Genetics A Conceptual Approach 5th

Edition Pierce Solutions Manual

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Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

Section 10.1

1. What four general characteristics must the genetic material possess?

Solution:
(1) The genetic material must contain complex information.
(2) The genetic material must replicate or be replicated faithfully.
(3) The genetic material must have the capacity to vary or mutate to generate
diversity.
(4) The genetic material must encode the phenotype or have the ability to code for
traits.

Section 10.2

2. Briefly outline the history of our knowledge of the structure of DNA until the time
of Watson and Crick. Which do you think were the principal contributions and
developments?

Solution:
1869: Johann Friedrich Miescher isolates nuclei from white blood cells and extracts
a substance that was slightly acidic and rich in phosphorous. He calls it
nuclein.
Late 1800s: Albrecht Kossel determines that DNA contains the four nitrogenous
bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
1920s: Phoebus Aaron Levine discovers that DNA consists of repeating units, each
consisting of a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.
1950: Erwin Chargaff formulates Chargaff’s rules (A = T and G = C).
1947: William Ashbury begins studying DNA structure using X-ray diffraction.
1951–1953: Rosalind Franklin, working in Maurice Wilkins’ lab, obtains higher
resolution pictures of DNA structure using X-ray diffraction
techniques.
1953: Watson and Crick propose the model of DNA structure.
All of these scientists contributed information that helped Watson and Crick
determine the structure of the DNA double helix. Erwin Chargaff and Rosalind
Franklin made two important contributions that directly led to the discoveries by
Watson and Crick. By combining Chargaff’s rules with Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray
diffraction data, Watson and Crick were able to predict accurately the structure of
the DNA double helix.

3. What experiments demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material?

228 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

Solution:
Experiments by Hershey and Chase in the 1950s using the bacteriophage T2
demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material of the bacteriophage. Also, the
experiments by Avery, Macleod, and McCarty demonstrated that the transforming
material initially identified by Griffiths was DNA.

4. What is transformation? How did Avery and his colleagues demonstrate that the
transforming principle is DNA?

Solution:
Transformation occurs when a transforming material (or DNA) genetically alters
the bacterium that absorbs the transforming material. Avery and his colleagues
demonstrated that DNA is the transforming material by using enzymes that
destroyed the different classes of biological molecules. Enzymes that destroyed
proteins or RNA had no effect on the activity of the transforming material.
However, enzymes that destroyed DNA eliminated the biological activity of the
transforming material. Avery and his colleagues were also able to isolate the
transforming material and demonstrate that it had chemical properties similar to
DNA.

5. How did Hershey and Chase show that DNA is passed to new phages in phage
reproduction?

Solution:
Hershey and Chase used the radioactive isotope 32P to demonstrate that DNA is
passed to new phage particles during phage reproduction. The progeny phage
released from bacteria infected with 32P-labeled phages emitted radioactivity from
32
P. The presence of the 32P in the progeny phage indicated that the infecting phage
had passed DNA on to the progeny phage.

6. Why was the discovery of DNA structure so important?

Solution:
By deciphering the structure of the DNA molecule, Watson and Crick provided the
foundation for molecular studies of the genetic material or DNA, allowing scientists
to discern how genes function to produce phenotypes. Their model also suggested a
possible mechanism for the replication of DNA that would ensure the fidelity of the
replicated copies.

Section 10.3

7. Draw and identify the three parts of a DNA nucleotide.

Solution:
The three parts of a DNA nucleotide are phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and a
nitrogenous base.
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 229

8. How does an RNA nucleotide differ from a DNA nucleotide?

Solution:
DNA nucleotides, or deoxyribonucleotides, have a deoxyribose sugar that lacks an
oxygen molecule at the 2′ carbon of the sugar molecule. Ribonucleotides, or RNA
nucleotides, have a ribose sugar with an oxygen linked to the 2′ carbon of the sugar
molecule. Ribonucleotides may contain the nitrogenous base uracil, but not
thymine. DNA nucleotides contain thymine, but not uracil.

