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REVIEW
Carbohydrate intake and obesity
RM van Dam1,2,3 and JC Seidell3
1
Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; 2Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine,
Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA and 3Institute of Health Sciences, Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
The prevalence of obesity has increased rapidly worldwide and the importance of considering the role of diet in the prevention
and treatment of obesity is widely acknowledged. This paper reviews data on the effects of dietary carbohydrates on body
fatness. Does the composition of the diet as related to carbohydrates affect the likelihood of passive over-consumption and long-
term weight change? In addition, methodological limitations of both observational and experimental studies of dietary
composition and body weight are discussed. Carbohydrates are among the macronutrients that provide energy and can thus
contribute to excess energy intake and subsequent weight gain. There is no clear evidence that altering the proportion of total
carbohydrate in the diet is an important determinant of energy intake. However, there is evidence that sugar-sweetened
beverages do not induce satiety to the same extent as solid forms of carbohydrate, and that increases in sugar-sweetened soft
drink consumption are associated with weight gain. Findings from studies on the effect of the dietary glycemic index on body
weight have not been consistent. Dietary fiber is associated with a lesser degree of weight gain in observational studies.
Although it is difficult to establish with certainty that fiber rather than other dietary attributes are responsible, whole-grain
cereals, vegetables, legumes and fruits seem to be the most appropriate sources of dietary carbohydrate.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2007) 61 (Suppl 1), S75–S99. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602939
General introduction Ludwig, 2002; Bray et al., 2004a, b; Halton and Hu, 2004;
Slavin, 2005). Although substantial short-term weight loss can
Background be achieved by many people, successful long-term mainte-
The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased nance of weight loss is much more difficult and compensatory
rapidly worldwide during recent decades, acquiring epidemic physiological processes appear to stimulate weight regain
proportions in children and adults and in industrialized as (Hirsch et al., 1998). Effects on body weight found in short-
well as transitional and developing countries (Popkin and term metabolic studies can therefore not be readily extra-
Gordon-Larsen, 2004; Ogden et al., 2006). Excess adiposity polated to long-term effects. This overview will present
increases risk of type 2 diabetes, arthritis, sleep apnea, evidence for the effects of dietary composition related to
hypertension, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular diseases, various carbohydrates on body fatness. Dietary factors that will be
types of cancer and premature death (Willett et al., 1999). discussed include the proportion of total carbohydrates in
Therefore, the importance of prevention and treatment of the diet, free-sugars, sugar-sweetened beverages, the dietary
obesity is widely acknowledged. Changes in energy storage glycemic index (GI) and dietary fiber. Studies have been
as body fat are affected by the balance of energy intake and identified through systematic and narrative reviews on these
energy expenditure, making diet and physical activity topics supplemented with searches in MEDLINE (PubMed)
obvious targets for interventions. Effects of dietary composi- until July 2007. The emphasis is on longer-term studies, but
tion on both energy intake and energy expenditure (dietary shorter-term studies are also discussed depending on the
induced thermogenesis and resting energy metabolism) are availability of data for different exposures.
plausible, based on results from animal experiments and
metabolic studies in humans (Poppitt and Prentice, 1996;
Methodological considerations for studies relating diet to body
weight
Correspondence: Dr RM van Dam, Department of Nutrition, Harvard School
of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Methodological limitations have to be considered in the
E-mail: rvandam@hsph.harvard.edu interpretation of results on macronutrient composition in
Carbohydrate intake and obesity
RM van Dam and JC Seidell
S76
relation to weight change or the incidence of obesity. We on macronutrient intakes and changes therein in relation to
will discuss these methodological limitations separately for adiposity in observational studies.
observational and experimental studies.
