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    | i aU UE MSO Theories and Numericals (With Solution to Questions of Previous Exams) (Real object) TEU Cee) (UL Scanned with Insights on PHYSics By: ‘SHANKAR PARAJULI (HOD, Dept. of Science and Humanities, KEC, Kalimati) System Inception a Scanned with CamScanner Insights on Engineering PHYSICS Published by System Inception Authors = Shankar Parajuli © + Authors ISBN + 978-9937-0-6836-9 All rights reserved. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise ‘ircilated without the authors' prior written consent in any form of bi published and without a imposed on the subseqvet ing the rights under copyright reserved above, Pat ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into * Fetieval system, oF transmitted in any form or by any means (clectron mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior WT Permission of the copyright owner of the book. Fourth Edition : 2076 BS (2020 AD) Computer + Creation Graphics Bagbazar, Kathmandu The textbook "Insights on Engineering Physics" is an outcome of my teaching experience and never ending efforts in making the subject easier. The book is organized into ‘seventéen chapters each chapter starting with the introductory part, then entering into explanation and finally ending wi ‘numericals including that asked in the final exams. This book presents in a very simple and lucid way so that the studer comfortable to prepare for the exams and implement their knowledge in real- world applications. Lam very thankful to Er. Shyam Dahal and all others who directly or indirectly helped me bringing the book in the ‘most understandable format, Before I pen down, I want to request "Always be helpful and never hurt others". Please make these feelings g0 viral. Let's together pray for a prosperous and peaceful Nepal. Shankar Parajuli Scanned with CamScanner CONTENTS Chapter—1 OSCILLATION 1.1. Simple Harmonic Motion.. ‘ 1.2 Simple Pendulum. 13 14 1s ‘Similarities and Diss Bar Pendulum & Torsional Pendulum 1.6 Types of Oscillation Solved Problems ww E218 Chapter -2 LC OSCILLATION Electromagnetic Oscillation. Solved Problems nee Chapter -3 i x WAVE MOTION 3.1 Wave Motion. 3.2 Mechanical Waves in String. 3.3 Energy in Progressive Wave 34 Chapter -4 i ACOUSTICS ol 4.2 Sabine’s Relation. 4.3 Ultrasound... 5.5 Cardinal Points 5.4 Circle of Least Confusion... x 70 LASER Scanned with CamScanner Chapter -8 INTERFERENCE Electric Quadrapo! ten ic Field Due to a Charged Rod.. 8.2 _ Interference in Thin 83 _ Interference in Thin 84 Newton's Ring 85. Haidinger’s Fringe... Solved Problems women Chapter~12 ie CAPACITORS 12.1 Capacitor... eee 12.2° Types of Capacitor 12.3 Charging and Discharging of Capa Capacitor With Dielectric. 101 102 103 104 los 106 _ DIRECT CURRENT fiew of Ohm’s Lan Superconductivity.. 13.3. Superconductors. ‘Solved Problems: Exercise. ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL ere Coulomb’s Law... 11.2 Electric Field Intensity (E) 113 Electric Potential (V) Chapter 11 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD Biot and Savart's Law, Scanned with CamScanner 143. Hall Effect ——- 14_ Simple Harmonic Motion Any to and fro motion in which the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and directed towards the mean position is called simple harmonic ‘motion. There are many examples of simple harmonic motion in nature such as motion of simple pendulum, compound pendulum, torsion pendulum, mass-spring system, etc. Mathematical analysis of simple harmonic motion needs following terminology: * Displacement: Distance of a particle from the mean position is called displacement of a panicle. It can be expressed as ve. © Velocity (v): Rate of change of displacement is called velocity, which is given by dx v= Gq = Aw cos(ar+¢) or, v= aA" Vel zy isms a posibon La at x =0 and the maximum velocity is Velocity is minimum at extreme position where x = A and velocity is Rae of change of velocty is called Acceleration is maximum at extreme position