MICROCLIMATE MODIFICATION AND THE VEGETABLE CROP ECOSYSTEM
Norman F. Oebker1 and Herbert J. Hopen2
University of Arizona, Tucson
Humans have been struggling with the plant environment since
they started sowing seeds and cultivating vegetation for food. Early
attempts were primarily to keep the plants alive. As time passed, trial
and error showed that certain conditions favored growth and
production. With this knowledge came cultural practices for each
species, which were often mixtures of folklore, superstition and fact.
Many of these early growing methods have been passed down to
recent times.
In this century, with scientific investigation appearing on the
horticulture scene, we have begun to understand the relationship
between the plant and its environment. The interaction between crop
plants and their surroundings establishes the local microclimate (54),
which must be modified to optimize crop production. This paper
deals with factors to consider in developing ways to modify the plant
microclimate and microclimate modification techniques for vegetable
crops.
Reasons for modifying the plant microclimate are obvious to
horticulturists who have grown crops under adverse conditions. By
providing a more favorable environment, we can increase yields and
improve quality - hopefully with an increase in economic returns.
In areas like the Southwest desert, where the climate is often harsh
with extremes in temperature which cause stress on the plants, a
modifying technique may allow a crop to produce satisfactorily when
otherwise it could not. Also, seasons can be extended by providing
cold protection at certain times and cooling at other times.
Shortages of good land and water may force us to make better use
of the crops ambient environment. An analytical look at
microclimate modification seems imperative for us to develop the
technology to keep pace with the food needs of our country and the
world.
Although the greenhouse offers the ultimate in environment
control, this paper deals only with crops in the open field. We are
fortunate to have plastic materials available for microclimate
modification; the advent of plastic film and tubing has given us the
capacity to influence the plant climate.
Research on microclimate modification appears to be a promising
field. Chang (10) believes such studies will pay handsome dividends in
the years to come.
The vegetable crop ecosystem
The vegetable field, garden or "patch" is called an ecological
system or ecosystem by the ecologist. An ecosystem is usually
considered a unit consisting of various living and non living
components which are related through interchanges of chemical
nutrients and energy (12, 60). Brazee and Fox (5) describe in detail
the subsystems involved.
We describe the vegetable crop ecosystem as having 3 main
components (Fig. 1). The first is the plant or plant community. The
group action of these plants, as a crop, produces the product in which
we are interested. The second component is the environment (Fig. 2),
which influences growth and development of the plant by supplying
conditions, energy and nutrients. As a result of the environmental
processes, a particular microclimate regime is established within the
crop canopy (54). The third component is man, who plays an
important part by managing the total crop system with the aim of
increasing its productivity.
The system is complex and the major components are interrelated.
The crop, the environment and man must operate in harmony to
result in profitable economic production. It is important to know
how these components interact and how the plants perform as a
community. It is also important to know how individual plants and
plant parts respond to changes in the microclimate. This knowledge
will give us clues for developing better modifying techniques.
The effect of environmental factors on the response of the whole
plant is discussed by Went and Sheps (96). Plant parts also deserve
their share of attention. Steward (87) believes that there are few areas
more neglected today than the study of growing points as the sites
where development actually occurs.
I Professor of Horticulture.
^Associate Professor of Vegetable Crops, University of Illinois,
Urbana.
564
Fig. 1. The three main components of the vegetable crop ecosystem
which must work in harmony to produce successfully.
Some examples in vegetables where parts of plants are influenced
by microclimate changes are: the growing point in relation to
premature seeding in celery and onion (15, 88, 89); tuber initiation in
potato (55, 86); color of carrot root (2); flower formation and fruit
set in tomato (95, 103) and color of tomato fruit (57, 77).
The leaf, the primary site of photosynthesis, plays an essential role
in productivity. Gas exchange and other processes which occur at the
surface of the leaf and in the leaf are well illustrated and described by
Kriedemann (47). Light, temperature, CO2, water and other factors
interact continuously to affect leaf and subsequently plant and crop
performance.
A key interaction which occurs between a plant and its
environment is the transfer of energy. This transfer determines the
plant's temperature and the plant's temperature affects its
physiological efficiency (19). Gates (20) in reviewing transpiration
and leaf temperature emphasizes the complexity of the interaction of
the variables involved.
