 is the coefficient of viscosity of thethe fluid
fluid medium.
medium; g is the
acceleration
electromagnetic due to gravity; and 𝑘 is the thermal conductivity of the fluid medium. The
acceleration dueheat source isand
to gravity; coupled
𝑘 is with the heatconductivity
the thermal equation to obtain the following:
of the fluid medium. The
electromagnetic heat source is coupled with the heat equation to obtain the following:
electromagnetic heat source is coupled with the heat equation to obtain the following:
∂T 𝜕𝑇 2
ρC p − k ∇ T = Qe (14)
𝜌𝐶∂t 𝜕𝑇 − 𝑘∇ 𝑇 = 𝑄 (14)
𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑡 − 𝑘∇ 𝑇 = 𝑄 (14)
𝜕𝑡
where Q is the resistive heating due to electric current.
where Qe e is the resistive heating due to electric current.
where Qe is the resistive heating due to electric current.
2.4. Testing and Characterization
2.4. Testing and Characterization
2.4. Charpy
Testing and Characterization
impact testing was performed on the cast specimen, prepared according to the
Charpy impact testing was performed on the cast specimen, prepared according to
ASTMCharpy impact(10
E23 standard mm ×
testing was mm × 55 mm,
10 performed on the cast specimen,
V-notch with 2 mm prepared
depth) onaccording
a Charpyto
the ASTM E23 standard (10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm, V-notch with 2 mm depth) on a Charpy
impact
the ASTMtesting
E23machine,
standardas (10shown
mm × in 10Figure
mm × 55 3. mm, V-notch with 2 mm depth) on a Charpy
impact testing machine, as shown in Figure 3.
impact testing machine, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Charpy impact test setup.

Figure3.3.Charpy
Figure Charpyimpact
impacttest
testsetup.
setup.

AA drywear
Adry
wear testwas
dry weartest
was conductedon
test wasconducted
on a pin-on-discmachine,
conducted onaapin-on-disc
machine, asshown
pin-on-disc machine,as
shown in Figure4,4,toto
as shownininFigure
Figure 4, to
understand
understand the effect of steel shots on the wear rate of the sample.
understandthe
theeffect
effectofofsteel
steelshots
shotson
onthe
thewear
wearrate
rateofofthe
thesample.
sample.

Figure 4. Pin-on-disc wear test machine. A Brinell hardness test was performed on the specimen.
Figure 4. Pin-on-disc wear test machine. A Brinell hardness test was performed on the specimen.
The cast
Figure samples were
4. Pin-on-disc wearcut test
to amachine.
height of A50Brinell
mm from the top,
hardness testaswas
shown in Figure
performed on5the
(not to scale).
specimen.
The cast samples were cut to a height of 50 mm from the top, as shown in Figure 5 (not to scale).
Thecast
The cutsamples
section were
surface
cutwas
to a smoothed
height of 50with
mmemery
from thesheet
top,and cleaned.
as shown The hardness
in Figure 5 (not tovalues
scale). were
The
The cut section surface was smoothed with emery sheet and cleaned. The hardness values were
found
cut using
section a steelwas
surface ballsmoothed
indenter, with
with an applied
emery sheetload
andofcleaned.
100 N. The hardness values were found
found using a steel ball indenter, with an applied load of 100 N.
using a steel ball indenter, with an applied load of 100 N.

Surface roughness measurements were also made for the cast produced using magnetic
moulding and the sand casting setup.
Processes 2022,10,
Processes2022, 10,2144
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of 16
16

5. Schematic
Figure 5.
Figure Schematic representation
representation of
of the
the locations
locationswhere
wherethe
thehardness
hardnessvalue
valuewas
wasfound.
found.

