OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… FUDMA Journal of Scienceset(FJS)

Obafunmi al FJS
ISSN online: 2616-1370
ISSN print: 2645 - 2944
Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 – 608
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2020-0403-334
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT OF PRECIOUS METALS ON SKIN BACTERIA

*Obafunmi, T. I., Ocheme, J. J. and Gajere, B. E.

Department of Applied Biology, College of Science and Technology, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author’s Email: dunniobafunmi@gmail.com, +2349084160101

ABSTRACT
The oligodynamic hold of gold and silver is extant and extremely relevant as a proactive measure against
infections. The antimicrobial effect of gold and silver jewelries was determined on skin bacteria by
introducing them into culture plates already inoculated with bacterial isolates; Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from the wrist, neck and ear regions of the skin.
Samples were collected by swab sampling and isolates were identified by their cultural morphology and
biochemical characterization. Results showed that both precious metals were able to inhibit all three bacteria
with silver jewelries giving wider zones of inhibition measuring between 3 mm to 7 mm while gold jewelries
gave zones of inhibition between 1 mm to 4 mm. The culture plates containing Pseudomonas aeruginosa
recorded the highest zone of inhibition while the least was observed in the culture plates that contained
Staphylococcus epidermidis. No zone of inhibition was observed with ordinary golden-coloured and silver-
coloured jewelries which served as negative control. This study showed that gold and silver are oligodynamic
with silver having a higher oligodynamic efficacy on the skin bacteria tested.

Keywords: Oligodynamic activity, Silver, Gold, Bacteria.

INTRODUCTION
The word oligodynamic originates from two Greek words; Susruta Samhita’s medical text intensified the use of specific
oligos, which means "few," and dynamis, which means "force”. metals in surgical procedures as a measure to prevent infection
The concept of oligodynamic effect of metals originated more (Valiathan, 2007; Loukas et al., 2010). Gold is reportedly used
than 150 years back and refers to its biocidal effect on in dental inlays for restoration of extensive tooth decay or
microorganisms, even at extremely low doses (Sanosil, 2020). fracture and it offers superior treatment to direct fillings (Dean,
Metals which exhibit the oligodynamic effect include mercury, 2016). Rheumatoid symptoms is said to be relieved with gold
silver, gold, copper, brass, bronze, tin, iron, lead and bismuth. treatment (Furst et al., 2002). The Daily Crisp (2019) claims
Silver is one, among the metals that exert the strongest wearing high quality silver and gold jewelry improves mood
oligodynamic effect (Sanosil, 2020). Silver and gold, are which bear a direct relationship in relaxing the blood vessels
antimicrobial agents that fight off infection (Leong et al., 2018; hence, help in the regulation of body temperature and blood
The Daily Crisp (2019). Some reports suggest that the metal circulation. It further stated that silver jewelries owe its health
ions kill or inhibit target cells by; disrupting their protein benefits to its electrical and thermal conductivity. Silver is also
(Benson, 2002; Harke, 2007; Wesley, 2013), affecting cell incorporated into medical implants and devices such as
membrane permeability (Sanosil, 2020) and by inhibiting catheters to prevent infection (Wilcox et al., 1998; Darouiche
enzyme activities (Robert et al., 1989; Semikina and et al., 1999 and Politano et al., 2013). Silver sulfadiazine is
Skulacher, 1990; Wesley, 2013). A study by Hambidge (2001) reportedly proven useful against antibiotic resistant bacteria
suggests that silver ion distorts cell wall. Also, silver ions can when used as antiseptic ointment for extensive burns and
bind to DNA and RNA genetic material disrupting wound dressings (Duran et al., 2007 and Cowan, 2012).
reproduction resulting in cell damage and death (Sanosil,
2020). Objects that are coated with silver like the silver coins have a
bactericidal effect. One advantage of silver ware for example
The skin microbiome includes both Gram positive and Gram silver spoons is that they self-sanitize due to their
negative bacteria (Chiller et al., 2001). Skin micro flora is oligodynamic effect. Harke (2007) also reported that in order to
usually non-pathogenic and is either commensal or mutualistic. prevent diseases during expeditions by military commanders
However, resident microbes have been reported to cause, silver drinking vessels were used. Therefore, it is
particularly in immunosuppressed individuals, nosocomial recommended that silver is incorporated onto objects and
infections, skin diseases and life-threatening diseases, if they frequently touched surfaces especially in public places. Tortora
gain access into the blood stream (Cogen et al., 2008; Otto, et al., (2010) stated that silver ions are increasingly being
2009; Leong et al., 2018 and Qureshi, 2020). Precious metal incorporated into plastics (including plastic food containers),
jewelries do not cause skin allergies and no matter how long it steel, toilet seats, stethoscopes, refrigerator doors and even
is used, it has no known side effects (The Daily Crisp, 2019). athletic shirts and socks are silver-infused with claim to
The oligodynamic property of these precious metal jewelries is minimize odors.
the scientific basis for fewer occurrences of skin allergies and a
number of health pros.