Because of the importance of the activity at the leaf level, it is
paramount that we understand the use and the knowledge of these
involved relationships in developing techniques for modifying the
microclimate effectively. Hudson (41) advocates that more thought
should be given to leaves and the use of leaf phenomena in plant
management.
The root system and its microclimate also deserve more attention.
Research in Arizona indicates that the root zone temperature is
critical for plant life (11). By maintaining pea roots at optimal
temperatures, it was possible to overcome or avoid a portion of high
temperature injury to the tops. Roots subjected to high temperatures
seem not to produce and translocate enough cytokinins which are
necessary for normal shoot metabolism (11).
At the same time that attention is focused on the localized region
or part of the plant where a certain process or change occurs, this is
only a part of the overall activity going on in the total crop and many
factors must be considered to understand the activity and influence
the outcome.
Crop modeling
Simulation, modeling and systems ecology are relatively new in
horticultural concepts, but they may now be an aid to us in
understanding and in developing techniques for improving vegetable
crop production. Simulation is the art of building a model of a system
and observing its performance. Systems ecology has the goal of
developing predictive mathematical models of ecosystems (12).
Because of the complexity of the ecosystem with which we are
dealing, it seems a formidable task to build a workable model of the
vegetable crop field. But there is hope. The availability of high-speed
digital computers and simulation languages makes it possible to
integrate the many factors, components, and processes involved (54).
Researchers working with agronomic crops have made some progress
in this direction (48, 54, 99) and we may learn from them.
Loomis (53) gives us insight into the potentials of dynamic
modeling, which can provide us an over-all view of crop growth and
[12] HORTSCIENCE, VOL.9(6), DECEMBER 1974
when fully developed will allow us to predict consequences of
changing weather or production practices. Loomis and coworkers (54)
further discuss models in relation to plant community production. C.
T. deWit and R. Brouwer (99, 100) have provided good leadership in
the study of dynamic crop growth simulation. Lemon, Stewart and
Shawcroft (48) have developed a mathematical soil-plant-atmosphere
model based on a cornfield.
Crop growth models offer opportunities: a) to determine the
effect of different cultural techniques on crop response and; b) to
predict crop behavior under changes in the plant microclimate. Both
exercises could save much time for the researcher. Simulation runs
can be made in seconds while field experiments require months if not
years to complete. If results from the model are favorable, field plots
can be designed to test the simulation.
The prediction of crop growth can aid management decisions in
commercial operations. Adjustments could be made for changes in
environmental conditions to approach the goal of optimum
production.
Although systems ecology workers are enthusiastic about this
approach they point out that a) models deal in broad generalization
regarding crop behavior; b) results should be used with caution and
regarded more as a guide than as a final solution; c) the systems
should be kept as simple as possible; and d) model development is
limited by the biological information available.
Possibly the greatest value now of the modeling approach is the
creation of an awareness that we need to know more about the plant
and its behavior in a crop system.
Types of influence
We can categorize the environmental influences of modifying
techniques on plants as:
a) inductive - influences of short duration that affect plant
development patterns in subsequent periods. These include
effects of light, temperature, and photoperiod on the reproductive
state and tuber and bulb formation, e.g. cold treatment of
tomato seedlings to increase flowering and fruiting.
b) progressive - direct influences on rate of growth which usually
continue as long as the treatment or shortly after, e.g.
mulching to warm soil for earlier vegetables.
c) protective - influences brought about by shielding or
protecting the plant from adverse conditions or removing stress
THE VEGETABLE PLANT
AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
Fig. 2. A hypothetical vegetable plant with the various environmental
factors which affect its growth and development.
HORTSCIENCE, VOL.9(6), DECEMBER 1974
conditions (49), e.g. windbreaks, row covers.
This is a simplification of how the modified environment
influences plants, but it can help to delineate the principles of the
methods used to modify the microclimate for crop production.
Over the years many techniques have been developed to modify
the microclimate in vegetable crops. Fig. 3 itemizes practices that are
used now or are proposed for improving production. The following
discussion reviews ways of influencing the vegetable crop ecosystem.
Although this review does not exhaust the subject, we hope to touch
upon enough important aspects to stimulate interest and further
research.
