CHAPTER: 1 CHINA BEFORE THE OPIUM WAR ARCHANA OJHA Kamala Nehru College University of Delhi ina el ; China’s Cultural distinctiveness is mainly attributed to its climatic conditions which is determined by the great land mass of Asia. In winter, the air over Central Asia becomes very cold and flows outward bringing cool and dry weather to the southern and eastern fringes. In summer, the ‘air over Central Asia warms up and rises, moist oceanic air rushes in to take its place and the result is very heavy rains on the continental fringes. Geographically, China is divided into two regions, the north and the south. In the north, Chinese civilization had its first flowering. It is a dry land and the main crops are millet and wheat. In the south, soil is moist and therefore it is possible to grow rice. South China being hilly and ideal for intensive cultivation, rice is double or triple cropped in a year. In the north, severe continental winter limits the growing season to about half a year. In both the regions, the resources and nature are supplemented by human endeavour. First historical dynasty that existed in China from 1523 to 1027 BC was known as Shang dynasty. This dynasty was succeeded by Western Zhou dynasty (1027-256 BC). Both these dynasties were based on slave system where land was owned by the sldve-owning bureaucracy, collective slave labour was employed in agriculture and the labour force was26 completely dependent on land, i Eastern The period from 772-221 BC was dominated by ‘ern Zhou, Ting and Autumn 61 and Se eden Phis was a phase of transition from slave The relations of production in feudal society were the landlords’ ownership of the means of production and “helt partial ownership of the productive labour class. Apart i this, individual peasants and artisans owned tools and o 7 means of production on the basis of their own labour but under the control of landlord. System of local administration made its appearance and officials were appointed for a limited time period in a succession at different places, as opposed to the system of hereditary posts practised by the earlier two dynasties. From 221 BC to 220 AD, Qin, Former Han, and Later Han dynasties emerged and feudalism reached its maturity. The emperor became the symbol of political and economic power with land under his control. Under the emperor, there were numerous landed aristocrats with hereditary titles but with different kinds of hereditary status and privileges. All these classes lived off the labour of the peasant class who were overburdened with land tax, rent and were therefore, the most exploited class During the rule of the above mentioned dynasties, there as also g,adual development of religious ideologies, The carliest conerete evidence comes from Shang to Zhou dynasties which maintained written records. The Shang kings’ supreme God was also their first king who was the son of the lord and thereby gave credence to the theory of divine right of kingship and after his death, he ruled over the dead. Therefore, elaborate death ceremonies became 27 China before the Opium War : Archana jh essential part of the A Chinese royal customs. Respect was of tne authority— and they were grea believers ee Senos aa divine will was sought through oracle was eer * Zhou dynasty, the concept of divine right conduct of mig omy mandate and this worked till the cc *S met with the approval of heaven. Both the rulers and the masses used this concept to their advantage whenever they wanted to overthrow a particular dynasty. The Chinese philosophical thought during the classical period was geared towards the need of the society rather than the individual. With the emergence of bureaucracy and the consequent rise of complex political system, a new group of Philosophers emerged who first established their base, then formed a group of followers and finally became teachers of their own philosophy. This is how the cult of Confucianism developed in China. Confucianism which is a Western terminology is known as “Ru Jiao” or the “Teachings of the Learned.” Confucius (Kong Zi) was the greatest sage of this cult and after his death, his statements were compiled in book-form known as ‘the Dialects.’ The main object of Confucius was to assist his disciples obtain necessary skills for entry into politics. Confucianism provided the emerging state, ruling groups and bureaucracy with a philosophy based on their political needs. It was a bulwark of religious rites in which the emperor was the religious and political head and respect was given to ancestors. It developed during the Zhou dynasty or earlier. Taoism was another philosophy which developed as a protest against the increasing warfare and despotic rulers. It emphasised the relationship between human beings and nature which would then lea to the growth of aesthetic sense in the society. they were against feudalism and attacked all types of knowledge with the belief that it corrupted human society and also went against socialModern History of China 28 advancement. Mencius (Mengzi) developed the concept of henctolence. He believed that everyone is good by fee and this goodness can be cultivated further. He Laan that only that person should be called a king who is capa D of gaining popular support. He also. supported the idea of self-sufficiency. Buddhism came to China in the first century 'AD during the Han dynasty. It was probably brought through merchants and travellers along