9. How does a purine differ from a pyrimidine? What purines and pyrimidines are
found in DNA and RNA?

Solution:
A purine consists of a six-sided ring attached to a five-sided ring. A pyrimidine
consists of only a six-sided ring. In both DNA and RNA, the purines found are
adenine and guanine. DNA and RNA differ in their pyrimidine content. The
pyrimidine cytosine is found in both RNA and DNA. However, DNA contains the
pyrimidine thymine, whereas RNA contains the pyrimidine uracil but not thymine.

10. Draw a short segment of a single polynucleotide strand, including at least three
nucleotides. Indicate the polarity of the strand by labeling the 5′ end and the 3′ end.
230 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

Solution:

11. Which bases are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with each another?

Solution:
Adenine is capable of forming two hydrogen bonds with thymine. Guanine is
capable of forming three hydrogen bonds with cytosine.

12. What different types of chemical bonds are found in DNA and where are they
found?

Solution:
The deoxyribonucleotides in a single chain or strand of DNA are held by covalent
bonds called phosphodiester linkages between the 3′ end of the deoxyribose sugar
of a nucleotide and the 5′ end of the deoxyribose sugar of the next nucleotide in the
chain. Two chains of deoxyribonucleotides are held together by hydrogen bonds
between the complementary nitrogenous bases of the nucleotides in each chain.

13. What are some of the important genetic implications of the DNA structure?

Solution:
Referring back to Question 1, the structure of DNA gives insight into the four
fundamental genetic processes. The Watson and Crick model suggests that the
complex genetic information or instructions are encoded in the nucleotide
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 231

sequences. The complementary polynucleotide strands indicate how faithful

replication of the genetic material is possible. Finally, the arrangement of the
nucleotides is such that they specify the primary structure or amino acid sequence
of protein molecules.

14. What are the three major pathways of information that flow within the cell?

Solution:
The major transfers of genetic information are replication, transcription, and
translation. These are the components of the central dogma of molecular biology.

Section 10.4

15. What are hairpins and how do they form?

Solution:
Hairpins are a type of secondary structure found in single strands of nucleotides.
The formation of hairpins occurs when sequences of nucleotides on the single
strand are inverted complementary repeats of one another.

16. What is DNA methylation?

Solution:
DNA methylation is the addition of methyl groups (–CH 3 ) to certain positions on
the nitrogenous bases on the nucleotide.

APPLICATION QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Introduction

17. The introduction to this chapter, about the sequencing of 4000-year-old DNA,
emphasizes DNA’s extreme stability. What aspects of DNA’s structure contribute to
the stability of the molecule? Why is RNA less stable than DNA?

Solution:
Several aspects contribute to the stability of the DNA molecule. The relatively strong
phosphodiester linkages connect the nucleotides of a given strand of DNA. The
helical nature of the double-stranded DNA molecule results in the negatively
charged phosphates of each strand being arranged to the outside and away from each
other. The complementary nature of the nitrogenous bases of the nucleotides helps
hold the two strands of polynucleotides together. The stacking interactions of the
bases, which allow for any base to follow another in a given strand, also play a major
role in holding the two strands together. Finally, the ability of DNA to have local
variations in secondary structure contributes to its stability.
232 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

RNA nucleotides or ribonucleotides contain an extra oxygen at the 2′carbon of the

ribose sugar. This extra oxygen at each nucleotide makes RNA a less stable
molecule.

Section 10.2

*18. Match the researchers (a-j) with the discoveries listed.

a. Kossel
b. Fraenkel-Conrat
c. Watson and Crick
d. Levene
e. Miescher
f. Hershey and Chase
g. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
h. Griffith
i. Franklin and Wilkins
j. Chargaff

__ Took X-ray diffraction pictures used in constructing the structure of DNA.

__ Determined that DNA contains nitrogenous bases.

__ Identified DNA as the genetic material in bacteriophage.

__ Discovered regularity in the ratios of different bases in DNA.

__ Determined that DNA is responsible for transformation in bacteria.

__ Worked out the helical structure of DNA by building models.

__ Discovered that DNA consists of repeating nucleotides.

__ Determined that DNA is acidic and high in phosphorous.

__ Conducted experiments showing that RNA can serve as the genetic material in
some viruses.

__ Demonstrated that heat-killed material from bacteria could genetically transform

live bacteria.