Seed and seedling environs
To improve conditions for seed germination and seedling
development, attempts have been made to replace the soil around the
seed with a synthetic mix that is applied with the seed at planting.
Vermiculite is usually a component of the mix and is placed around
the seed as a tablet (32), band (66) or plug (35). A favorable and
similar microclimate is formed for each seed, which promotes uniform
germination and seedling growth in the field. Problems with crusting
are also eliminated.
The vermiculite seed tablet concept has been successful with
lettuce plantings in Arizona (31, 32) (Fig. 4). The seed is encased in
compressed vermiculite prior to planting. The tablet is 1.9 cm (3A
inch) in diameter and .64 cm QA inch) thick. With this better control
of the plant environment, planting to a stand is less risky. Another
advantage of the tablet is that the seed can be precisely placed in the
crop row. The tablet offers other opportunities to modify the
microenvironment around the seed: nutrient or pesticidal materials
can be added to vermiculite.
In Florida the "plug-mix" seeding method of tomatoes and
peppers is becoming popular. Crop seeds and water are incorporated
into a blended growing medium which is then precision placed in the
field at rates of 1/3 to 1/4 cup of loose mixture per hill (35). Cornell
Peat-Lite Mix, which contains peat moss and vermiculite with
nutrients added, is used to make the medium. Small seeded crops,
such as onions and carrots, can be drilled with the mix. The plug-mix
is often used on paper or plastic mulch covered beds. Beside providing
a uniform optimum environment, the plug mix reduces salt damage
during dry periods.
In another approach, a band of vermiculite is placed over the seed
THE VEGETABLE PLANT
MICROCLIMATE MODIFYING TECHNIQUES
Fig. 3. Various microclimatic modifying techniques which influence
vegetable production.
[13] 565

Fig. 4. Three views of planted vermiculite seed tablet.
to prevent soil crusting and results in faster and more uniform
emergence (66). The vermiculite is stabilized by a spray of petroleum
mulch.
Mulching
Beneficial crop response from mulching has been reviewed by
Hopen and Oebker (37). Earlier and greater yields and improved
quality in mulched vegetables are generally credited to an
improvement in the microclimate caused by the mulch. A covering of
the soil around the plants modifies soil temperature, conserves soil
moisture by reducing evaporation, reflects radiant energy into the leaf
canopy, maintains good soil structure and aeration, reduces salt
problems, affects air temperature around the plant, and controls
weeds, which has an indirect effect on the plant microclimate. It
should be be pointed out that mulches can also adversely affect the
soil climate and create conditions favorable for disease (62).
A good treatise of the principles of mulching has been prepared by
Waggoner, Miller, and DeRoo (93). Other references on
plant-soil-water relations with mulches are listed by Hopen and
Oebker (37). Practices and applications of mulching are discussed by
Sheldrake (82) and Courter, Hopen and Vandemark (13).
Wise selection and application of a mulch helps create a
microclimate advantageous for a particular crop in a particular
growing situation. Synthetic materials such as polyethylene, paper,
petroleum, aluminum foil have been used.
Row covers
Various types of covers over the row have been devised for early
production of high value crops. The purpose is to protect the plants
from wind, blowing sand, and frost and improve the plant climate.
"Brushing" is used on a small scale in Arizona and the Imperial
Valley, California. Protection is provided over the plants by a lean-to
of brown Kraft wrapping paper, attached to a framework of lath and
wire or of arrowweed stalks, on the north side of east-west rows.
During the day the shield reduces convectional heat transfer from
plant and soil to the air and at night reduces radiation loss to the sky.
Hart and Zink (34) studied the heat balance of brushing and verified
that it helps maintain a warmer environment around the plant.
Continuous polyethylene row covers or tunnels are used
extensively in San Diego County, California (28). Spring crops of
staked tomatoes and cucumbers formerly grown under paper caps
now mature a month earlier with the use of plastic row covers. Much
of this development is a result of work by B. J. Hall (24, 25, 26, 27).
Extensive temperature measurements and other studies with paper
and plastic plant protectors were made by Shadbolt and co-workers
(78, 80). The principles of protection from plastic shelters are
developed and discussed by Waggoner (92).