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
601
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT…
The metabolism of bacteria is adversely affected by silver ions
at concentrations of 0.01-0.1 mg/L therefore even less soluble
silver compounds such as silver chloride, also act as
bactericides or germicides (Sanosil, 2020). Also, the
concentrations of silver required for a disinfectant is at
extremely low toxic level to mammalian life (Wesley, 2013).
Oligodynamic metals, such as silver and copper, have long
been utilized as disinfectants for non-spore-forming bacteria
and viruses (Robert et al., 1989; Shrestha et al., 2009). Silver,
primarily exerts a long-lasting preservative, bacteriostatic
effect regardless of dosage. The biocidal effect of silver has
therefore been enhanced by using it in combination with other
substances such as hydrogen peroxide. The effects are
synergistic, producing highly effective biocidal complex and
long lasting effect (Sanosil, 2020).
Nigeria is one of the few West African countries with silver
although it is sparsely deposited and predominant in Northern
Nigeria, it is present as very high grade lead silver (Pb-Ag)
(Mindar.org, 2020), as an alloy with gold, as by-product of
copper, lead and Zinc refining and in its pure form
(Finelib.com, 2017). Gold (Au) deposit is also prominently
located in Iperirido in Osun state with smaller deposits in 13
other states. Despite the numerous benefits that can be accrued
from these precious metals, they seem neglected. This study
tested on skin bacteria, the oligodynamic potential of precious
metal jewelries (silver and gold) and ordinary painted metal
jewelries.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Sample Collection
Sterile swab sticks were used to collect samples from the wrist,
ear and neck region of five female human subjects. The swabs
were placed immediately into the swab stick jacket, labeled
appropriately and taken to the laboratory in the Department of
Applied Science, Kaduna Polytechnic for further analysis. A
total of fifty (50) samples of gold and silver jewelries were
collected at random from female staff and students of the
Department of Applied Science, Kaduna Polytechnic. A total of
25 gold jewelries were collected; seven (7) earrings, labeled A-
G, six (6) bracelets, labeled A- F, six (6) pendants, labeled A-F
and six (6) necklaces labeled A-F.
A total of twenty-five (25) silver jewelries were also collected;
seven (7) earrings, labeled A-G, six (6) bracelets, labeled A- F,
six (6) pendants, labeled A-F and six (6) necklaces labeled A-F.
Isolation of Bacteria from Skin Swabs
Each of the swab stick was used to inoculate on already
solidified nutrient agar plates and labeled appropriately. The
plates were incubated at 37oC in inverted position for 48 hours
(Vlab, 2011). Pure cultures were obtained from growth of
distinct colonies after 48 hours incubation.
Identification of Bacterial Isolates from Skin Swabs
Bacteria isolates were identified based on their colonial and
morphological appearance on cultural plates such as shape,
margin, elevation, size and texture (Tdmu, 2014) and
biochemical characterization by subjecting the isolates to
biochemical tests such as grams reaction, catalase, coagulase
FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
Obafunmi et al FJS
and indole tests according to the procedures described by
Sharma (2007).
Determination of the Oligodynamic Activity of Silver and
Gold Jewelries on the Isolated Skin Bacteria
A sterile wire loop was used to pick a small portion of each
identified test organisms and aseptically spread uniformly
throughout different solidified nutrient agar plates. Using a
fresh pair of disposable gloves each gold-painted and silver-
painted jewelries were placed separately into the respective
Gold Control and Silver Control plates. Each of the
corresponding pieces of Gold and Silver jewelries were also
placed singly onto each of the plates that contained the test
organisms. Each piece of the jewelry was arranged in a manner
that the maximum amount of jewelry surface area was in
contact with the agar plate. The plates were incubated at 37°C
for 48 hours. The zones of inhibitions were measured in
millimeters using a measuring rule and results obtained were
appropriately recorded (SBS, 2015).
RESULTS
Cultural Morphology and Biochemical Characteristics of
Skin Bacteria Isolates
A total of Three (3) bacteria were isolated from the skin swab
samples collected and identified as Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The
cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics of the
skin bacterial isolates is as shown in Table 1.
The Oligodynamic Activity of Silver and Gold Jewelries on
the Isolated Skin Bacteria
The oligodynamic activity of silver earrings (7), bracelets (6),
pendants (6) and necklaces (6) was tested against
Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa from skin swabs. A demonstration of
oligodynamic activity of silver earring and necklace is as
shown in Plate 1. After 48 hours incubation, an average of
zones of inhibition in (mm) was obtained. The highest zone of
inhibition of 7 mm was observed in Pseudomonas aeruginosa
while Staphylococcus epidermidis had the least zone of
inhibition of 3 mm. Staphylococcus aureus had an average
zone of inhibition of 5 mm. No zones of inhibition were
observed with ordinary silver-coloured jewelries as shown in
Plate 1. The oligodynamic activity of silver on the skin
bacterial isolates is represented in Table 2.
The oligodynamic activity of Gold earrings (7), bracelets (6),
pendants (6) and necklaces (6) was tested against
Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa from skin swabs. An average of
zones of inhibition (mm) was obtained. Gold gave the highest
zone of inhibition of 4 mm on Pseudomonas aeruginosa while
Staphylococcus epidermidis had the least zone of inhibition of
1 mm. No zones of inhibition were observed with ordinary
golden-coloured jewelries. Staphylococcus aureus had an
average zone of inhibition of 3 mm. The oligodynamic activity
of gold on the skin bacterial isolates is represented in Table 3.
602
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… Obafunmi et al FJS