Solution:
Took X-ray diffraction pictures used in constructing the structure of DNA:
i. Franklin and Wilkins
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 233

Determined that DNA contains nitrogenous bases:

a. Kossel

Identified DNA as the genetic material in bacteriophage:

f. Hershey and Chase

Discovered regularity in the ratios of different bases in DNA:

j. Chargaff

Determined that DNA is responsible for transformation in bacteria:

g. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty

Worked out the helical structure of DNA by building models:

c. Watson and Crick

Discovered that DNA consists of repeating nucleotides:

d. Levene

Determined that DNA is acidic and high in phosphorous:

e. Miescher

Conducted experiments showing that RNA can serve as the genetic material in some
viruses:
b. Fraenkel-Conrat

Demonstrated that heat-killed material from bacteria could genetically transform live
bacteria:
h. Griffith

*19. A student mixes some heat-killed-type IIS Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria with
live type IIR bacteria and injects the mixture into a mouse. The mouse develops
pneumonia and dies. The student recovers some type IIS bacteria from the dead
mouse. If this is the only experiment conducted by the student, has the student
demonstrated that transformation has taken place? What other explanations might
explain the presence of the type IIS bacteria in the dead mouse?

Solution:
No, the student has not demonstrated that transformation has taken place. Unlike
Griffiths, who used strains IIR and IIIS to demonstrate transformation, the student is
using strains IIR and IIS. A mutation in the IIR strain injected into the mouse could
be sufficient to convert the IIR strain into the virulent IIS strain. By not conducting
the appropriate control of injecting IIR bacteria only, the student cannot determine
whether the conversion from IIR to IIS is due to transformation or to a mutation.
Although heat may have killed all the IIS bacteria, the student has not demonstrated
that the heat was sufficient to kill all the IIS bacteria. A second useful control
234 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

experiment would have been to inject the heat-killed IIS into mice and see if any of
the IIS bacteria survived the heat treatment.

20. Predict what would happen if Griffith had mixed some heat-killed type IIIS bacteria
and some heat-killed type IIR bacteria and injected these into a mouse. Would the
mouse have contracted pneumonia and died? Explain why or why not.

Solution:
The mouse would not have contracted pneumonia and died. Although the mouse
would have received IIIS DNA, which codes for virulent Streptococcus pneumoniae,
there are no live bacteria for this DNA to transform. Live bacteria are required for
pneumonia to develop.

21. Explain how heat-killed type IIIS bacteria in Griffith’s experiment genetically altered
the live type IIR bacteria. (Hint: See the discussion of transformation in Chapter 9.)

Solution:
The IIR strain of Streptococcus pneumonia must have been naturally competent or,
in other words, was capable of taking up DNA from the environment. The heat-killed
IIIS bacteria lysed releasing their DNA into the environment allowing for IIIS
chromosomal DNA fragments to come in contact with IIR cells. The IIIS DNA
responsible for the virulence of the IIIS strain was taken up by an IIR cell and
integrated into the IIR cell’s chromosome, thus “transforming” the IIR cell into a
virulent IIIS cell.

22. What results would you expect if the Hershey and Chase experiment were conducted
on tobacco mosaic virus?

Solution:
Infection by TMV results in the protein coat and RNA genome entering the host cell.
Inside the plant cell, the TMV protein coat unwinds, releasing the viral genome,
which initiates infection. If Hershey and Chase had used 32P and 35S to label TMV
particles, the RNA molecules would have been labeled with the 32P and the viral
proteins would have been labeled with 35S. However, the protein coat and the RNA
genome would have entered the cell, so “radioactive ghost proteins” would not have
been located outside the cell. Newly synthesized viral RNAs would have contained
measurable levels of 32P.