Reference/country Participantsa Duration Intervention ‘High carbohydrate’ ‘Low carbohydrate’ Compliance Results
(Baron et al., M/F. High carb: n ¼ 61, 12 months 3 months: participation Fat o30 g per day Carbohydrate o50 g FFQ: higher fiber intake High carb: 1.6 kg
1986) UK age 40, BMI 28.5; low in weekly diet club per day (18.4 vs 15.1 g per day), Low carb: 2.3 kg
carb: n ¼ 59, age 40, BMI meetings and written bread and potato intake Difference: 0.7 kg
39.5. An additional n ¼ 8 material. Target: for high-carb vs (95% CI 1.2, 2.6)
(high carb) and n ¼ 7 1000–1200 kcal low-carb diet
(low carb) were lost to per day
follow-up and not
included in the analysis
(Pascale et al., M/F Type 2 diabetes, age 12 months 16 weekly group sessions Target: 20 en% fat. Emphasis on low energy Diet records (12 Low fat: 5.2 kg
1995) US 5778, BMI 36.374.7. and meetings at 5, 6, 8 Recording of both intake. Recording of months): low-fat 26 (s.d. 7.3)
Low fat: n ¼ 15; higher and 10 months. Target: amount of calories calories of foods used. en% fat, higher fat 34 Higher fat: 1.0 kg
fat: n ¼ 16. An additional 1000–1500 kcal per day and fat of foods used Fat o30 en% en% fat (s.d. 3.9)
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (kg/m2); en%, energy percent; F, female; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; M, male; s.d., standard deviation.
All trials had a parallel design.
None of the trials reported/conducted blinding of the assessors of outcomes or allocation concealment.
a
Values are means7s.d.
Table 2 Randomized intervention studies comparing very low carbohydrate diet and low-fat energy-restricted diets: results after 6 and 12 months
Reference/ Participants Intervention ‘Low-carb’ diet ‘Low-fat’ diet Follow-up Compliance Weight loss (kg)
country
Low carba Low fata Difference
(Samaha M/F. BMI X35, Group counseling: Carbohydrate Fat o30 energy% 6 months 24-h recall (energy 5.8 (8.6) 1.9 (4.2) P ¼ 0.002b
et al., 2003; 83% diabetes or weekly sessions for intake o30 g per and 500 kcal per %). Low carb: C 37,
Stern et al., metabolic 4 weeks and 11 day day energy deficit F 41, P 22w.
2004) US syndrome. Low monthly session; Low-fat: C 51,
carb: n ¼ 64. Low- written materials F 33, P 16
fat: n ¼ 68; lost to
follow-up: n ¼ 14 at
6 months, n ¼ 6 at
12 months
12 months 24-h recall 5.1 (8.7) 3.1 (8.4) P ¼ 0.20c
(g per day).
Carbohydrate: low
carb 120; low-fat
230
(Foster M/F. Obese (mean One consultation Carbohydrate Fat B25%, 6 months Testing of urinary 6.9 (6.4) 3.1 (5.5) P ¼ 0.02d
et al., BMI 34). Low carb: with dietitian; a o20 g per day protein B15%, ketone
2003) US n ¼ 33. Low-fat: book/manual for 2 weeks, carbohydrate concentrations.
n ¼ 30; lost to followed by a B60% of energy. Significant
follow-up: n ¼ 21 at gradual increase Energy restricted difference between
6 months, n ¼ 26 at groups up to 12
12 months weeks
12 months 4.3 (6.6) 2.5 (6.2) P ¼ 0.26d
6 months, n ¼ 7 at
12 months
12 months Diet records 5.4 4.4 P40.05c
(energy %): low
carb: C 33, F 41,
P 21; Low fat: C 45,
F 29, P 22
S81
Carbohydrate intake and obesity
RM van Dam and JC Seidell
S82
months, weight loss was 9.4 kg in the high-protein group
Difference
Po0.05d
P40.05d
and 5.9 kg in the high-carbohydrate group (difference 3.5 kg,
P ¼ 0.008; Skov et al., 1999). After 12 months, weight loss was
6.2 kg for the high-protein group and 4.3 kg for the high-
carbohydrate group (difference 1.9 kg, P40.05; Due et al.,
Low fata
B3.1
B5.8
C 47, F 33, P 19
carbohydrate and
caloric restriction,
exercise
Carbohydrate
lost to follow-up:
months, n ¼ 27
Low fat n ¼ 79;
et al., 2007) (25–50 years),
at 12 months
n ¼ 21 at 6
weight loss
Effect of dietary advice to consume a low-fat diet on body
weight. The Women’s Health Initiative Dietary Modifica-
Reference/
(Gardner
tion Trial tested the effect of advice to decrease fat intake and
Table 2
country
d
a
Figure 3 Effects of advice to consume a low-fat diet high in fruits and vegetables on body weight: differences (from baseline) in body weight by
intervention group and BMI at screening in the Women’s Health Initiative. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. *Pp0.05 and 40.01
w
Pp0.01 and 40.001 zPp0.001 for the difference between the intervention and control group. Reprinted from Howard et al. (2006) copyright
(2006), American Medical Association. All rights reserved. BMI, body mass index.