i.e. at x = A and the maximum acceleration is OSCILLATION | 1 Scanned with CamScanner Sean = aa tne t sceerasive is minim at mean position Le. X= O ang the rsimam acceleration is a0 - Geaple tarmeic mon may bs linear ot angular. The SFrmon teoween linear barmonie motion and angular armonic motion are as follows: [Linear harmonic motion | ‘Angular harmonic motion Total energy (E)=K+U een on J MA’o'cos"(ot+9) +} mo“A’sin'(or+9) dota? eta? =ymolA? =F kA? th is the express total energy of mass-spring the total energy in SHM is a h ‘acceleration|I. Here, acceleration| The variation of K and U is shown in graph below. | produced oa particle at} produced on particle at : Energy | aay point is directly) any point is directly] SS PE. propoctioaal: tw the linear} proportional wo the 4 So | Giplacement angular displacement. Se Loa” NKE (> Resoring force is|2. Restoring torque —_is| A 0 +A Displacement provided by weight| provided by torsional] i A eo When x = + A, k= 0 and total energy equals maximum ee a potential energy. Example: massspring) Example:_ ~~ torsional] i L gsm pendulum E=Ums=7kA* 111 -Kimetic Energy and Potential Energy in Simple Similarly, when x = 0, U = 0 and total energy equals Harmonic Motion maximum kinetic energy. ‘The displacement ofa particle executing SHM is given b le : eae E=Kai= 3h? X= A sin(at+6) seseeal) e ‘Thea, velocity of the particle can be calculated as, v= = Aw coser+4) Kinetic energy (K)~} an? =} mA*a cos'(ot + 4) Potential energy (U)= 34x? = (ma) [Asin(at + 8)? =}moA? sin'(or+ 4) sare oem ei. eG 2 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS i 12 Simple Pendulum ‘A heavy point object suspended oscillating freely through a fixed point is However, these requirements cannot be Hence, a simple pendulum is called an ideal pendulum. 1.2.1 Time Period of a Simple Pendulum Consider of bob of mass m is suspended from a string of length /as shown in figure, Pacers eres ores oe ee ‘OSCILLATION | 3 Scanned with CamScanner rmgsin® mg Lethe bois placed by small angle 0 and released. Then, it ctarts to oscillate in simple harmonic motion, Force acting on bob is given by nite =-mg sind ox, SOPs gsind =0 For small angle sin = 8, so #9 +Fe-0 ae 0 ‘which isthe differential equation of simple harmonic motion: with angular velocity onff or, © nd wi ee required equation for time period of simple Drawbacks of simple pendulum: i, __ It is impossible to have both the point mass of the bob and 3s string. The resistance of air affect the motion of bob. i IL The relation T = anf is true only for oscillation of very small amplitude. jon of bob is not only linear has also rotatory motion which affects the time period of simple pendulum. 1.3 Physical Pendulum ‘Any rigid body which can oscillate freely through a fixed point is called physical pendulum ot compound pendulum. Bar pendulum is an example of physical pendulum. Consider a rigid object of mass m be suspended at point O. The centre of gravity of the object is G at distance / from O since [is the distance from the pivot to centre of mass. When the object is displaced by an angle 0, there are two forces acting on the object: i. - Force due to gravity (mg) ii, ‘The restoring force (which tries to bring the object towards the mean position) From rotational dynamics, torque produced is tela Here, torque (¢) = Force x perpendicular distance between the forces or, Ja =-mg x Isin® or, -mg/sin® = Ta. 4 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS OSCILLATION | 5 Scanned with CamScanner where [is ‘Time period of compound pendulum is T oom : This is the equation for simple harmonic motion indicating that physical pendulum executes simple harmonic motion. Moment of inertia of through O and perpendicular to it is given by 1= sak? + mf" where kis the radius of gyration. ox, $F +P 9-0 m+ mF ‘Comparing this equation with differential equation of SHM, time period will be monn PEE Tole fear , T= 22 \{[—— or, n 7 which is the required expression for time period of physical pendulum. The quantity © simple