23. Which of the processes of information transfer illustrated in Figure 10.16 are
required for the T2 phage reproduction illustrated in Figure 10.4?

Solution:
DNA replication, transcription, and translation.

*24. Imagine you are a student in Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase’s lab in the late
1940s. You are given five test tubes containing E. coli bacteria that were infected
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 235

with T2 bacteriophage that have been labeled with either 32P or 35S. Unfortunately,
you forgot to mark the tubes and are now uncertain which were labeled with 32P and
which with 35S. You place the contents of the each tube in a blender and turn it on
for a few seconds to shear off the protein coats. You then centrifuge the contents to
separate the protein coats and the cells. You check for the presence of radioactivity
and obtain the following results. Which tubes contained E. coli infected with 32P-
labeled phage? Explain your answer.

Tube number Presence of radioactivity in

1 cells
2 protein coats
3 protein coats
4 cells
5 cells

Solution:
Tubes 1, 4, and 5. The DNA of the bacteriophage contains phosphorous and the
protein contains sulfur. When the bacteriophages infect the cell, they inject their
DNA into the cell, but the protein coats stay on the surface of the cell. The protein
coats are sheared off in the blender, while the cells with the DNA pellet at the
bottom of the tube. Thus, cells infected with 35S -labeled bacteriophage will have
radioactivity associated with the protein coats, whereas those cells infected with 32P-
labeled bacteriophage will have radioactivity associated with the cells.

25. Figure 10.8 illustrates Fraenkel-Conrat and Singer’s experiment on the genetic
material of TMV. What results would you expect in this experiment if protein
carried the genetic information of TMV instead of RNA?

Solution:
When type A RNA was combined with type B protein (left side of Figure 10.8), the
resulting progeny viruses would have type B RNA and protein. When type B RNA
was combined with type A protein (right side of Figure 10.8), the resulting progeny
viruses would have type A RNA and protein.

Section 10.3

*26. DNA molecules of different sizes are often separated with the use of a technique
called electrophoresis (see Chapter 19). With this technique, DNA molecules are
placed in a gel, an electrical current is applied to the gel, and the DNA molecules
migrate toward the positive (+) pole of the current. What aspect of its structure
causes a DNA molecule to migrate toward to the positive pole?

Solution:
The phosphate backbone of DNA molecules typically carries a negative charge, thus
making the DNA molecules attractive to the positive pole of the current.
 236 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

*27. Each nucleotide pair of a DNA double helix weighs about 1 × 10–21 g. The human
body contains approximately 0.5 g of DNA. How many nucleotide pairs of DNA are
in the human body? If you assume that all the DNA in human cells is in the B-DNA
form, how far would the DNA reach if stretched end to end?

Solution:
If each nucleotide pair of a DNA double helix weighs approximately 1 × 10–21 g and
the human body contains 0.5 grams of DNA, then the number of nucleotide pairs can
be estimated as: (0.5 g DNA / human)/(1 × 10–21 g / nucleotide) = 5 × 1020
nucleotides pairs/human.
DNA that is in B form has an average distance of 0.34 nm between each nucleotide
pair. If a human possesses 5 × 1020 nucleotide pairs, then that DNA stretched end to
end would reach: (5 × 1020 nucleotides / human) × (0.34 nm/nucleotide pair) = 1.7 ×
1020 nm, or 1.7 × 108 km.

28. One nucleotide strand of DNA molecule has the base sequence illustrated below.

5′—ATTGCTACGG—3′

Give the base sequence and label the 5′ and 3′ends of the complementary DNA
nucleotide strand.