Surface
3. Results roughness
and measurements were also made for the cast produced using mag-
Discussion
neticFor
moulding and the sand casting
numerical simulation, setup.
we used COMSOL Multiphysics 5.3, as it provides an easy
platform for solving coupled multiphysics (viz., electromagnetism and heat transfer). For
3. Results calculations,
numerical and Discussionthe following assumptions were made:
• For numerical
The temperature simulation,
distribution weisused COMSOL
uniform Multiphysics
throughout the EPS5.3, as it
foam provides
domain an easy
where the
platform
molten foraluminium
solving coupled multiphysics (viz., electromagnetism and heat transfer). For
is poured.
•numerical
The heat calculations,
loss due tothe following
radiation assumptions
around were made:
the cast setup is negligible.
•• The The thermal
temperature expansion of the cast
distribution being produced
is uniform throughout is very
the EPSsmall anddomain
foam can be where
neglected
the
in the heat
molten transfer equation.
aluminium is poured.
•• Axisymmetric
The heat loss due conditions apply for
to radiation the whole
around magnetic
the cast setup is moulding
negligible. setup (the correspond-
• ing Theequations were used of
thermal expansion while
the solving
cast being the produced
model in the commercial
is very small and software
can beCOMSOL).
neglected
• The material is homogeneous
in the heat transfer equation. and isotropic.
•• The Fuller’s earth
Axisymmetric coating on
conditions the EPS
apply for thepattern
whole is magnetic
very thin and can besetup
moulding neglected.
(the corre-
sponding
Using equationssection
the geometric were used
featurewhile solving
available the model the
in COMSOL, in the commercial
domain software
was constructed.
Due to COMSOL).
radial symmetry, an axisymmetric analysis was used. Figure 6 shows the geometry
• different
and The material
regions is homogeneous
in the model. The andmaterial
isotropic.properties for the corresponding domains
•
were imported
The Fuller’sintoearth
the material
coating on library.
the EPSThen, the magnetic
pattern fieldand
is very thin module was
can be used to define
neglected.
the SWG-19 multi turn coil with 500 turns and an electrical conductivity of 6 7 S/m. A
× 10was
Using the geometric section feature available in COMSOL, the domain con-
current
structed.of Due
5 A was passed
to radial through the
symmetry, an coil for about 30
axisymmetric s to study
analysis wasthe effect
used. of current
Figure on the
6 shows the
temperature
geometry and distribution. A current
different regions in theof model.
5 A wasThe chosen because
material it has been
properties experimentally
for the correspond-
determined
ing domainsthat were 5A is the optimum
imported into the current
materialfor achieving
library. Then,better properties
the magnetic of the
field cast [19].
module was
Following
used to the
define definition
the SWG-19 of the magnetic
multi turn field
coil module,
with 500 the
turns heat
and transfer
an module
electrical was set up,
conductivity of
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
where the aluminium domain was defined as the phase change medium with 360 9 of 16
kJ/kg as
6 × 10 S/m. A current of 5 A was passed through the coil for about 30 s to study the effect
7
the latent heat of fusion and 933.47 K as the phase transition temperature; the steel shots
of current on the temperature distribution. A current of 5 A was chosen because it has
domain was defined as a porous media with a porosity value of 0.6 mm (Table 2).
been experimentally determined that 5 A is the optimum current for achieving better
properties of the cast [19]. Following the definition of the magnetic field module, the heat
transfer module was set up, where the aluminium domain was defined as the phase
change medium with 360 kJ/kg as the latent heat of fusion and 933.47 K as the phase tran-
sition temperature; the steel shots domain was defined as a porous media with a porosity
value of 0.6 mm (Table 2).

Figure
Figure6.6.Geometry
Geometryand
andschematic
schematicof
ofdifferent
differentregions
regionsof
ofthe
themodel.
model.

Ronald et al. studied the influence of steel shots on the properties of the cast and
found that steel shots of 0.6 mm produced a cast with better mechanical properties when
compared with 0.1 mm and 1 mm steel shots [20]. Hence, steel shots of 0.6 mm were cho-
sen as the mould material for magnetic moulding in this study. The aluminium domain
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 9 of 16

Ronald et al. studied the influence of steel shots on the properties of the cast and
found that steel shots of 0.6 mm produced a cast with better mechanical properties when
compared with 0.1 mm and 1 mm steel shots [20]. Hence, steel shots of 0.6 mm were chosen
as the mould material for magnetic moulding in this study. The aluminium domain was
given an initial temperature of 973 K, and the outer boundary was subjected to convective
boundary conditions according to Equation (13). The heat transfer and magnetic field
modules were then coupled using the multiphysics interface module. After coupling, the
domain was discretized with non-overlapping regions called elements. A systematic mesh
convergence study was conducted; the details of the mesh employed for this study are
given in Table 3.