(Tordoff and Alleva, n ¼ 30. 9 F: age Cross-over, 3 3 weeks 1135 g per day Two control Diet records HFCS drinks vs no
1990) US 28.772.7, BMI participants were of supplied interventions: 1135 g instructions:
25.471.4; 21 M: blinded HFCS-sweetened per day aspartame- F þ 0.97 kg,
age 22.970.8, BMI soft drinks sweetened drinks or M þ 0.72 kg. HFCS
25.170.5; 11 others no specific drinks vs aspartame
dropped out and instructions drinks: F þ 0.72 kg,
were not included M þ 0.99 kg
in the analysis (P overall o0.01 for
both F and M)
(DiMeglio and n ¼ 15 M/F: age Cross-over 2 4 week and 1880 kJ per day of 1880 kJ per day of Diet records Po0.05 for weight
Mattes, 2000) US 22.872.7, BMI 4-week washout sugar-sweetened soft jelly beans (‘solid’) change during liquid
21.972.2. All drinks (‘liquid’) period ( þ 0.5 kg),
participants included but not significantly
in the analysis different from change
in the solid period
( þ 0.3 kg)
(Raben et al., 2002) n ¼ 41 overweight Randomized parallel; 10 week Sucrose supplements Artificial sweetener Diet records 2.6 (95% CI 1.3–3.8,
Denmark M/F. Sucrose group: participants were (B70% as drinks) supplements Po0.001) kg increase
n ¼ 21, age blinded in weight and 1.6
33.372.0, BMI (95% CI 0.4–2.8,
28.070.5. Sweetener Po0.01) increase in
group: n ¼ 20, age fat mass for the
37.172.2, BMI 27.6. sucrose as compared
One drop-out was with the artificial
not included in the sweetener group
as compared with
the control group
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (kg/m2); F, female; HFCS, high fructose corn syrup; M, male.
a
Values are means7s.d.
b
None of the trials reported on blinding of the assessors of outcomes, except for Ebbeling and co-workers allocation concealment was not reported.
S87
Carbohydrate intake and obesity
RM van Dam and JC Seidell
S88
such as apple juice, but effects of juices on body weight have
not been tested experimentally and results from observa-
tional studies have been mixed (Malik et al., 2006).
(Slabber et al., 1994) n ¼ 30 F age 3576 Parallel design with 12 week (212 weeks Only carbohydrate ‘Balanced diet’. Both Diet records. Parallel: intervention
South Africa years, BMI 3574. minimization and for cross-over study): foods with low insulin advised intervention Difference in GI not diet 9.3 kg, control
No loss to follow-up. cross-over study counseling response, and control diet reported 7.4 kg, difference
n ¼ 16 participants carbohydrate foods in were hypocaloric 1.9 kg (95% CI 0.7,
volunteered to switch separate meals, no (4200–5000 kJ 4.6; P ¼ 0.14). Cross-
to the other diet after snacks per day) over: intervention diet
completion 7.4 kg, control
4.5 kg, difference
2.9 kg (95% CI 0.1,
5.8; P ¼ 0.04)
(Tsihlias et al., 2000) M/F type 2 diabetes Randomized parallel 6 months: breakfast Low-GI cereals High-GI cereals Diet records: low GI No statistically
Canada High GI: n ¼ 22, age cereals (10–15% total provided provided reported 10 point significant differences
change in free-living
differences between
other modest differences between the intervention diets may
groups
provided breads was used to monitor compliance (Sloth
et al., 2004). Despite the substantial differences in the GI of
the diets, no statistically significant effects on body weight
significant difference
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (kg/m); F, female; GI, glycemic index; M, male.