Solution:
Answer: 3′—TAACGATGCC—5′

*29. Erwin Chargaff collected data on the proportions of nucleotide bases from the DNA
of a variety of different organisms and tissues (E. Chargaff, in The Nucleic Acids:
Chemistry and Biology, vol. 1, E. Chargaff and J. N. Davidson, Eds. New York:
Academic Press, 1955). The following data are from the DNA of several organisms
analyzed by Chargaff.
Percent
Organism and tissue A G C T
Sheep thymus 29.3 21.4 21.0 28.3
Pig liver 29.4 20.5 20.5 29.7
Human thymus 30.9 19.9 19.8 29.4
Rat bone marrow 28.6 21.4 20.4 28.4
Hen erythrocytes 28.8 20.5 21.5 29.2
Yeast 31.7 18.3 17.4 32.6
E. coli 26.0 24.9 25.2 23.9
Human sperm 30.9 19.1 18.4 31.6
Salmon sperm 29.7 20.8 20.4 29.1
Herring sperm 27.8 22.1 20.7 27.5

a. For each organism, compute the ratio of (A + G)/(T + C) and the ratio of
(A + T)/(C + G).
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 237

Solution:
Organism (A + G)/(C + T) (A + T)/(C + G)
Sheep Thymus 1.03 1.36
Pig liver 0.99 1.44
Human thymus 1.03 1.52
Rat bone marrow 1.02 1.36
Hen erythrocytes 0.97 1.38
Yeast 1.00 1.80
E. coli 1.04 1.00
Human sperm 1.00 1.67
Salmon sperm 1.02 1.43
Herring sperm 1.04 1.29

b. Are these ratios constant or do they vary among the organisms? Explain why.

Solution:
The ratios for the (A + G)/(T + C) are constant at approximately 1.0 for the
different organisms. Each of these organisms contains a double-stranded
genome. The percentages of guanine and cytosine are almost equal to each other
and the percentages of adenine and thymine are almost equal to each other as
well. In other words, the percentage of purines should be equal to the percentage
of pyrimidines for double-stranded DNA. This means that (A + G) = (C + T).
The (A + T)/(C + G) ratios are not constant. The relative numbers of AT base
pairs and GC base pairs are unique to each organism and can vary between the
different species.

c. Is the (A + G)/(T + C) ratio different for the sperm samples? Would you expect
it to be? Why or why not?

Solution:
The ratios for the two sperm samples are essentially the same. The equal ratio
should be expected. As stated in the answer to part b. of this question, the
percentage of purines should equal the percentage of pyrimindines.

30. Boris Magasanik collected data on the amounts of the bases of RNA isolated from a
number of sources, expressed relative to a value of 10 for adenine (B. Magasanik, in
The Nucleic Acids: Chemistry and Biology, vol. 1, E Chargaff and J. N. Davidson,
Eds. New York: Academic Press, 1955).

Percent
Organism and tissue A G C U
Rat liver nuclei 10 14.8 14.3 12.9
Rabbit liver nuclei 10 13.6 13.1 14.0
Cat brain 10 14.7 12.0 9.5
Carp muscle 10 21.0 19.0 11.0
Yeast 10 12.0 8.0 9.8
238 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

a. For each organism, compute the ratio of (A + G)/(U + C).

Solution:
Organism and tissue (A + G)/ (U + C)
Rat liver nuclei 0.91
Rabbit liver nuclei 0.87
Cat brain 1.15
Carp muscle 1.03
Yeast 1.24

b. How do these ratios compare with the (A + G)/(T + C) ratio found in DNA
(see Problem 29)? Explain.

Solution:
The ratios are not as similar to each other or as close to the value of 1.0 as
found for the (A + G)/(T + C) ratio in DNA. Many RNA molecules are
single-stranded and do not have large regions of complementary sequences as
we would expect to find in DNA.

31. Which of the following relations or ratios would be true for a double-stranded DNA
molecule?

a. A + T = G + C

Solution:
No

b. A + T = T + C

Solution:
No

c. A + C = G + T

Solution:
Yes

A +T
= 1.0
d. C + G

Solution:
No

A +G
e. = 1.0
C+T
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 239

Solution:
Yes

A G
f. =
C T

Solution:
No

g.