pendulum, 5 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS given axis idilum about its axis passing . T+ 1 is called equivalent length, of the 13.1 Minimum Time Period of Compound Pendulum Time period of compound pendulum is given by fe T=2n ec g where k is radius of gyration, and /; is the distance of point ‘of suspension from centre of gravity. ‘The time period will be minimum if Ky is minimum. ery So, differentiating “> +1, with respect to, we have d [ke m7 [Fea] =0 or, + +1=0 Kot on, TE or R= 1? _ koh Interchangeability of Point of Suspension and Oscillation Let time-period be T; for point A at distance from centre of gravity. Similarly, time period be fs T, for a point C at distance J; from centre of G| © gravity as shown in figure. : ale T= 2n \[->—. T= 2 Since = 12, is KR op a haand 7 ale This makes T, = T3. ‘OSCILLATION | 7 Scanned with CamScanner ax point of suspension and oscillation are is shows thi interchangeable. Points in Compound Pendulum pendulum is given by 133 Four Collineat ‘Time period of a compound on Bie =a +457 on, 4¢f eT 44x =0 ‘which is quadratic in /. So, ithas two values, say /; and J. Using formula for sum of roots and product of roots, we can write wT Wark rk Se and h=Ge ak ih, =* thea bh= Lor vice-versa. In fact, there are two other points on either side of G about which time period will be samé as about S and O'. | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS 13.4 KR Draw two circles of radii “Pand / having the centre of gravity G. The straight line through G will intersect the circles at points S, 0", O, and S'. Thus, four points are collinear with CG about which time period is same. From the figure, SG=GS'=/ co'=co-£ K where “7 + /= L is equivalent length of simple pendulum Determination of Radius of Gyration and Acceleration Due to Gravity Using Bar Pendulum A bar pendulum consists of a metal bar with large number of holes as shown in figure. Radius of gyration is defined as the perpendicular distance of the axis of rotation from a point at which the total mass of the body may be assumed to be concentrated. Time fe) S|c fe) AB cD Ss} a forE. | | oF g Time period can be measured by fixing the knife edge in ‘each corresponding holes. The distance of each hole from the centre of gravity is measured. If a graph between distance from centre of gravity and corresponding time period is plotted, it Looks like as shown in figure. ‘OSCILLATION | 8 Scanned with CamScanner ion. Let fiom the centre of gravity ag length ofthe pendulum is L= The time period of compound pendulum is given by fee ran SE 2 Comparing equition () with T= 3 we get ane In this way, the value of radius of gyration k about the axis passing through the centre of gravity of a bar pendulum can be determined. Determination of acceleration due to gravity from compound pendulum is more accurate due to following reasons: i. tis not an ideal concept ic., it can be realized in actual iii, Distance between two knife edges can be easily measured but it is diffi Jength of simple pendulum. jv. Due to larger mass and hence, larger moment of inertis, it continues to oscillate for a longer time. to measure ‘the accurate ee 10 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS 14 Torsional Pendulum A heavy body like a cylinder or a dis, fastened at its mid - a fairly long and fe suspended from a rigid support suspended at the end of a wire, as shown in figure other end of the support. When the di twisted by an angle 0. created on i ing torque is-directly proportional to the angular displacement of wire. 28 TE CO nn (i) where C is called couple per uni and is given by C="), ris radius aid Js length of the wire Rotational form of Newton's 2” law is, t#la €o on, tI gr From equation (i), or, £0,295 c #0, ce-o.0t=£ or, Grto'8=0; 0*= 7 Hence, the motion of torsional pendulum is angular harmonic. e Angular frequency (o) ff 2x L T= 728 Cc ‘OSCILLATION | 11 Scanned with CamScanner nish rue expression fr time etiod of torsion which is vas dulum 141 Applications: of Torsion