Other plant protectors for vegetables that have been tried recently
are trenches (1), wax paper tunnels (85), warm air supported covers
(42), and plastic tunnels in combination with bitumen mulch (74).
Irrigation
Irrigation, besides providing water to the crop, affects other
parameters of the microclimate such as air and soil temperature,
humidity, soil oxygen, and salinity. The type of influence depends on
the watering method. The three common ways of applying water to
vegetables are furrow, sprinkler, and drip irrigation.
Furrow irrigation is common on row crops in the western U.S. In
an Arizona study (33), irrigation during May reduced the soil temp at
the 15 cm depth as much as 10°C. The cooling effect usually
persisted for about 6 or 7 days. This is advantageous during warm
periods when dry soil temp goes over 50° but will retard plant growth
in cooler parts of the year. With lettuce, a crop which requires 30° or
lower for germination, the practice in desert areas in late summer and
early fall is to irrigate continually during germination so the moist soil
surface cools through evaporation. Wharton and Hobart (97) found
with furrow irrigation that a continuous moist soil surface with a
566 [14]
minimum amount of water was desirable for germination but
excessive moisture retarded root development and growth of lettuce
due to poor aeration. The shape of furrow irrigation beds influences
salt movement (58).
Sprinkler irrigation improves the germination of lettuce and other
vegetables (43, 44, 70, 71). The technique developed reduced seed
zone salinity and improved seedling emergence over furrow irrigation.
During hot planting periods sprinkler irrigation initiated in early
evening gave best stands of head lettuce seedlings (43, 46), because of
lower temp at night when the seed first imbibes water.
Sprinkler irrigation for cooling the atmosphere around vegetables
has been studied by many workers (4, 9, 14, 40, 67, 69, 75, 91). The
water is sprinkled at low rates (.76 to 3.0 mm/hr) intermittently or
during certain periods of the day. This misting increases evaporative
cooling, which can affect growth and quality of crops, prevent
blossom drop, and cool or firm a crop for mechanical harvesting (8).
Specific crop responses from mist irrigation include work on
tomato (9, 4), potato (75), beans (14), various vegetables (4, 69),
southern peas (40), apple (90) and grapes (21).
Sprinklers are used also to protect plants from freezing injury
(98). Robinson (68) points out some precautions in the use of
sprinklers for frost protection in lettuce.
Drip or trickle irrigation is a recent development popularized by
work done in Israel (22, 83, 84). Although the merits of the system
have been demonstrated, the effect on the microclimate has not been
fully investigated. Salinity in the root zone has been given the most
attention (3, 63, 83). Lettuce response from drip irrigation indicated
a different microclimate than around lettuce with furrow irrigation
(63). Bernstein and Francois (3) compared drip with furrow and
sprinkler irrigation in peppers with brackish water. Yields were
reduced more in furrow and sprinkler plots than in drip irrigated
areas.
Plant and row orientation
The position of the plant and its canopy in relation to the sun, the
direction and shape of the bed and the position of the seed row on
the bed are important to crop response. In Arizona, where lettuce is
grown during fall, winter and spring months the crop is planted on
north-south beds with a row on each side. Growers have found this
usually gives more uniform growth and harvest. In winter planted
cantaloupes, one row is located on the south slope of an east-west bed
to obtain maximum soil warming for germination and early growth.
Usually the slope is 35° allowing more insulation per unit area of soil
surface.
Southern California studies (79) on the effect of the angle of
incidence of the sun on the soil temp on beds oriented in different
directions show that wind direction is important. Zink (105) showed
in the Salinas Valley that the harvest density patterns in lettuce
reflect the effects of wind and direction of incoming radiation on the
soil temp differential across the bed. Results varied with spring,
summer and early fall crops.
In Washington, research showed row direction altered the
microclimate in bean foliage (14). Rows perpendicular to the
prevailing wind reduced the relative humidity in the foliage, helping
to control disease development.
It is interesting to note that at Tucson (Lat. 32° 14') in June more
solar radiation falls on the north side of a tree than on the south side
(7). At this latitude, the proper location and training of plant rows for
such crops as staked tomatoes may help reduce high temperature
problems.