Plate 1: Oligodynamic activity of silver jewelry on skin bacteria isolates. A-Silver earring, B- silver necklace and C-
silver coloured earring (control)

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
603
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… Obafunmi et al FJS

Table 1: Cultural, Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of the Skin Bacterial Isolates

Characteristics Isolate A Isolate B Isolate C

Shape of Colony Circular Circular Irregular

Margin of Colony Entire Entire Entire

Elevation of Colony Convex Convex Umbonate

Surface of Colony Smooth Smooth Mucoid

Size of Colony Small Small Small

Colour of Colony Yellow White Milky

Gram’s Reaction Positive Positive Negative

Catalase Test Positive Positive Positive

Coagulase Test Positive Negative Negative

Indole Test Negative Negative Negative

Oxidase Test Negative Negative Positive

Citrate Test Positive Negative Positive

Methyl Red Test Positive Negative Negative

Staphylococcus Pseudomonas
Inference Staphylococcus aureus epidermidis aeruginosa

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
604
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… Obafunmi et al FJS

Table 2: Oligodynamic Activity of Silver on the Skin Bacterial Isolates

Precious Metal Sample Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus Pseudomonas
epidermidis aeruginosa
( Zones of inhibition (mm) on skin bacterial isolates)

Earrings
A 6.0 3.5 8.0
B 6.0 3.0 8.0
C 6.0 2.5 8.0
D 5.5 4.0 8.0
E 7.0 2.5 8.0
F 6.5 3.0 7.5
G 5.0 4.0 7.5
Control (Silver coloured earring) 0 0 0

Bracelets
A 4.0 2.5 7.0
B 4.0 3.5 6.5
C 4.0 3.0 6.5
D 5.0 3.0 7.0
E 5.0 3.0 7.5
F 5.0 3.0 7.5
Control (Silver coloured bracelet) 0 0 0