Pen L ‘Determination ‘of Moment of Iné : ja Conse ase of moment of inertia L suspended by a wire Then, time periods siven PY I rane where Cis torsional constant of wire. Similarly, if y placed on the dis, then time period is rt, T=) G- Dividing equation (2) by (1), we have sa: 12 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS (8) by (4), we have 12-7 TT wet or, b=eaaaah, By measuring the time period of regular and imegular ‘objects, moment of inertia of an unknown object can be Determination of Modulus of Rigidity of Wire i» Time period of torsion is again taken by placing a circular ring of known ‘moment of inertia over the disc let the time period be T ‘We know time period with disc is Ty = am/e 0) where I is moment of inertia of disc and C is the torsion constant of the wire. ‘Again, time period with dise and ring is here Isis the moment of inertia ofthe ring. ‘Squaring and subtracting (1) from (2), 4r'ly TTC 4x mt ume where C=" a ‘OSCILLATION | 13 Scanned with CamScanner of wire and moment op the modulus of r By measuring the inertia of ring, We q Dissimilarities between th larities ar Pendulum & Torsional Pendulum __ Oscillations of Bar Pen test tn both pendulum, the motions are simple harmonic, i a! Both pendulum can be used, to measure the moment of inertia of a body. Both pendulum oseillate about the centre of gravity. similarities: Bar pendulum is used to measure acceleration due to gravity ‘while torsional ‘pendulum is used to measure modulus of rigidity. i, Amplitude of oscillation. does not affectthe motion of torsional pendulum while it affects the compound pendulum. iii, There are two points having same tinie period in compound pendulum whereas there are not such two points in torsional pendulum, Bar pendulum Torsion pendulum in torsion’ pendulum, amplitude of o not assumed to be small. |2. This pendulum can be}2. This pendulum can bé used) used to measure moment| to measure: the rigidity of of inertia, acceleration) wire. due to gravity, etc, + Tae 14 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ee 1.6 Types of Oscillation The motion in which Particle moves without any restriction Of the force i.e., motion of the particle is not retarded by external force such as friction etc, led free oscillation. Examples: motion of electrons around nucleus, motion of simple pendulum in vacuum, etc. 1.6.2 Damped Harmonic Mechanical Oscillation ‘Most of the oscillating bodies in of amplitude due to the friction ar S.HLM. is proportional to the velocity of the particle which can be expressed as where b is damping constant. Therefore, differential equation in this case will be b k where 2y= 5; and oy" = are constant. m ‘OSCILLATION | 15 Scanned with CamScanner ferential equation of dampeq (@) can be obtained from auxiliary “The solution of equation equation and is given #8 (rapt a)x- 0 on, (D2 Dtar) = adratic equation is Pay efod ‘There are three possible scenarios: Case I: roots, a and different (Overdamping) ok Pele gem When. Eek ite damped frequency is imaginary. In this case, there is no oscillation and the system is said to be Ge¥-oe )t Gena), +Ape x=A, where A, and A» are constant to be determine. ‘Case II: roots, real and equal (Critical damping) so Bk Poorer arm k_v When =) = Ga? then frequency vanishes. In this case, there is no oscillation and the system is said to be cri damped. Critical damping sospension system of motor vehicles. Amplitude of critically damped oscillation is given by; " x=(ArtAe™ where A, and A; are constant to be determined. Case IM: roots, imaginary (Underdamped) of? or £2 when £> & the damped frequency is real and the oscillation frequency, x=x= Ae sin(otta) Displacement damped Quality factor (Q) The rate of energy loss of weakly damped chafacterized by a single parameter Q ‘factor of a damped oscillator. It is defined to be ant times the energy stored in the oscillator divided by the energy lost in a single period of oscillation. Less is the damping, higher is the quality factor Q. Mathematically, itis defined as 2 