Duration
and control diet, effects on body fat may also have resulted
from other beneficial characteristics of the recommended
foods (non-starchy vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, dairy) or
a greater acceptation of the ad libitum approach by the
Values are means (s.d.) unless reported otherwise.
n ¼ 10, BMI 37.7. High
No intention to treat
GI, n ¼ 9, BMI 34.6.
F/M adults. Low GI,
GI and n ¼ 1 of the
high-GI group lost.
mass was lost for diets B and C than for the other diets.
a
(Ebbeling et al., Obese adolescents M/F. 12 months: 12 Low to moderate GI foods, Reduced fat and Diet records (follow-up): BMI decreased 1.8
2003) US Low glycemic load (GL): counseling balanced consumption of hypocaloric (250– low GL 10 g per (P ¼ 0.02) and fat mass
n ¼ 8, age 17, BMI 35, fat sessions during carbohydrates with fat and 500 kcal per day 1000 kcal lower GL, 3 4.2 kg (P ¼ 0.01) for low
mass 39 kg; high GL: n ¼ 8, 0–6 months and protein at each meal/ deficit) en% lower carbohydrate GL as compared with
age 15, BMI 37, fat mass 2 during 6–12 snack; ad libitum and 3 point lower GI control diet
49 kg (P ¼ 0.03 vs low GL); months than control group
n ¼ 2 lost to follow-up but
included in intention to
treat
(Ebbeling et al., F/M. Low GL: n ¼ 11, age Ebbeling et al. Low glycemic load: see Reduced fat and Diet records. Low vs high Low GL: weight 7.8 kg,
2005) US 30, BMI 34.0. High GL: (2003) Ebbeling et al.(2003) hypocaloric (250– GL: 24 g per 1000 kcal fat mass 16.5%. High
n ¼ 12, age 27, BMI 27.2. 500 kcal per day lower GL, 7 point lower GL: weight 6.1 kg
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (kg m2); en%, energy percent; F, female; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; GI, glycemic index; GL, glycemic load; M, male. Values are means.
a
Das et al. reported the blinding of outcome assessors. None of the other studies reported on blinding of outcome assessors or allocation concealment.
Carbohydrate intake and obesity
RM van Dam and JC Seidell
S93
Despite a substantially lower GL for diet D as compared with trials of guar gum intake and body weight were pooled
diet A, according to diet records (54%) and 10-h incre- (Pittler and Ernst, 2001). The results did not suggest a
mental area under the glucose (38%) and insulin (45%) difference in effect on body weight as compared with
curve on profile days, no substantial or significant difference placebo treatment (weighted mean difference 0.04 kg;
in loss of fat mass was observed. Thus, although results from 95% confidence interval 2.2 to 2.1). In a 14-month
this study could be seen as supportive for a low-GI /high- randomized intervention study with 11 obese women,
carbohydrate/high-fiber diet and a high-protein diet for adding 20 g of guar gum supplements per day to an ad
weight loss, the unexpected results for the diet that libitum diet after completion of a very low-calorie diet did
combined a low-GI and high protein intake, the sex not reduce weight as compared with controls (Pasman et al.,
differences in results and the limited duration warrant a 1997). Timing of the intake of fiber supplements in relation
cautious interpretation. In a US study, a reduced GL diet was to meals may be relevant (Pasman et al., 1997). Also, fiber
compared with a portion-controlled low-fat diet (Maki et al., supplements may not have appreciable effects in isolation,
2007). Weight loss and loss of fat mass was greater for the but rather improve adherence to hypocaloric diets. Ryttig
low-GL diet as compared with the control diet after 12 weeks et al. (1989) examined the effects of a fiber supplement in
(‘weight loss phase’), but these differences did not remain combination with a hypocaloric diet in a series of double-
significant after 36 weeks (‘weight maintenance phase’). blind, randomized trials of 3- to 12-month duration in
Finally, another US study in 34 participants combined a goal overweight persons (Rossner et al., 1987; Rigaud et al., 1990).