Pendants
A 6.0 3.0 6.5
B 3.5 3.0 6.5
C 6.0 3.0 7.0
D 5.0 3.0 7.5
E 4.0 2.0 7.0
F 5.0 3.5 7.0
Control (Silver coloured pendant) 0 0 0

Necklaces
A 4.0 3.0 7.0
B 5.5 3.0 6.5
C 3.0 3.0 7.0
D 5.0 2.0 7.0
E 5.0 3.0 7.0
F 4.0 3.0 7.0
Control (Silver coloured necklace) 0 0 0

Average Zone of inhibition (mm) 5 3 7

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
605
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… Obafunmi et al FJS

Table 3: Oligodynamic Activity of Gold on the Skin Bacterial Isolates

Precious Metal Zones of Inhibition (mm) on the skin bacterial isolates
Staphylococcus Staphylococcus epidermidis Pseudomonas aeruginosa
aureus
Earrings
A 3.5 1.5 4.5
B 3.0 1.0 4.0
C 2.5 1.5 3.5
D 3.0 1.0 5.0
E 2.5 1.0 3.5
F 3.0 1.0 4.0
G 3.0 1.0 4.0
Control (Gold coloured earring) 0 0 0

Bracelets
A 2.5 1.0 3.5
B 3.5 1.0 4.5
C 3.0 1.0 4.0
D 3.0 1.0 4.0
E 3.0 1.0 4.0
F 3.0 1.0 4.0
Control (Gold coloured Bracelet) 0 0 0

Pendants
A 3.0 1.0 4.0
B 3.0 1.0 4.0
C 3.5 1.0 4.0
D 3.0 1.0 4.0
E 3.5 1.0 4.5
F 2.5 0.5 3.5
Control (Gold coloured pendant) 0 0 0

Necklaces
A 3.0 1.0 4.0
B 3.0 1.0 4.0
C 3.5 1.0 4.0
D 2.5 0.5 3.5
E 3.0 1.0 4.0
F 3.0 1.0 4.0
Control (Gold coloured necklace) 0 0 0

Average Zone of inhibition (mm) 3 1 4

DISCUSSION can be life-threatening especially with blood stream infections.

This study evaluates the oligodynamic activity of precious
metals on skin bacteria with a view to determine the ability of
precious metal to inhibit the skin bacteria most often
implicated in skin allergies and other infections (Cogen et al.,
2008; Otto, 2009; Leong et al., 2018 and Qureshi, 2020).
Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa were the bacteria isolated from the
ear, neck and wrist of the skin, this agrees with Cogen (2008).
Although Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are natural inhabitants of a
healthy human skin, they have reportedly been associated with
some clinical infections most especially in individuals with
compromised immunity. Staphyloccocus aureus for example, is
associated with abscess, cellulitis resulting from injection use,
surgical site infections, necrotizing fasciitis and diabetic foot
ulcers (Leong et al., 2018). Qureshi (2020) also noted that
pseudomonal infection is mostly nosocomial, complicated and
Otto (2009) referred Staphylococcus epidermidis as an
accidental pathogen associated with nosocomial infection from
indwelling medical devices.
In this study, it was observed that both gold and silver jewelries
demonstrated oligodynamic effect on Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
although in unequal measures. This result resonates with
reports that the measure of oligodynamic effect exhibited by
precious metals is not same for all microorganisms (Shrestha et
al., 2009).
Silver jewelries demonstrated higher oligodynamic effect on all
the isolated skin bacteria having average zones of inhibition
between 3 mm to 7 mm as compared to that of gold jewelleries
that gave average zones of inhibition between 1 mm to 4 mm.
The comparatively higher oligodynamic activity of silver metal