Solution:
No

A G
h. =
T C

Solution:
Yes

A double-stranded DNA molecule will contain equal percentages of A and T

nucleotides and equal percentages of G and C nucleotides. The combined
percentage of A and T bases added to the combined percentage of the G and C
bases should equal 100.

*32. If a double-stranded DNA molecule is 15% thymine, what are the percentages of all
the other bases?

Solution:
The percentage of thymine (15%) should be approximately equal to the percentage
of adenine (15%). The remaining percentage of DNA bases will consist of cytosine
and guanine bases (100% – 15% – 15% = 70%); these should be in equal amounts
(70%/2 = 35%). Therefore, the percentages of each of the other bases if the thymine
content is 15% are adenine = 15%; guanine = 35%; and cytosine = 35%.

33. Suppose that each of the bases in DNA were capable of pairing with any other base.
What effect would this capability have on DNA’s capacity to serve as the source of
genetic information?

Solution:
DNA’s ability to be replicated faithfully and to encode phenotypes would be
destroyed. If each base could pair with any other base, the result during replication
would be changes in the DNA sequences of the newly replicated strands. The two
new molecules of DNA would not be identical to the original molecule or to each
other because different bases would be inserted in each newly synthesized strand. If
240 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

the DNA base sequence was constantly changing due to the random pairing of
bases, then no consistent “code” could be maintained. This lack of a code would
inhibit the ability of a DNA molecule to faithfully code for any particular protein.

34. Heinz Shuster collected the following data on the base composition of ribgrass virus
(H. Shuster, in The Nucleic Acids: Chemistry and Biology, vol. 3, E. Chargaff and J.
N. Davidson, Eds. New York: Academic Press, 1955). On the basis of this
information, is the hereditary information of the ribgrass virus RNA or DNA? Is it
likely to be single stranded or double stranded?

Percent
A G C T U
Ribgrass virus 29.3 25.8 18.0 0.0 27.0

Solution:
Most likely, the ribgrass viral genome is a single-stranded RNA. The presence of
uracil indicates that the viral genome is RNA. For the molecule to be double-
stranded RNA, we would predict equal percentages of adenine and uracil bases and
equal percentages of guanine and cytosine bases. Neither the percentages of adenine
and uracil bases nor the percentages of guanine and cytosine bases are equal,
indicating that the viral genome is likely single stranded.

*35. The relative amounts of each nucleotide base are tabulated here for four different
viruses. For each virus listed in the following table, indicate whether its genetic
material is DNA or RNA and whether it is single stranded or double stranded.
Explain your reasoning.

Virus T C U G A
I 0 12 9 12 9
II 23 16 0 16 23
III 34 42 0 18 39
IV 0 24 35 27 17

Solution:
Virus I is a double-stranded RNA virus. Uracil is present indicating an RNA
genome and we see equal percentages of adenine and uracil and equal percentages
of guanine and cytosine, which we would expect if it is a double-stranded genome.

Virus II is a double-stranded DNA virus. The presence of thymine indicates that the
viral genome is DNA. As expected for a double-stranded DNA molecule, we see
equal percentages of adenine and thymine bases and equal percentages of guanine
and cytosine bases.

Virus III is a single-stranded DNA virus. Thymine is present suggesting a DNA

genome. However, we see unequal percentages of thymine and adenine and unequal
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 241

percentages of guanine and cytosine, which suggest a single-stranded DNA

molecule.

Virus IV is a single-stranded RNA virus. Uracil is present indicating an RNA

genome. However, the percentage of adenine does not equal the percentage of
uracil, and the percentage of guanine does not equal the percentage of cytosine.
These unequal amounts suggest a single-stranded genome.

*36. A B-DNA molecule has 1 million nucleotide pairs. How many complete turns are
there in this molecule?