of 30% caloric restriction with a low or high-GL diet (Das The addition of the fiber supplements to a hypocaloric diet
et al., 2007). No significant differences in weight loss or led to a statistically significant 1–2 kg greater weight loss as
energy intake measured with the doubly labeled water compared with a placebo in combination with the hypo-
method were found after either the 6-month phase in which caloric diet. An effect of similar magnitude was observed for
all foods were provided or the subsequent 6-month phase adding viscous glucomannan fiber supplement to a hypo-
where the participants selected the foods themselves. In caloric diet in 5-week placebo-controlled double-blind
summary, studies that have directly compared low- and randomized study (Birketvedt et al., 2005). In summary,
high-GL diets do not consistently support this hypothesis although results for ‘fiber’ supplements on body weight have
that a low-GL diet supports weight loss. been mixed there is some evidence that these supplements
may increase adherence to hypocaloric diets and thus lead to
a small additional weight loss. The role of different types of
Conclusion on GI and GL fiber as well as the timing of fiber intake requires further
Current evidence from studies on low-GI and low-GL diets is study in this context.
too limited to warrant specific recommendation with regard
to these concepts for the prevention of obesity. Caution
with regard to the health effects of high fructose intake is Weight loss interventions with high-fiber foods
warranted, whereas other low-GI foods such as legumes that In a randomized trial in obese men and women that received
also have other beneficial nutritional properties could be an energy-restricted diet (target 500 kcal per day deficit) for
recommended as part of a diet for weight control. 48 weeks additional advice to increase consumption of
vegetables, fruit and whole grains was associated with a
B10 g per day reported higher fiber intake, but not with
Dietary fiber greater weight loss (Thompson et al., 2005). In a 2-year
randomized trial, the effect of a ‘Mediterranean-style’ diet
Introduction high in fiber-rich foods was tested in 180 persons with the
A higher fiber content contributes to a lower energy density metabolic syndrome (Esposito et al., 2004). The intervention
of foods (Slavin, 2005). In addition, viscous fibers form a group received individualized dietary advice from a dietician
viscous gel in contact with water and have been suggested to (monthly session in the 1st year, bimonthly in the second
reduce energy intake through increased feelings of fullness year) and participated in group sessions with education on
(Pasman et al., 1997). These types of fiber may also increase reducing calories, personal goal setting and self-monitoring.
gastrointestinal transit time, slow glucose absorption and Aims included increasing consumption of fruits, vegetables,
lead to a more gradual increase in blood glucose levels (see legumes, nuts, whole grains and olive oil combined with less
glycemic index section) (Slavin, 2005). than 30% of energy from fat and 50–60% from carbohy-
drates. The control group did not receive individualized
advice, but only general recommendations based on the
Intervention studies of ‘fiber’ supplements and body weight same goals for macronutrient intakes. Weight loss after 2
Guar gum is a viscous galactomannan fiber that is years was 4.0 kg for the intervention and 1.2 kg for the
commonly used in the form of supplements in attempts to control group (difference 2.8 kg, 95% confidence interval
lose weight (Pittler and Ernst, 2001). In a meta-analysis 0.5–5.1). The 16 g per day greater increase in fiber intake as
published in 2001, the results of 11 randomized double-blind well as other characteristics of the recommended foods or