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
606
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT…
jewelry over gold metal jewelry may be explained by the stable
+1 valency of silver over the valency of gold which may be -1.
This reasoning is supported by the review of Robert et al.,
(1989) which concluded that the capacity of a metal ion to
inactivate a bacteria or virus is due their oxidation potential.
Also, the distinct three step oligodynamic mechanism of silver
on bacteria which involves the damage of bacterial cell
membrane, the displacement of Ca2+ and Zn2+ ions and
interaction with sulphur, oxygen or nitrogen (Semikina and
Skulacher, 1990; Dowling, 2001; Sondi, 2004) may be
considered.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most susceptible to both
silver and gold jewelries. This finding could probably be due to
the cell wall composition of the gram negative bacterium, it is
thin with no teichoic acid and may enable the gold and silver
ions attack the intracellular bacterium cell contents. On the
contrary, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus
epidermidis are both Gram positive bacteria with thick
peptidoglycan layer (Sharma, 2007).
Silver play a crucial role in prevention and treatment of
infections relating to the skin bacteria isolates identified in this
study. Leong et al. (2018), reviewed that where silver was
topically applied on the skin, reduced infection rate, fewer
dressing changes, better wound healing and skin graft
adherence was observed in burns and then in ulcer wounds;
reduction in wound size, less pain, less odour and less exudate
was observed. The study also recorded fewer surgical cite
infections and shorter time for wound closure of skin graft in
surgical incisions. In addition, blood stream and urinary tracts
infections rates have been minimized with the use of silver-
alloy catheters (Politano et al., 2013 and Leong et al., 2018)
This study showed the oligodynamic activity of gold and silver
jewelry on test bacteria isolates and revealed that the inhibitory
activity of these precious metals on bacteria can be explored to
confirm the presence of bacteriostatic metal ions in silver and
gold jewelries when realness is in doubt, as ordinary gold and
silver painted jewelries are not capable of inhibiting bacterial
growth.
CONCLUSION
Gold and silver jewelries are precious metals capable of
exhibiting oligodynamic effect on Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
These precious metals have antibacterial property that can be
exploited in the prevention and treatment of infections that
results from the identified skin bacterial isolates. Gold-
coloured and silver-coloured jewelleries have no oligodynamic
effect thus, may not offer any health benefit.
REFERENCES
Benson, H.J. (2002). Microbiological applications: Laboratory
manual in general microbiology. 8th Edition. McGraw Hill:
New York. Mindart.org (2020). Kishesha lead silver mine, Jos Plateau,
Plateau Nigeria. Hudson Institute of Mineralogy.
Chiller, K., Selkin, B.A. and Murakawa, G.J. (2001). “Skin https://www.mindar.org/loc-289955.html
Microflora and Bacterial Infections of the Skin”. The Society
for Investigative Dermatology, Inc.1087-0024/01/ Otto, M. (2009). Staphylococcus epidermidis- the accidental
pathogen. Nature Reviews
Cogen, A., Nizet, V., and Gallo, R.L. (2008). “Skin microbiota:
FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
Obafunmi et al FJS
a source of disease or defence?” The Journal of Dermatology,
158 (3): 442-55.
Cowan, M.K. (2012). Microbiology: A systems Approach. 3 rd
Ed. Pp.320-321. ISBN 978-0- 07-352252-4.
Darouiche, R.O., Raad, I. I., Heard, S.O., Thornby, J. I.,
Wenker, O. C., and Gabrielli, A. (1999). A comparison of two
antimicrobial-impregnated central venous catheters. Catheter
Study Group. New England Journal of Medicine. (340): 1.
Dean, J. (2016). Filling vs. inlay vs. onlay vs. crown: what’s
the difference and which is the right one for you?
Rancho Santafe Cosmetic and Family Dentistry.
https://www.rsfdentist.com/about-us
Dowling, D.P., Dounnelly, K., McConnell, M.L., Eloy, R., and
Amaud, M.N. (2001). Deposition of antibacterial silver
coatings on polymeric substrates. Thin Solid Films. 398:602-
606.
Duran, N., Marcarto, P.D., De Souza, G. I. H., Alves O. L., and
Esposito, E. (2007).Antibacterial Effect of Silver Nanoparticles
Produced by Fungal Process on Textile Fabrics and their
Effluent Treatment. Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology.
(3): 203.
Finelib.com (2017). About Nigeria natural resources, silver
(Ag) mineral deposits in Nigeria and its applications.
www.finelib.com
Furst, D.E., Gottlieb, N.L. and Small, R.E. (2002).Gold as a
remedy in disease. Arthritis Foundation Brochure.
Washington/Alaska chapter.
https://orthop.washington.edu/patient-
care/articles/arthritis/gold-treatment.html#
Hambidge, A. (2001). “Reviewing efficacy of alternative water
treatment techniques.” Health Estate, 55: 23–25.
Harke, H. (2007). Disinfectants. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry (7th Ed.), Wiley. Pp.1-17. ISBN
978-3527306732
Leong, H.N., Kurup, A., Tan, M., Hoon Kwa, A.L., Liau, K.H.
and Wilcox, M.H. (2018). Management of complicated skin
and soft tissue infections with a special focus on the role of
newer antibiotics. Infection and Drug resistant-Dove press.
11:1959-1974.
Loukas, M., Lanteri, A., Ferrauiola, J., Tubbs, R.S., Maharaja,
G., Shaja, M.M. Yadav, A. and Rao, V.C. (2010). Anatomy
in ancient India: a focus on the Susruta Samhita. Journal of
Anatomy. 217 (6):646-650.
Microbiology. 7:555-567.
607
OLIGODYNAMIC EFFECT… Obafunmi et al FJS