Solution:
B-form DNA contains approximately 10 nucleotides per turn of the helix. A
B-DNA molecule of 1 million nucleotide pairs will have about the following
number of complete turns: (1,000,000 nucleotides) / 10 nucleotides/turn) = 100,000
complete turns.

*37. For entertainment on a Friday night, a genetics professor proposed that his children
diagram a polynucleotide strand of DNA. Having learned about DNA in preschool,
his 5-year-old daughter was able to draw a polynucleotide strand, but she made a
few mistakes. The daughter’s diagram (represented here) contained at least 10
mistakes.
O
–
O— P—O–

OH— CH C base

H H
H OH
H O
–
–
O— P —O
OH— CH C base

H H
H OH
H OH

a. Make a list of all the mistakes in the structure of this DNA polynucleotide
strand.

Solution:
(1) The 5′ carbon for each of the two sugars is directly linked to phosphorous.
(2) Neither 5′ carbon of the two sugars should have an OH group attached.
242 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

(3) Neither sugar molecule has oxygen in its ring structure between the 1′ and
4′ carbons.
(4) In one sugar, the 2′ carbon has an –OH group attached, which does not
occur in deoxyribonucleotides.
(5) At the 3′ position in both sugars, only hydrogen is attached, as opposed to
an –OH group.
(6) The 1′ carbon for each of the two sugars has an –OH group, as opposed to
just a hydrogen attached.
(7) The two nucleotides are connected at the 2′ to 5′ position instead of the 3′
to 5′.
(8) The two nucleotides are not connected by a phosphodiester bond.
(9) Neither of the two phosphates are double-bonded to an oxygen. There
should be one oxygen-phosphate double bond in each phosphate.
(10) The phosphate connecting the two sugars shows two negative charges
instead of only one negative charge, which would be present if the
phosphorous double-bond to oxygen was present.

b. Draw the correct structure for the polynucleotide strand.

Solution:
O
P O
O
O
C CHO CH Base
H2
HC C
O H2
O
O P
O
C O Base
H2 CH CH
HC C
HO H2

38. Chapter 1 considered the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and
noted that this theory is no longer accepted. Is the central dogma consistent with the
theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics? Why or why not?

Solution:
The central dogma of molecular biology is not consistent with the theory of
inheritance of acquired characteristics. The flow of information predicted by the
central dogma is:
DNA RNA Protein
One exception to the central dogma is reverse transcription, whereby RNA codes
for DNA. However, biologists currently do not know of a process that will allow
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 243

for the flow of information from proteins back to DNA. The theory of inheritance
of acquired characteristics necessitates such a flow of information from proteins
back to the DNA.

Section 10.4

*39. Write a sequence of bases in an RNA molecule that will produce a hairpin structure.

Solution:
For a hairpin structure to form in an RNA molecule, an inverted complementary
RNA sequence separated by a region of noncomplementary sequence is necessary.
The inverted complements form the stem structure, and the loop of the hairpin is
formed by the noncomplementary sequences.

5′ —UGCAU—3′ …unpaired nucleotides…5′ —AUGCA—3′

UA
AU
CG
GC
5′ ----------U A---------3′

40. Write a sequence of nucleotides on a strand of DNA that will form a hairpin structure.

Solution:
For a hairpin structure to form in a strand of DNA, the DNA strand must contain
inverted complementary DNA sequences separated by a region of
noncomplementary sequence. The inverted complements form the stem structure,
and the loop of the hairpin is formed by the noncomplementary sequences:

5'—TGCATTACTCAATGCA—3'

or C T
A C
TA
GC
CG
AT
TA
5' T A 3'
244 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene

CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

Section 10.1

*41. Suppose that an automated, unmanned probe is sent into deep space to search for
extraterrestrial life. After wandering for many light-years among the far reaches of
the universe, this probe arrives on a distance planet and detects life. The chemical
composition of life on this planet is completely different from that of life on Earth,
and its genetic material is not composed of nucleic acids. What predictions can you
make about the chemical properties of the genetic material on this planet?