the famous silk route. Buddhism emphasised transmigration and reincarnation and offered salvation to all the politico-social problems. When Buddhism received royal patronage, many monasteries were erected and functioned as inns, public bathrooms and even banking institutions. The period from 221 AD to 907 AD witnessed the ‘emergence of Three Kingdoms Era, Western Chin Dynasty, Eastern Chin Dynasty, Southern Dynasties Era, Northern Dynasties Era, Sui Dynasty and Tang Dynasty. This period saw the beginning of peasant uprisings which uprooted the hereditary landed aristocracy and led to the rise of landlords of privileged families. These landlords enjoyed political power and hereditary rights not on the basis of imperial whim but on their traditional position in the society. They owned vast tracts of land and controlled peasants who attached themselves to these landlords in return for protection against over-taxation and levies, This period also witnessed protracted struggles as well as large-scale displacement and migration among the different races. From 907 AD to 1368 AD, there were five dynasties and ten kingdoms, followed by Sung, Chin, Southern Sung and their final reunification under the Yuan dynasty established by the Mongols. Peasant uprisings continued in this period which finally resulted in the beginning of the centu Srna aconseence of Mongol invasions, Mongol Yuan established. Under this dynasty Lamaist faeaise Was Datronised, though:Neo-Confucianism thelr peeerne omit. Christianity and Islam also made thei Preece felt during this tie although the extent of lence was considered very small The post-Mongol dynasties were different from the pre- Mongol dynasties in two ways. Firstly, there was new influence of political structure upon the society and there was a gradiial tendency for essential cultural values to be shaped by political forces. Second, the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) empires. were fundamentally of different origins— the Ming was the last indigenous Chinese dynasty, while Qing was a Manchu-conquered empire The Mongol empire was overthrown by peasant rebellions against the exploitation of landlord class. The secret societies like the White Lotus Society promised the peasants deliverance from the suffering of the traditional order, By the fourteenth century, there was widespread belief in a Prince of Brightness (Ming Wang) who would appear and save the world. The doctrine which combined the elements of Maitreya, the popular Buddha of the future, with traces of Manichaenism was combined by the rebels with the demand for the restoration of the Sung dynasty. As a result the Ming dynasty was founded by a member-peasantof a rebel band. After establishing his empire. hapa the founder forgot the radical ideals of peasant movertoe™ favour of an orthodox Confucianism. Thus, potential social revolution was turned into cultural conservatism once power was established Imperial domination over the Chinese society was guaranteed by an elaborate prescription of the status of all strata of Chinese society. Rule was the monopoly of the imperial family. They were given hereditary titles and supported by government stipends. They. were barred from government service. The generals of the original peasant armies were converted into a hereditary nobility that intermarried with the imperial clan. They were forced to reside in the capital and became military commanders. Military units were scattered all over the empire organised on a decimal system of Mongol origin. The gentry was a degree-holding ‘class which was acquired after passing a government examination. This system was developed in the eleventh century AD and the examinations were conducted once in every three years. It was open to those who possessed mastery of Confucian classics: A candidate who cleared district and provincial level examinations was appointed as official of- the imperial government. Examination was conducted in a’ very fair manner so as to procure the best Confucian talent for the government administration. The career of the official was carefully regulated and no appointments were made in home districts. There were frequent transfers and efficiency reports were miaintained by the government. This position was not hereditary. According to Hsii, the examination system was a. new ‘way of social advancement, it reduced nepotism and favouritism. it clearly indicated the social flexibility of the TTT ECT re masses were divide supplied troops for s the other masses pai ‘d into military households as they ervice in the armed forces, Artisans and id grain and labour services to the state _, The king was all-powerful and controlled the civil arid military powers. In the Confucian scheme the emperor was considered as the ruler of “all under heaven” (Tian-xia), i.e. area under his direct as well as indirect control including tributary states. Any foreign conquests did not mean the breakdown of this system as long as new ruler simply ruled according to Confucian precepts which Mongols in the thirteenth century and the Manchus in the seventeenth century did. The Chinese emperor was responsible for the maintenance of cosmological order, i.e. to maintain social order, political unity,” peace and natural order. Any natural disaster known as “great disorder” was considered as legitimate sign of rebellion, against the ruling dynasty. Civil administration was divided into six boards, each