Politano, A.D., Campbell, K.T., Rosenberger, L.H. and Sondi, I. and Salopek, B.S. (2004).Silver nanoparticles as
Sawyer, R.G. (2013). Use of silver in the prevention and Antimicrobial Agent: A case study on E. coli as a model for
treatment of infections: Silver Review. Surgical Infection Gram-Negative Bacteria. Journal of Colloid interface Science.
(Larchmt). 14(1): 8-20 275:177-182.

Qureshi, S. (2020). Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections. Tdmu. (2014). Main Methods, Principles and Steps of isolating
Medscape Article. bacteria’s pure cultures. Retrieved December 3, 2016 from
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/226748-overview http://intranet.tdmu.edu.ua

Robert, B. T., Gerba, C.P. and Gabriel, B. (1989): The The Daily Crisp (2019). 3 surprising health benefits of wearing
molecular mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection silver or gold mother’s day. https://thedailycrisp.com/3-
of bacteria and viruses, Critical Reviews in Environmental surprising-surprising-health-benefits-of-wearing-silver-or-gold-
Control, 18:4, 295-315 mother’s-day/

Sanosil (2020). Disinfectant against coronavirus like covid-19. Totora, G.J., Funke, B.R. and Case, C.L. (2010). Microbiology:
Sanosil Disinfectants for Life (Switzerland). An Introduction. Benjamin Cummings. (10th Ed). Pp 300-
https://www.sanosil.com/en/disinfectant-against-coronavirus- 301. ISBN 978-0-321-55007-1
china-2019-ncov/
Valiathan, M.S. (2007). The legacy of Susruta. Orient
SBS. (2015). Is the Gold in My Jewelry Real?. Science Buddies Longman. ISBN 9188125031505 OCLC 137222991.
Staff. Retrieved October 3, 2016from
http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair Vlab. (2011). “Gram Stain Technique”. Virtual Amrita
projects/project_ideas/MicroBio_p026.shtml Laboratories Universalizing Education. Retrieved November
13, 2016 from http://www.vlab.amrita.edu
Semikina, A. L. and Skulacher. V. P. (1990). “Submicromolar Wesley, F. (2013).The oligodynamic effect: how some metals
Ag+ increases passive Na+ permeability and inhibits the kill off bacteria. Adam Sava Tested.
respiration supported formation of Na+ gradient in Bacillus http://www.tested.com/science/life/453961-oligodynamic-
FTU vesicles.” FEBS 269 (1):69–72 effect-how-some- metals-kill-bacteria/

Sharma, K. (2007). Isolation, Purification and Identification of Wilcox, M., Kite P., and Dobbins B. (1998). Antimicrobial
Bacteria. Manual of Microbiology Tools and Techniques (2nd intravascular catheters-which surface to coat?. Journal of
Ed.). Ane Books: New Delhi. Pp 179-80 Hospital Infection. (40): 322.

Shrestha, R., Joshi, D.R., Gopali, J., and Piya S. (2009).

“Oligodynamic Action of Silver, Copper and Brass on Enteric
Bacteria Isolated from Water of Kathmandu Valley”. Nepal
Journal of Science and Technology. 10: 189-193

©2020 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International license viewed via https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is cited appropriately.

FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 3, September, 2020, pp 601 - 608
608