Energy stored Qe 2x * Frergy lost per eyele ‘OSCILLATION | 17 Scanned with CamScanner frequencies: at which the amplitude If cy and ov be ity oy ~ @2 is called width of Jated with ; ~ @; by. bere = (a re 2. yet ris logarithmic: decrement and t is ceccaicc tae Then above equation becomes En [dmot xe Mt ope |.3) “Average power dissipation is Has GM) =2y et 4 a 18 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS 1.63 Forced Oscillation In actual practice, oscillation left to itself eventually die out after certain times, But by applyi periodic external force, ‘we can-maintain a constant amplitude. The phenomenon of setting body into continuous’ vibrations: with the help of strong periodic force having frequency different from the natural frequency of the body is called forced vibration. Let the applied force be represented as Fea Fo sinpt » where Fo is maximum force amplitude and p is applied frequency by force. Newton's second law of motion in this case is oF +b hoc Fein St sac(2)-where-00 is mae P dx bde k on, Ge tarde t= Fosin pt & one en Fosin pt... k where 27=® and o'y-E are constant. After applying thé sinusoidal external force, the oscillator oscillates with forcing. frequency, of, >> and a constant amplitude, Solution of such differential equation is x= Asin (pt 6) ....3) where § is phase angle between the displacement x and the extemal force Few. Now, differentiate equation (3) with respect to t ao} dx G7 APcos(Pt-)... OSCILLATION | 19 Scanned with CamScanner pt-d) + 27 ApeostPt — 4) +o0'Asin (pt + >) -AP’ = Fefsingpt 4) €08 ‘Now, comparing the coeficie (6) Alas) = FeCost. 2yAp = FiSi “Amplitude of forced ascillati Squaring and adding €4 Al(od-p') +47P* = Fe and cos(pt-¢) Phase difference (9): Dividing equations (b) by (a) F,Sing _2yAP_ Floss Aloe) For maximum amplitude of forced oscillation first Aerivative of eq (6) with respect to is zero. ic, eo 7, 2(5'- P*X-2p) + 47°2p) = 0 F,(o4?—p?)+27°=0 oF, i= of-27 or, P=Voy'-27' = w, is called resonance frequency. Resonance: When the frequency of applied force is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator itself, this phenomenon is called resonance. ‘We know the amplitude of forced oscillation is For maximum amplitude, put p?= «2-2/7 F $0, Am = SS Vay Hanif -8/ Fp “Vad? ‘At particular frequency of applied force, the amplitude of forced oscillator is maximam which is called amplitude resonance and the frequency is called resonance frequency which is gi fn ‘Amplitude of forced harmonic motion A depends on difference between applied and natural frequency. If we plot ‘Aas function of natural frequency ©, the graph will look like as shown in figure 20|| INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ‘OSCILLATION | 21 Scanned with CamScanner 1 Frequency @- ee ve resonance is defined 8 the phenomenon of ration wit I frequency by the eriadic force. Such frequency jg Hence, " setng body into vt asion of external P ated resonant fequeney- SOLVED PROBLEMS i a is moving with simple harmonic motion in a scraight line Iit has a speed vi when the displacement j vx and speed vz when the displacement is x: then, shew ‘that the amplitude of motion is a= ¢ (2069 Ashadh] be represented by (ii) For displacement xy and velocity vz, yore riding equation (iv) by (ii), we get Pox vi Vae=x? or, via? v2 x? = ve ay x? 22 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ot, ue eve xtveat vi xP ve xy 2 2 AL PE VWixe—y, on (Pare proved, vimvi An oscillatory motion of a body ac! where y is displacement in frequency. Show that the motion is simple harmonic. (2070 Bhadra] represented by y = The displacement of a body executing simple. harmonic motion is given by ime will give gerate(2) Differentiating equation (2) 2 Pd =(ioy ac pe 2, on, Ge a-o'y oie Pata I result which is a second order differential equation of simple harmonic motion, Hence, the motion represented by equation (1) is simple harmonic. In simple harmonic motion, when the displacement is ‘one-half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy is KE and what fraction is PE? At what displacement is the energy half KE and half PE? [2072 Chaitra] Let the simple harmonic motion of particle be represented by 1) : dy Velocity of particle (v) = Gp = Aw OS at ....