Table 3. Mesh statistics employed in this study.

Description Value
Minimum element quality 0.7583
Average element quality 0.9847
Triangular elements 9277
Edge elements 490
Vertex elements 16
Maximum element size 0.00154 mm
Minimum element size 3.08 × 10−6 mm
Curvature factor 0.2
Predefined size Extremely fine

A similar procedure was adopted for the mould material olivine sand, with the
following changes: the magnetic domain is not defined and hence no magnetic field is used
for the mould material. Since olivine sand is also a porous medium, the porosity value
must be given as input. Experiments by Leclaire and Umnova show that the porosity value
of olivine sand is 0.444, so this value was given as input [21].

3.1. Experimental Results

In addition to the systematic numerical study, specimens of Al/SiCp were cast using
the two techniques (viz., sand casting and magnetic moulding), and the following experi-
ments were carried on the cast material made from sand casting and magnetic moulding to
understand the properties.
The aluminium metal was melted to 700 ◦ C, to which silicon carbide particles (10% by
weight) were added and stirred in at around 300 RPM. A fluoride-based flux was added
to prevent oxidation and also to improve the wettability. Once the melt was ready, it
was poured into the EPS cylindrical pattern, which sublimed completely, leaving only the
molten metal in the space occupied by the pattern. The Fuller’s earth around the pattern
prevents direct contact between the mould and the molten material. In addition, this
coating has the optimum permeability for the hot gases to escape. Steel shots of 0.6 mm
diameter were selected as it is the optimum size for producing better properties of the
cast [20]. The current induced in the coil was around 5 A for about 30 s, as beyond this time,
overheating of the coil occurs, resulting in coil damage. This time is sufficient enough to
compact the steel shots, increasing the heat transfer for phase transition. In addition, rapid
heat transfer occurs only within this time to reach the equilibrium temperature between
the surroundings and the cast. This casting experiment was also performed for the mould
materials olivine sand, for which the input data were recorded and analysed.
The simulation results obtained have been plotted to understand the heat transfer
behaviour of the mould materials used. Along with the heat transfer, a magnetic study
was also performed. These observations primarily show the time-dependent behaviour of
temperature, thermal conductivity, and phase change occurring at different time intervals.
For the experimental perspective, a hardness test, dry wear test, and impact toughness test
were conducted, and the properties of the cast material were studied.
 The simulation results obtained have been plotted to understand the heat transfer
behaviour of the mould materials used. Along with the heat transfer, a magnetic study
was also performed. These observations primarily show the time-dependent behaviour of
temperature, thermal conductivity, and phase change occurring at different time inter-
vals.
Processes 2022, For the experimental perspective, a hardness test, dry wear test, and impact tough-
10, 2144 10 of 16
ness test were conducted, and the properties of the cast material were studied.