under the control of a minister. The Board of Civil Appointments handled the personnel of the civil service. The Board of Revenue, collected taxes, took census, maintainedModern History of China 32 financial accounts, and looked after state enterprises. The Board of Rites was responsible for ceremonies, sacrifices and relations with the foreigners. The Board of War controlled military affairs. The Board of Justice codified laws, managed courts, captured and punished criminals. The Board of Public Works did the task of water control, irrigation, construction and transportation activities and mobilization of man-power. The military department had five military commissions. The emperor appointed civil officials to the ‘various administrative offices within the palace and those officials were called grand secretaries and acted as agents of imperial power Various imperial codes were promulgated by the Ming emperors aimed at bringing Chinese society into conformity with imperial ideas and stabilising it. For general masses there was a Ming code. Law of succession regulated the movements of the royal princes, specified distinction between their ranks. Grand pronouncements were. concerned with criminal and economic issues. All the codes were in conformity with Confucian ideas, views and statements. During 1630s and 1640s massive peasant uprisings led to decline of the Ming dynasty and rise of Qing dynasty. The Manchus were initially a loose tribal group who during the Ming rule, built up power through gradual mobilization of war machine. They created a hybrid barbarian-civilised administrative structure by judicious and pragmatic blending of traditional tribal elements, bureaucratic institutions and other innovations. The geographical extent of their empire was from southern China coast to Manchuria in the west and from the China Sea in the east to Sinjiang in the west with ntury, a new body was superimposed called the Grand Council, which consisted of a select group of grand Secretaries who met informally with the emperor to decide the most sensitive issues. High positions were given only to Manchus, Mongols and reliable Chinese. For every two Provinces ¢ Manchu governor-General was appointed to Control governors of each province. Banner forces under Manchu command were stationed in the provinces. The couit business was conducted in a bilingual form— both Chinese and Manchus. Relations with Mongolia, Tibet and Chinese Turkestan were handed through a Superintendent of Dependencies and continuous effort was made to expand boundaries. Imperial patronage was given to Lamaism, a faith which was important to Mongols and Tibetans. To Chinese, they presented themselves as champions of Confucian ideals. Imperial patronage of scholarly activity not only bound scholars to the state, it also gave the state an opportunity to shape the content of learning itself.34 Modern History of China SOCIETY ‘The Chinese society had endured for almost 2000 years in a region of vast size, population, cultuyal, linguistic and climatic diversity. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for masses right from the Nwplithic Age, but periodic nomadic incursions and natural calamities compelled the Chinese people to diversify their economic activity and from about the tenth century AD onwards there was gradual growth of commercial farming and inter-regional trade, The ruling class derived its wealth from two sources— land and commerce, although the former was given more weightage. There is considerable divergence of opinion among scholars regarding the basic character of the Chinese society. Marxist scholars consider that exploitation of the peasantry by the iandlords clearly demonstrates that the Chinese society was feudal and bureaucratic. Karl A, Wittfogel considers Chinese society as an archetypes “Oriental Despotism,” characterised by a centralised monolithic government which kept the peasant masses in line by controlling the large-scale Public projects. Hsii considers the Chinese state as despotic autocracy and still others opine that it was a gentry based elite society J.K. Fairbank is of the opinion that right from ancient times there had been two Chinas— town and countryside. He applies the same criterion to the social division, The Peasants representing the rural sector were always in Majority, while the gentry and other urban classes residing Hea wat were in minority. On the other hand, according to Hist, Chinese society was not a simple division of elacees but a bi-polarised state of ruler and the ruled, a multi-class ” co-existed: rtisans, and merchants. Above them were “aucrats and below them the “declassed” People.” The gentry class is categorised by J. Chesnequx as a Scholar official ruling class which possessed power, Knowledge and land. This was the product of ancient “Asiatic Tradition”, where a class was defined by three aspects of its Postion Political, economic and educational. According to Hsi, the gents ry class was composed of scholars who had Passed the government examination but were not patt of the ruling bureaucracy. They acted as intermediaries between the local magistrates and the people; and in this capacity they enjoyed considerable social prestige and privileges Fairbank sees the gentry class in a dual sense— economic and political, in-connection with landholding and office holding position. It was a status confined to those individuals who had passed, purchased