--(2) y=Asinat ‘ ey ve eck When displacement is half the amplitude ic., y= OSCILLATION | 23 Scanned with CamScanner 95] RE eine hone or, FeAsinat 4 onsinat=Z ee Kinetic energy, K = 2™ oA? cos*at 1 Potential energy, U=7 ky” where kis force constant and k= mo”. or, U=3k A" sot 1 =}no'N'} fey = go’. Total energy ofthe system is given by 4 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS Second Part For kinetic energy to be half of total energy, Kl E-2 1 zm or, Ea 3 ata gma’ cos’ at | or, =5 ag Wee ier) Fm otal tarsal or, cos? ot=4 andsin a= [ sinot=-cor al] & y= Asinot=5 Hence, at Aispacemen “5, particle has half kinetic energy and half potential energy. ‘Show that the fractional change in frequency of damped oscillation is} Q', where Q is quality factor. [2070 Ashadb] Let fand f be the initial and final frequency of oscillation. ‘OSCILLATION | 25 Scanned with CamScanner kc 2 (‘¢k= mo") (29-2) .) using bionomial expansion Neglecting high ‘terms, 1 = shy proved” ag 5. If the relaxation time of a damped harmonic oscillator is 60 sec, find ‘We times the intial value (b) the energy falls to 1/e times the initial value. [2071 Chait] = Relaxation time (x) = 60 see Case: For damped harmonic o Amplitude (A)= Aye Aa =? etn? Given, A= Ae i ee or, c= 2 1=25=2* 60= 120 see Fo 6 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS Case I: Energy (E) = Eye Given B= t=2 So, Hf = Bet . t=2r=2* 60 =120 see ‘The amplitude of a lightly damped oseillator decreases by 3% during each cycle. What fraction of the energy of the oscillator is lost in each full oscillation? (2072 Ashwin] Ainplitude of a damped oscil ze A= Age 2t Here, A=0.97 Ay at 0.97 Ay= Age 2° => t=0.06r Enetgy of a damped oscillator is t E=Bet E 0.06 or Ete =e = 0.941 E,-E * Fraction of the energy lost =F E alse =(1-0.941) = 0.058 = 0.06 = 6% ‘OSCILLATION | 27 Scanned with CamScanner es on the end of 2 spring Whose fore. he mass moves in a fluid whic, F = -by, where b = 0.162Ns, ion? [2068 Ch; oscilat voc! Ia ee sox. T constant, k= ive force offers a resistive ; What i the period of tie os Here, k= 56 Nim, m= 0.75 kg, b= 0.162 Ns/m T= 0.7268 sec 'A meter stick is suspended as a physical pendulum through its one end. Calculate its time period and length of the equivalent simple pendulum. {108} ‘We know that time period of compound pendulum is, Moment of inertia of the stick through its*end can be Ly obtained from the parallel axis theorem, I= Tem + n(5) | se z Now, for equivalent simple pendulum, time period iS ary fee og ft 1 3g 'g Where J is length of equivalent simp!* pendulum, Rear = IPF =2x3=0.66m At t = 0, the displacement x(0) of the block in oscillator is ~8.50 em. The block’s velocity v(0) then is, 0.920 mis and its acceleration a(0) is 47 m/s’, Find: (a) angular frequency (b) phase constant [2075 Bhadra] Here, displacement x(0) = 8.5 em = 0.085 m Velocity v(0) =-0.920 mis Acceleration a(0) = 47 m/s? (a) Acceleration (a) =~w"x o, w= 2-- (4 6 Oe = Tp ogg) 7 952-9 Angular frequency (@) = 23.5 rad/s v ___~0.920 (©) For phase constant tana = ssp gH) OAL a=25° ‘A mass of 1 kg is suspended from a spring of spring constant 25 N/m. if the undamped frequency is sums factor? [2075 Bhadra] the damped frequency, what will be the da Here, mass(ni) = Spring constant (k) = 25N/m Damping factor (b)=? 