3.2. Effect of Magnetic Field

3.2. andofFlux
Effect Lines Field and Flux Lines
Magnetic
The current flowingThe through
current theflowing
coil produces
through a magnetic field outaofmagnetic
the coil produces the planefieldvector
out of the plane vector
direction. The commercial software COMSOL was used to solve for the magnetic
direction. The commercial software COMSOL was used to solve for the magnetic vector vector
potential, from which one canfrom
potential, compute
whichwhether
one canthe flux density
compute whether induced
the fluxis density
sufficient to
induced is sufficient to
compact the steel shots. Figure 7a shows the magnetic flux lines at the end of 10 s. From
compact the steel shots. Figure 7a shows the magnetic flux lines at the end of 10 s. From
the figure, it is evident that the
the figure, it magnetic
is evidentlines that of
theforce pass through
magnetic the mould
lines of force domain,the mould domain,
pass through
orienting the steel shots along
orienting thethe lineshots
steel of force.
along The
theflux
linedensity
of force.can Thebeflux
computed
densityfrom can be computed from
Equation (6) and is Equation
shown in (6)Figure
and 7b for 0–60
is shown ins.Figure
For the 7bcurrent
for 0–60 study,
s. Forthe
thewhole
currentmould
study, the whole mould
domain was assumed to be was
domain concentrated
assumed at to the centre point (30
be concentrated mm
at the frompoint
centre the x-axis
(30 mm andfrom the x-axis and
104 mm from the y-axis) of the domain, as shown in Figure 6. From
104 mm from the y-axis) of the domain, as shown in Figure 6. From Figure 7b, one can see Figure 7b, one can
that for about 30 s see
while
thatthe
forcurrent
about 30 is sflowing
while thethrough
currentthe coil, thethrough
is flowing flux density in the
the coil, the flux density in the
domain is about 0.0024 Tesla.
domain is about 0.0024 Tesla.

es 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

(a)

(b)
Figure 7. Magnetic moulding
Figure process:
7. Magnetic (a) magnetic
moulding flux
process: (a)lines at theflux
magnetic end lines
of 10at
s and (b) variation
the end of(b) variation of
of 10 s and
magnitude fluxmagnitude
with respect to with
flux time.respect to time.

3.3. Effect ofatTemperature

3.3. Effect of Temperature the LocationsatA,
theB,Locations
C and D A, B, C and D
For ease ofa observation,
For ease of observation, temperature studya temperature study at
was conducted was conducted
four points onat
thefour
top points on the
top surface of the cast setup. These four locations are the points
surface of the cast setup. These four locations are the points labelled as A, B, C, and D, as labelled as A, B, C, and
shown in Figure D, as shown
6. The in Figure variation
temperature 6. The temperature
at these fourvariation
locationsatfor
these four locations
magnetic mould- for magnetic
moulding and sand casting for a time up to 60 s is
ing and sand casting for a time up to 60 s is shown in Figure 8, respectively. shown in Figure 8, respectively.
 3.3. Effect of Temperature at the Locations A, B, C and D
For ease of observation, a temperature study was conducted at four points on the top
surface of the cast setup. These four locations are the points labelled as A, B, C, and D, as
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 11 of 16
shown in Figure 6. The temperature variation at these four locations for magnetic mould-
ing and sand casting for a time up to 60 s is shown in Figure 8, respectively.

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Phase
Phase transition with respect
transition with respectto
totime
timefrom
fromliquid
liquidtotosolid
solid phase
phase forfor different
different mould
mould mate-
materials
rials at different locations.
at different locations.