Solution:
Although the chemical composition of the genetic material may be different DNA, it
more than likely will have similar properties to DNA. As discussed earlier in the
chapter, the genetic material must possess three general characteristics:
(1) It must contain complex information.
(2) It must replicate or be replicated faithfully.
(3) It must encode the phenotype.
(4) It must have the ability to vary.
Even if the material is not DNA, it must meet these criteria. For instance, if the
material could not be replicated or duplicated faithfully, then life on that planet could
not continue because ultimately no offspring could be produced. A lack of fidelity
would result in the loss of information. Genetic material from any lifeform has to
store the information necessary for the survival of that organism. Also, the genetic
material will need to be stable. Unstable molecules will not allow for long-term
storage of information, resulting in the loss of information and change in phenotype.
In addition, this material must be able to vary or mutate, and the mutant form must
be as stable as the original form, or else species will not be able to evolve.

Section 10.2

42. How might 32P and 35S be used to demonstrate that the transforming principle is
DNA? Briefly outline an experiment that would show that DNA rather than protein
is the transforming principle.

Solution:
The first step would be to label the DNA and proteins of the donor bacteria cells with
35
S and 32P. The DNA could be labeled by growing a culture of bacteria in the
presence of 32P. The cells as they replicate ultimately will incorporate radioactive
phosphorous into their DNA. A second culture of bacteria should be grown in the
presence of 35S, which ultimately will be incorporated into proteins.
Material from each culture should be used to transform bacteria cells that previously
had not been exposed to the radioactive isotopes. Transformed cells (or colonies)
that would be identified by the acquisition of a new phenotype should contain low
levels of the radioactive material due to the uptake of the labeled molecules. If the
 Chapter Ten: DNA: The Chemical Nature of the Gene 245

transforming material were protein, then cells transformed by the material from the
35
S exposed bacterial cultures would also contain 35S. If the transforming material
were DNA, then the cells transformed by the material from the 32P exposed bacterial
cultures would also contain 32P.

Section 10.3

43. Researchers have proposed that early life on Earth used RNA as its source of genetic
information and that DNA eventually replaced RNA as the source of genetic information.
What aspects of DNA structure might make it better suited than RNA to be the genetic
material?

Solution:
Due to the lack of an attached oxygen molecule at the 2' carbon position of the sugar
molecule in deoxynucleotides, DNA molecules are more stable and less reactive than
RNA molecules. The double-helical nature of the DNA molecule provides a greater
opportunity for DNA repair and fidelity during replication. If mistakes occur in one
strand, the complementary strand can serve as a template for corrections.

44. Scientists have reportedly isolated short fragments of DNA from fossilized dinosaur
bones hundreds of millions of years old. The technique used to isolate this DNA is
the polymerase chain reaction, which is capable of amplifying very small amounts of
DNA a million fold (see Chapter 19). Critics have claimed that the DNA isolated
from dinosaur bones is not purely of ancient origin but instead has been
contaminated by DNA from present-day organisms such as bacteria, mold, or
humans. What precautions, analyses, and control experiments could be carried out to
ensure that DNA recovered from fossils is truly of ancient origin?

Solution:
An initial precaution would be to handle all the material in the most sterile manner
possible. People handling the samples should wear gloves and masks to help keep
the area as devoid of extraneous DNA as possible. Instruments used in the sampling
should be sterilized to eliminate any contamination by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and so
on. They should also be treated to remove trace DNAs. In addition, the source
material surrounding the bones should be treated to remove contaminating DNAs.
Controls also need to be conducted. The DNA from people involved in the procedure
should be tested to see if amplification occurs. Material at various locations around
the site and isolated bugs and microorganisms from the area should be sampled to
see if similar amplification patterns emerge. The design of the primers used for
amplification should be considered carefully and should be executed considering the
sequences of potential dinosaur descendants, such as birds or reptiles, in an attempt
to limit random amplifications. Furthermore, every experiment should be
reproducible.