or were recommended for the official degrees by the government. They were not dependent for their status on economic resources, particularly landowning. They represented politico-economic dualism because as a local elite they performed certain functions connected with peasantry who were below them and for officials who were above them. It is this dualism, according to Fairbank, which has led many scholars to define the term gentry as a group of families rather than independent degree holders.Barrington Moore, Jr finds a definite link between landed eee degree holding and political office in China. The mechanism that linked all the three was the family or the patrilineal lineage. The family as @ social mechanism required to invest in land for the sake of lineage and to maintain their social and political prestige, there was always a constant need to have a degree holder to maintain the family’s material fortune and status ofthe lineage. Although the examination system was open to all the social classes, the absence of any widespread system of popular education meant that the door was open only for the privileged classes. Therefore, the link between office and wealth -through the lineage was one of the most important features of Chinese society. And for these reasons it is justifiable to refer to those upper classes of scholar-officials and landlords as the gentry. The need to create this new class of gentry arose from the fact that from early Han to Qing dynastic period, territorial administrative structure did not grow while the population increased to a considerable extent and expanded to other areas. Therefore, in the Tang period, this new gentry class was created to fill the vacuum between the early bureaucratic state and the Chinese society. The gentry class maintained its domination through four media— by owning land, by performing official functions, by being educated, and by being proficient in the Chinese language. Passing the three level examination was considered as the highest achievement possible in traditional Chinese society. In this way, according to Fairbank, the structure of the gentry class was flexible, automatically self-perpetuating and stable. The scholar-gentry class was required to perform certain 37 China before the Opium War : Archana Oj: F ee Of taxes and other levies: + constructi i ; projects Re aaa ntenance of hospitals, irrigation Projects, local shrines ai ida ne nd upholding Confucian ideals acti wet in a8 unofficial arbitrators in disputes that people Wanted to setle outside the courtroom: aire as intermediaries between local people and administration to maintain peace. They organised militia in times of need; 5. i nanan Peace, order and look after general welfare Of their locality. This task was in the interest of the rulin class to avoid any crisis. _ There were regional variations in the condition of th Chitiese peasantry. According to Marist historians, peasan were generally exploited by the ruling class through high rents, usury and other exactions. Non-Marxist historians like ‘Ramon Myer opine that it was low productivity, the old farm economy, improper utilization of farms, insufficient capital limited access to new technology, no control over nature primitive transportation facilities and increasing marketing costs were reasons for peasants” poverty and exploitation by the upper classes. This theory is generally not accepted. ‘There is a consensus among historians that the Chinese peasantry, was generally exploited and poor, As the population increased land became scarce and the peasants ‘were caught between the exorbitant demands of the landlords and oppressive burden of state taxation and forced corvée The condition did not change even during the peace time because the demand for taxes increased. During the political upheaval there was no authority 10 check government officials and during natural calamities no assistance was given by the government. All these led to acute discontent‘Modern History of China 38 and destitution which forced the peasants to oe ieee ‘groups as the state ruthlessly suppressed these mushrooming societies. These societies would turn to banditry, peasant revolts and large-scale rebellions against the officialdom and the ruling dynasty. Commerce was given low status as a form of economic activity and in the classical Chinese literature, merchant class was placed at the bottom of the social strata. This inferior status represented the defensive reaction of an agricultural society against economic forces that were threatening its equilibrium. To attain social status, the merchants invested in land, passed examinations or bought degrees. This fact demonstrated that the Chinese society accommodated: them through the back door and there was close link between merchant, gentry ard officialdom. Merchants had no independent status as the state exercised strict supervision and control over all the commercial activities. For any big commercial enterprise patronage and support of the officials was a necessity. Big merchants worked as state agents and. the merchant guilds and associations served as mutual aid societies. It is for this very reason that merchant guilds could never become centres of struggle. ECONOMY There were two sets of patterns of ownership of land: private and collective. Private land was under the control of the landlords and collective ownership was under royal family, government estates and