From
From Figure
Figure 8a,8a, itit is
is evident
evident thatthat the
the temperature
temperature at at the
the centre
centre location
location (Figure
(Figure 6) 6)
comes
comes down to 370 K in 60 s for magnetic moulding, whereas in the case of sandcasting,
down to 370 K in 60 s for magnetic moulding, whereas in the case of sand casting,
itit decreases
decreases to to 400
400 KK atat the
the same
same time.
time. This
This shows
shows that
that the
the steel
steel shots
shots conduct
conduct heat heat faster
faster
than
than thethe sand.
sand. Steel
Steelshots
shotspacked
packedonto ontothe
theshape
shapeof ofthe
themould
mouldare are porous;
porous; theythey areare filled
filled
with
with air air gaps
gaps that
that are heated upon
are heated upon cooling
cooling ofof Al/SiC
Al/SiCpp. .This
Thisin inturn
turnconducts
conductsthe theheat
heat atat aa
faster
faster rate.
rate.
A
A similar
similartrend
trendcancanbebeobserved
observedatat point
pointB in Figure
B in Figure 8b.8b.At the
At thepoints C and
points D, itD,
C and canit
be seen that the temperature of the mould increases at a faster rate
can be seen that the temperature of the mould increases at a faster rate for the magnetic for the magnetic mould-
ing processprocess
moulding (Figure(Figure
8c,d). This is because
8c,d). heat is conducted
This is because at a faster
heat is conducted at arate from
faster ratethe centre
from the
point
centretowards the boundary
point towards the boundary in the incase
theof magnetic
case moulding,
of magnetic moulding, whenwhen compared
compared to theto
sand casting
the sand process.
casting process.
The
The theoretical
theoretical and
and experimentally
experimentally observed
observed cooling
cooling curve
curve is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 9. 9. The
The
solidification
solidificationtime timeforforAl Al composite
compositeisisalmost
almostthethesame
sametheoretically
theoreticallyand andexperimentally,
experimentally,
and a very
and very good
goodagreement
agreementisisseen until
seen about
until 60 min.
about Figure
60 min. 9 also
Figure shows
9 also the cooling
shows curve
the cooling
for sand
curve for casting. Unlike
sand casting. the magnetic
Unlike mould,
the magnetic the experimental
mould, the experimental cooling curvecurve
cooling showsshows some
difference
some whenwhen
difference compared
compared to thetotheoretical estimate.
the theoretical It can
estimate. be seen
It can thatthat
be seen experimentally,
experimen-
the molten
tally, metalmetal
the molten coolscoolsfaster; this this
faster; could be attributed
could be attributedto the
to themoisture
moisture content
content present
present in
thethe
in sand, which
sand, whichmaymay conduct the heat
conduct faster.
the heat FromFrom
faster. FigureFigure
9, it can9, be seenbethat
it can seen thethat
cooling
the
curves are
cooling much
curves arefaster
muchfor magnetic
faster moulding
for magnetic than sand
moulding than casting; this is due
sand casting; thisto is the
duegreater
to the
thermal conductivity of the steel
greater thermal conductivity of the steel shots.shots.

Processes 2022, 10, 2144
and a very good agreement is seen until about 60 min. Figure 9 also shows the cooling
curve for sand casting. Unlike the magnetic mould, the experimental cooling curve shows
some difference when compared to the theoretical estimate. It can be seen that experimen-
tally, the molten metal cools faster; this could be attributed to the moisture content present
in the sand, which may conduct the heat faster. From Figure 9, it can be seen that the
cooling curves are much faster for magnetic moulding than sand casting; this is due to 12 of
the16

greater thermal conductivity of the steel shots.

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

Temperatureasasa function
Figure9.9.Temperature
Figure a function
of of time
time forfor magnetic
magnetic moulding
moulding andand
sandsand casting
casting based
based on
on nu-
numerical
merical prediction
prediction andand experimental
experimental observation.
observation.
3.4. Effect
3.4. Effect of
of Phase Transition of
Phase Transition of Al/SiCp
Al/SiCp
Phase transition
Phase transition from
from liquid
liquid to to solid
solid state
state is
is also
also an
an important
important factor
factor inin discerning
discerning the the
heat transfer properties of various mould materials. Solidification
heat transfer properties of various mould materials. Solidification of molten metal starts of molten metal starts
from point
from point B B and
and ends
ends atat point
pointAA(Figure
(Figure6). 6).Hence,
Hence,the solidification
the solidificationof ofmolten
molten metal
metalat
point
at point AAindicates
indicates that
thatthethemolten
moltenmetal metalininthetheentire
entiremould
mouldcavity
cavityhas
has been
been solidified.
solidified.
Therefore, to
Therefore, to study
study thethe effect
effect of of mould
mould materials
materials on on the
the solidification
solidification time,
time, finding
finding thethe
solidification time for point A is
solidification time for point A is sufficient.sufficient.
Figure 10
Figure 10 shows
shows thethe phase
phase transition
transition of of the
the aluminium
aluminium domain
domain withwith respect
respect to to time
time
for various
various mould
mould materials
materialsatatpoint pointA.A.The Thetransition
transition is is
plotted
plottedalong
alongthethey-axis as aasdi-
y-axis a
mensionless number
dimensionless number within
withinthethe
range from
range 0 to01,towith
from 0 and
1, with 1 representing
0 and 1 representing the solid state
the solid
and liquid
state state, state,
and liquid respectively. The diameter
respectively. of the of
The diameter steel
theshots
steelemployed
shots employedis 0.6 mm due
is 0.6 mmto
the better
due to the heat
bettertransfer characteristics
heat transfer of thisofsize.
characteristics this It canItbe
size. canseen that that
be seen the time taken
the time for
taken
solidification
for solidificationof aluminium
of aluminium alloy from
alloy 700 700
from °C for◦ C the mould
for the materials
mould steelsteel
materials shots andand
shots oli-
vine sand
olivine sandis 3isand 4 s,4respectively.
3 and s, respectively. This shows
This shows thatthat
thethe
useuse
of steel shots
of steel has has
shots reduced
reducedthe
solidification
the solidification time by by
time 25%.25%.Faster
Faster solidification
solidificationimplies
impliesbetter
bettercooling
cooling rate,
rate, indicating
higher productivity and improved improved properties
properties of of the
the cast
cast material.
material.