Light regulation
Light is essential for plants, at optimum intensity. Extremes in the
amount of light can be found within a single plant canopy. It is
difficult and expensive to supplement light in the field but Pendleton,
Peters and Peek (65) by reflecting light back into corn foliage with a
white plastic mulch on the soil increased yields 12 and 7% over a 3
year period in 2 experiments.
Intense sunlight may produce high temperatures and cause
undesirable physiological changes to occur in plant parts. Shading or
applying a protective coating on the plant or plant part can help the
grower maintain a desirable product for market. Partial shading of fall
lettuce in Arizona resulted in heads of better color and appearance
(61). Waggoner and coworkers describe the climate of shade (94). If
not all factors are considered, temp of the plant in a shaded area
could be higher than in unshaded (23). Wind speed under the shade is
an influencing factor.
Fruits of tomato, cantaloupe, and 'Crenshaw' melon can be
protected from "sunburn" by a coating of a radiation-reflecting
H O R T S C I E N C E , VOL.9(6), D E C E M B E R 1974
material. Some sprays tried have been made of whitewash, aluminum
silicate, diatomaceous earth or finely-ground clay. Lipton (50, 51, 52)
discusses this subject in detail and reports lower pulp temp for the
treated fruits.
Rosenberg (personal communication) used reflectant materials on
soybean foliage to dissipate some of the excess solar radiation which
is normally consumed in evapotranspiration, thus reducing water
consumption by the plant. This is a technique which may have
application in vegetables.
CO2 enrichment
The benefits of CO2 enrichment in greenhouse environments are
well established (46, 100, 102). Can CO2 be increased around field
vegetables? Pallas (64) discusses the use of manure as a source of CO2;
changing crop geometry to increase light interception, air exchange,
or turbulence; systems of CO2 stagnation; CO2 introduced through
roots; spraying carbonated water on the leaves; adding carbonates to
the soil; and the development of cheap CO2 for enrichment programs.
Field application of CO2 in cotton increased the daily net
photosynthate production 33% (30), but the researchers decided this
was not practical (29). Other attempts to increase CO2 around plants
have not been encouraging. The use of manure and paper and plastic
mulch did not significantly affect the CO2 level around winter and
spring grown vegetables in Arizona (36); however, work in New York
indicated that significant release of CO2 occurred at the plant holes in
plastic mulch, which would be beneficial to young seedlings (82).
The ambient CO2 at ground level is about 30CH- ppm. Hopen and
Ries (38) showed more cucumber seedling growth at 450 than at 350
ppm. Practices that increase CO2 slightly or maintain it in the actively
CO2 absorbing canopy may be physiologically beneficial. Moss (59)
states that stirring calm air is equivalent to adding CO2 to the quiet
atmosphere. Cultural practices which allow or improve air movement
around plants could be helpful. Selection of soils for growing the crop
is important. In Michigan measurements over muck showed
appreciably higher CO 2 levels than over mineral soils (39).
Duncan and Barfield (17) have worked out a simulation model
that considers some of the factors that might affect the effectiveness
of field applications of carbon dioxide.
Other techniques
Some of the other cultural practices which may have a place in
modifying the microclimate of vegetables are:
Windbreaks. Rosenberg and coworkers (6, 72, 73) describe the
benefits of windbreaks on crops and how they modify the
microclimate. The main objective is to minimize stress on growing
crops. McCall and Gitlin (56) discuss the construction of windbreaks.
Pollutant protection. Pollution affects the plant's microclimate.
Feder (18) reviews the problem and the effect of climatic factors on
plant sensitivity to pollution injury.
Waste heat. Attempts are being made to use waste heat from
power plants for agricultural purposes (104). Sanders, Skaggs and
Willey (76) in North Carolina report experiences with cabbage grown
in soil warmed by circulation of waste heated water.
Plant population. Plant competition affects the crop microclimate
(16). Plant density also influences weed competition (45).
Numerous methods have been developed for modifying the crop
microclimate. Many result in improved production; some are not
profitable. The development of many of these techniques occurred
through trial and error, often in a piecemeal manner and without a
systematic approach to the total ecosystem. With abundant findings
in plant physiology and the development of sound principles of
micrometerology, the horticulturist has unique opportunities to
develop an integrated plan for making the vegetable ecosystem highly
productive.
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