monastic control. Since landlord possessed the land and peasant furnished the labour, it was necessary to tie the peasant to the land. In this system, over-population always worked to the advantage China before the Opium War excess the same time landiorg government to keep ord Population meant my Tequited the assista wr Buarantee safety lore profit. At nce of a strong of his property soldiers poste their effort to interiors the r dat frontier were required to devote 70% of wards cultivation and for those posted in the ‘atio was 80: 20. During the Qing period, there ‘was considerable increase in the size of agricultural land but land tax “also increased There were two systems of tax Collection. In the first, tax captains were appointed who were local elite or wealthiest families in each area. The second system was that of rotation under which households rotated the duties of tax collection and labour services among their members; relieving the government of the need to extend its own agencies down to the village level. With such a tax system, Qing period witnessed a series of peasant rebellions the most famous being the Great Whité Lotus Rebellion (1798-1804). Historians generally agree that the Chinese economy wis feudal. According to Fairbank, the peasant after becomit tenant was forced to pay taxes, levies and forced labour Service to the state. It is for this reason that the peasant class was extensively exploited and poor. Chen considers it40 ory of China Modern History of Chin casant were under the s of 7 readal economy because the mass OF Per os minority domination, both economic and ext “bureaucrat sted the term ic class. Joseph Needham has SUBBEST Combination of : i Ta assent eed Issacs believes’ that economics and political pow mined comers Bineee of Chinese economy was dete by the backwardness forces over @ prolonged the stagnation of productive h led some fase period. Introdiction of the iron ‘plough led some 3000 years ago, to increase in agricultural produetvity Partially s a result of this impetus, land Was DOUneter imo private property. Land became alienabe, Tc aaa and capital thus acquired were absorbed By the BU in the construction of dams, canals, palaces, walls and fortifications In this. way, China actually represented the model of self-sufficient feudal economy where landlord exploited the peasantry. Increase in production benefitted only the landlord. The peasant production always remained at the subsistence level and this restricted the growth of market relations and consequently also“hampered commercial activities and growth of capitalism in China. The secondary economy .in China was. made up of handicrafts, trade and commerce, which were organised under the guild system or associations. These asséciations controlled production and marketing and were also mutual insurance societies, religious fraternities and unofficial arbitrators in trade disputes. Business was a segment of the whole web of human relationship, kinship obligations and personal relations which supported Chinese life. Handicraft industry supplied the major supplementary needs. of the community. Since pursuit of profit was frowned upon by Confucianists, the state took direct part in trade and a Chi ind before the Opium War : Arctiana Ojha manufacty tcc: Both a . — ou Monopoly over iron, salt, tobacco were céntroves De ee luction and the internal market investment ct 2%, the state bureaucracy. Main area of production * land and money-lending. Urban centres of and commerce were restricted to luxury products and regional specialities {i ~_ a 8 like reel + lacquer, chinaware, paper To facilitate trade and comm: constructed, rivers harnessed and major ae ee for overseas trade. This factor assisted in the growth of market and complex exchange system. “Fe gian” or flying money was introduced as a bill of exchange in the Tang Period. Paper currency also, made appearance during the Yuan dynasty, NINETEENTH CENTURY CRISIS AND DECLINE Qing dynasty ruled over China from 1644 to 1912 During the first about a century and half, there was relative peace and stability due to efficient administrative system set up by the Qing rulers. And this very situation later became the cause of decline. Initially, it was argued by many historians that it was the Western imperialism which challenged the traditional Confucian order in’all spheres— immediate diplomatic and military confrontations of mid 19th century merged with fundamental sociological and economic changes which in turn contributed to intellectual confrontation between the traditional agrarian society and an emerging urban industrial one. ‘There was consequent breakdown of the Confucian order which led to the undermining of agricultural economy. collapse of the family system and rise of rural discontent42 Modern History of China een given UP 88 NeW forms But the above argument ish the fat that before of historical evden Cals China was already the impact of beast and decay. eid in aaa showing Se there Was two-fol increase in the and —— jon and agriculture being the main source Chinese populati hard hit. A theory Was propounded that of livelihood was hat increase in supply of cheap ulation led to. . F lebous and those in city invested in land. This resulted in escalation of land prices and the number of eer pessats and absentee landlords also increased. T wer ro ane more exploitative and peasants were driven abel his theory has been completely