Figure 10. Phase

Phase transition
transitionwith
withrespect to to
respect time from
time liquid
from to solid
liquid phase
to solid for different
phase mould
for different materials.
mould ma-
terials.
3.5. Microstructure and Hardness Test
The literature and
3.5. Microstructure states that there
Hardness Testis a uniform distribution of SiC in the Al matrix in the
case of sand casting [12]. Hence, microstructure was examined for magnetic moulding
The literature states that there is a uniform distribution of SiC in the Al matrix in the
case of sand casting [12]. Hence, microstructure was examined for magnetic moulding to
ensure uniform distribution of the SiC reinforcement particles in the Al matrix. The SEM
microstructure of the Al/SiCp cast using magnetic moulding techniques is shown in Figure
11. From the figure, it is clear that the reinforcement particles are uniformly distributed in
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 13 of 16

to ensure uniform distribution of the SiC reinforcement particles in the Al matrix. The
SEM microstructure of the Al/SiCp cast using magnetic moulding techniques is shown
in Figure 11. From the figure, it is clear that the reinforcement particles are uniformly
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
distributed in the Al matrix in the case of the magnetic moulding process.

Figure11.
Figure 11.SEM
SEMmicrostructure
microstructureofofAl/SiC
Al/SiCpp cast
cast using magnetic moulding
using magnetic moulding technique.
technique.

AA Brinell
Brinell hardness
hardnesstesttestwaswascarried
carriedoutout
on Al/SiC p samples
on Al/SiC cast from
p samples castmagnetic mould-
from magnetic
ing and sand
moulding and casting techniques.
sand casting The cast
techniques. Thesamples were 100
cast samples were mm inmm
100 height; and forand
in height; the
hardness
for measurement,
the hardness a specimen
measurement, of heightof50height
a specimen mm was 50 cut.
mmThe wascut section
cut. The cutsurface was
section
smoothed
surface waswith emerywith
smoothed sheets
emeryandsheets
prepared for the hardness
and prepared test. The
for the hardness hardness
test. values
The hardness
values were found
were found at specific
at specific locations
locations on theon the periphery
periphery with awith
steelaball
steelindenter
ball indenter of 1/16”
of 1/16” diam-
diameter,
eter, usingusing a dwell
a dwell time oftime
10 sofand
10 an
s and an applied
applied load of load
100 N.of The
100 results
N. Theofresults of the
the hardness
hardness test arein
test are shown shown
Tablein4.Table
It can4.be
It can
seenbethat
seenthethat theproduced
cast cast producedusingusing
0.6 mm0.6 mm
steelsteel
shot
shot
mouldmouldhas has better
better properties
properties thanthan
the the
castcast
made madeout out of sand
of sand casting.
casting. TheThe hardness
hardness of
of the
the
castcast processed
processed using
using thethe sand
sand casting
casting technique
technique was was found
found to to
be be
10 10
HB,HB, whereas
whereas it is
it is 17
17
HBHB forfor the
the magnetic
magnetic moulding
moulding technique,
technique, representinga a70%
representing 70%increase.
increase.

Table4.4.Hardness
Table Hardnessvalue
valueofofthe
thecast.
cast.

S. No. Process Indentation Layer Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1TrialTrial

3 Average
S. No. Process Indentation Layer 2 Trial
Trial4 3 Average
Trial 4 (HB)
(HB)
1 Sand Casting Outer Layer 9 11 9.8 10.2 10
1 Sand Casting Outer Layer 9 11 9.8 10.2 10
2 Magnetic Moulding Outer Layer 17 16 17 17 16.75
Magnetic
2 Outer Layer 17 16 17 17 16.75
Moulding
3.6. Dry Wear Test
3.6. Dry
UsingWear
theTest
pin-on-disc, a dry wear test was conducted to understand the effect of
the mould material on the wear
Using the pin-on-disc, a dry rate
wearoftest
thewascastconducted
specimens. A cylindrical
to understand thepin made
effect of
of the
Al/SiC with dimensions 10 mm diameter and 20 mm length was employed,
mouldpmaterial on the wear rate of the cast specimens. A cylindrical pin made of Al/SiCp and the disc
material was EN8 10
with dimensions (Figure 12). The experiment
mm diameter and 20 mm was carried
length out with a and
was employed, loadthe
of 10 N,material
disc a fixed
sliding
was EN8 distance
(Figure of12).
773 The
m, and a speed of
experiment was 0.6carried
m/s. From the experiments,
out with it was
a load of 10 N, observed
a fixed sliding
that the specific wear rate for the Al/SiC cast using the magnetic moulding
distance of 773 m, and a speed of 0.6 m/s. From the experiments, it was observed that the
p technique is
0.001269 mm 3 N−1 m−1 , whilst it is 0.0018121 mm3 N−1 m−1 for the sand cast specimen.
specific wear rate for the Al/SiCp cast using the magnetic moulding technique is 0.001269
This
mm3clearly
N−1m−1indicates
, whilst itthat the cast made
is 0.0018121 mm3N by−1mthe
−1 magnetic moulding
for the sand technique
cast specimen. yields
This better
clearly in-
wear resistance (increased by 42%).
dicates that the cast made by the magnetic moulding technique yields better wear re-
sistance (increased by 42%).

160 mm

Figure 12. Schematic representation of pin and disc.

 with dimensions 10 mm diameter and 20 mm length was employed, and the disc material
was EN8 (Figure 12). The experiment was carried out with a load of 10 N, a fixed sliding
distance of 773 m, and a speed of 0.6 m/s. From the experiments, it was observed that the
specific wear rate for the Al/SiCp cast using the magnetic moulding technique is 0.001269
mm3N−1m−1, whilst it is 0.0018121 mm3N−1m−1 for the sand cast specimen. This clearly in-
Processes 2022, 10, 2144
dicates that the cast made by the magnetic moulding technique yields better wear14re- of 16

sistance (increased by 42%).