discarded as it has been proved that there was considerable expansion of agricultural land during the Ming and Qing periods. The collapse came due to the social system of parcelling out landed property equally among all the sons. The demographic pressure forced the Peasants to migrate to relatively unpopulated areas farther away from the seat of the imperial government and it was these “wandering people” who formed secret societies and participated in banditry, smuggling, revolts and rebellions in China. Growth of population led to the expansion of urban centres which were administrative and not trading centres and therefore there were no avenues for investment ‘if Productive enterprises. Chinese’ cities never created urban trading and manufacturing classes. The Chinese Examination System also deflected ambitious individuals away from commerce. Money making activities represented a dangerous threat to the scholar-officials because it constituted an alternative ladder of prestige and an alternative ground of legitimacy for high social status. The Chinese landlord-tenant China before the Opium War Archana Ojha 'S 4 politica Supls out of a2 Political device for squeezin e Peasant ig an economic of civilization and turning it into th: i lamentations was considered as the This prevented profit ial capital. Imposition le did not lead to the best source of investment and usury from being transformed into industri of strict limitations on foreign trad: development of commodity production in China. The traditional self-sufficient Chinese economy limited the expansion of commercial market and prevented industrial capitalism from Opening up new avenues of expansion Peasant rebellions did not change the system, they just replaced one oppressor with another. In fact, China faced a Paradoxical situation, The peasants had the right to overthrow tyrannical and oppressive rulers but it was difficult for the tuler to change the traditional system in order to make his position stronger because that would mean change in traditional Confucian political order which was a very difficult task.44 ode sn {Oi s were overworked ang offiCia niors handle most of The government! niors the ‘underpaid and tended t© be 2 into the lowest ley] cornu work and in this Way to earn the maximum as long as ‘There developed 8 te een. ‘There was gradual expansion ‘one was in pr ing Empire bat without Consequeny and development of growth of administrative apparatus. a very narrow scope and Cn Ene Syne Mt atifled free expression, was impractical BY Tf thinking and stressed Confucian scourge ora iene thinking. With the result there gmloes st the number of unemployed educated youth parsers ralised, frustrated and divorced from. the whe ee erie. They became the major think-tank and eo o source of rebellign. ‘A century of peace had weakened the Qing army and its banner forces became parasitic units and soldiers opium edicts. To curb the power of the military commanders, a complex military apparatus was developed which was of ‘overlapping command and the result was internal weakness and laxity. The naval power of the Chinese was no match to the Western imperialist threat. Spate of peasant rebellions and rampant corruption reduced the inflow of revenue into the imperial treasury. Moreover, land revenue was calculated in kind but peasants were required to pay in copper cash. But the value in silver had to be reckoned in terms of copper cash. Officials used 16 increase the silver rate in copper and they usurped the profit carned in this manner. TH fixed official exchange rate which Teached the central government was always. lower. The 45 China before the Opium War » Archana Ojha continou of & ry government reve PtON led to serious shortfalls in which : weakness and laity Created further administrative the availability of both complicated the matters. 1820s the major investm the currencies which further To make things worse, from the a i lent of silver was done to finance the illegal opium trade. As a result sub-standard currency came into circulation which exagerated the exchange rate mechanism between silver and copper currency. Financial difficulties created administrative problems as the government did not have sufficient rsources to meet the challenges’ of wars and rebellions in the mid-nineteenth century. The final blow was the vicory of Western powers after the Opium Wars and imposition of huge sums of indemnities ‘which created new financial problems. The spread of opium, ‘the drain of silver, and the influx of foreign shipping companies, cotton mills, railways and telegraph lines aggravated the crisis in the rural sector. The silver shortage caused depreciation of the copper currency and a sharp rise in the cost of living. Debased coinage came into use. Foreign machine made goods drove Chinese handicrafts to the wall and natural calamities finally forced the peasants to rise yet in another revolt which threatened to uproot the Qing dynasty.Modern History of China - 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY el C.Y. Hsu; The Rise of Modern Ching 1. Immanu Oxford: 1985. 2. U.K. Fairbank, E.O. Reischauer & AM. Craig: Asia: Tradition and Transformation, Boston: 1973" 3. W.T. de Berry (ed); Self and Society in Ming Thoughy Columbia University Press: 1970. 4. Bai Shouyi(ed); An Outline History of China, Beijing: 1982. ‘ 35 D. Twitchett & J.K. Fairbank (ed); The Cambri¢, History of China, Vol. 10, London: 1978. 7