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 16

160 mm

Figure
Figure 12.12. Schematic
Schematic representation
representation of of
pinpin and
and disc.
disc.
3.7. Impact Toughness
3.7. Impact Toughness
For the impact study, the Charpy impact test was employed, for which the experi-
For the impact study, the Charpy impact test was employed, for which the experiments
ments were carried out at room temperature. The test piece was supported at the ends
were carried out at room temperature. The test piece was supported at the ends and a
and a V-notch was introduced at the centre on the face that is opposite to the face where
V-notch was introduced at the centre on the face that is opposite to the face where the
the pendulum strikes the test piece. For the cast specimen made from magnetic moulding,
pendulum strikes the test piece. For the cast specimen made from magnetic moulding, the
the average Charpy energy was found to be 28 J, while it was 7 J for the specimen made
average Charpy energy was found to be 28 J, while it was 7 J for the specimen made from
from sand casting. Hence, the impact toughness of the cast obtained using magnetic
sand casting. Hence, the impact toughness of the cast obtained using magnetic moulding is
moulding is 4 times higher when compared to that of sand casting.
4 times higher when compared to that of sand casting.
3.8.3.8.
Surface Roughness
Surface Roughness
TheThesurface roughness
surface roughnessof of
thethe
conventional
conventionalsand castcast
sand andandthethe
magnetic
magnetic moulding
moulding
component
component was measured using a optical profiler with a cut-off length of 0.8 mm,mm,
was measured using a optical profiler with a cut-off length of 0.8 as
as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 13. Surface
13. Surface roughness
roughness measurements
measurements werewere
mademadeon theonas-cast
the as-cast
raw raw sam-The
sample.
ple.measured
The measured average height of the surface is around R = 3.736 µm
average height of the surface is around Ra = 3.736 µm for the sand casted
a for the sandand
casted
4.035 µm for the magnetic moulded component. From Figure 13, it is also clear thatclear
and 4.035 µm for the magnetic moulded component. From Figure 13, it is also the Rv
thatvalue v value
the Rand and Rare
Rp value p value
also are alsofor
higher higher for magnetic
magnetic moulding. moulding.

14

12

10
Values in μm

6 Magnetic Molding
Sand Casting
4

0
Rp Rv Ra
2D Surface roughness parameters

Figure 13. 2D surface roughness parameters.

Figure 13. 2D surface roughness parameters.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this study, the multiphysics computational domain was used to simulate the tem-
perature distribution
In this study, in the mould.
the multiphysics The rate at which
computational domainthewas
temperature of the mould
used to simulate varies
the tem-
with time
perature is a significant
distribution parameter
in the mould. Thethat
ratedictates
at whichthe strength
the of the of
temperature moulded
the mouldcomponents.
varies
The
with solidification
time timeparameter
is a significant of the magnetic moulding
that dictates was reduced
the strength of thebymoulded
25% in comparison
components. with
the sand casting, indicating that the components produced using the
The solidification time of the magnetic moulding was reduced by 25% in comparison with magnetic moulding
theprocess have better
sand casting, mechanical
indicating that theproperties.
components Experimentally,
produced using it the
has magnetic
also beenmoulding
proven that
the application of the magnetic moulding technology results in an
process have better mechanical properties. Experimentally, it has also been proven thatimprovement of the
themechanical
applicationproperties of aluminium
of the magnetic moulding components
technology considered
results in an inimprovement
this study. Properties
of the
such as hardness, wear resistance, impact strength, and surface roughness
mechanical properties of aluminium components considered in this study. Properties of the moulded
such as hardness, wear resistance, impact strength, and surface roughness of the moulded
materials were studied for both sand and magnetic moulding. It was found that the mag-
netic moulded components showed better properties (increase in hardness by 70%, 4 times
increase in impact toughness, 42% increase in wear resistance) when compared to the sand
Processes 2022, 10, 2144 15 of 16

materials were studied for both sand and magnetic moulding. It was found that the
magnetic moulded components showed better properties (increase in hardness by 70%,
4 times increase in impact toughness, 42% increase in wear resistance) when compared
to the sand casted components. These encouraging results indicate the suitability of the
magnetic moulding process as a suitable replacement for the sand casting process in the
production environment.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.P.C. and A.R.B.; methodology, A.P.C.; software, A.P.C.
and S.R.; validation, A.P.C., S.R. and A.R.B.; formal analysis, A.P.C.; investigation, A.P.C.; resources,
A.P.C. and A.R.B.; data curation, A.P.C. and S.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P.C. and
S.R.; writing—review and editing, A.P.C. and A.R.B.; supervision, A.R.B.; project administration,
A.P.C.; funding acquisition, A.R.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Department of Science and Technologygrant number
SB/FTP/ETA–67/2013.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the Department of Mechanical Engi-
neering, IIT Madras, for permission to use COMSOL software.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Jain, S.; Ramesh Kumar, N.; Ishim, P. Challenges and Future Prospective of Alternative Materials to Silica Sand for Green Sand
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