1 Undamped frequency (f) = 3 i) L, koe Damped frequency (f)=35°\ |e — Ga? =i) From given condition, 5 f a fez, [ke OF 2g Ym 43-20 ‘Squaring and on solving , b’= mk = 25 x 1 cba Ske/s ‘OSCILLATION | 29 Scanned with CamScanner In damped harmonic motion, calculate fe a ( its amplitude and (i) Its energy falls ae 15 ‘undamped value if the mass ofthe system Is 04 5 gm am damping constant is 0.01 g/s. [2073 Magh] m_025 Relaxation time (®) = 9,01 ~ 25° (8) The damped amplitude is x= xe" * Maye h or, Bene or, e'=e 1=26=50s Energy of damped motion is E=Ee* or, BB or, et=e* 1219255 ‘A.05 kg body oscillates in SHM on a spring that, when extended 2 mm from its equilibrium position, has an 8 N restoring force. What are the, angular, frequency of ‘oscillation and the capacitance of an LC circuit with the ‘same period if inductor is 5H. [2076 Baishakh) Mass of body (m)= 0.5 kg Extension length (x)= 2. mm = 0,002. m Restoring force (F)=8N Angular frequency () =? Inductance (L) = 5H Capacitance of equivalent LC oscillation (C) =? From Hook’s law, F=kx (ignoring negative sign ) Fe eI I ina: 30 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS E or, k= 8 = F007 = 4000 Nav! ‘Angular frequency (1) -$ fk 1, (2000 = 3g \ 95 72523 Hz 1) fet 1 Jy fet For LC oscillation, avi Te amt Os C= EL = Fo00x5 = 25*10° F time of a damped harmonic oscillator is rn ; ii 1 50 s, find the time in which the amplitude falls to <5 times Ls t= 6r= 3008) Again, energy of damped osciltator is E = Eye"* Bo) gt or, Gf Ee 7 s t=4r=2008 ‘OSCILLATION | 31 2 Scanned with CamScanner | 0.3 mi exeeules torsion oscillation gy fF the /ia's. If the torque constant of wire bg ane Pe Calculate the mass of the sphere. 6x10 fossiia moving with simple harmonic motion in , has a speed vi when the displacements 1 displacement is x2 then, show that thy suspended as a physical pendulum through its time period. Ans: 15175 ~ ‘A simple pendulum of length and mass m is suspended ina tat ing with a constant speed v around a circle ii undergoes ‘small oscil about its equilibrium position x, prove its frequency is f = A 2 VR" ‘A metallic dise of mass 0.5kg and radius 10cm is suspended by a wire of length 40cm and radius Imm, the torsion oscillation ofthe disc are found to have a period of 2.5s.Find the modulus of rigidity of the wire. 5 Ans: 4020N/m! A mass of 10gm suspended from a spring oscillator freely with a time period of 1s, When it allowed to osc ‘Ans: 0.069 Ns/m on a spring that, .when 2.lmm extended from equilibrium, has restoring force of 1.13N. (@) Cal the frequency of oscillation (b) period -of ince of analogous LC Ans: 89.3 rad/s, 70.3ms , 24.10F =e 32 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS The motion of body falling in a resistive medium may be described by mgr = mg-bv. When the resistive force is Proportional to the velocity v, find the velocity. Evaluate the constant of integration by demanding that v(0) = 0. A damped harmonic motion of mass 2kg is given by the acta é differential equation 4, 3+ oy = 0. Find (2) force constant (b) damping factor (c) relaxation time (4) uundamped frequency (e) damped frequency (f) quality . factor. Ans: 18Nim, 6s, 135, as 2B gt AB toe a ‘OSCILLATION | 33 Scanned with CamScanner ng both a éapacitor C and an inductor current aries ‘ the charge of capa 4 i aR ra the inductor. As the capacitor is fully pro charged, it again stars 10 charge by the ‘inductor. During Sharing, magnetic energy stored in an inductor is transfered to apaitor inthe fom of electro energy. The process continues resulting an electromagnetic oscillation inthe circuit ToUTUENT | a ( Figure shows LCR circuit. In damped oscillation, amplitude of oscillation decreases exponentially ime due to exter! ive force. Here, R stands as resistive factor which decays the 34 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS By the principle of conservation of energy, we have Le U=Up+Ue=> Lite » Since rate of change of energy is power, we write where —ve sign represents that the energy stored, U decfeases with time, dU odi de From(, api 48 4 From (2) & @), Li +o or, Lif rBiven-o[ i=] ga of, L Ge tat iR=0 #4, dap 9. bart aRtone This is the required differential equation of damped LCR which cari be compared with mechanical damped os (Ry ~Vie- Gi) Lf 16 OSCILLATION [35 Scanned with CamScanner id_and in Magnet cored in Electric Fiel 23 Energy sl = Expr ions (i) and (ii) reveal that LC ‘circuit is an analogy Fiel of sit mum charge Let Qo : a Supain Solution of equation (i is stored in capac itch is closed Q=Qosin(ot+ 6) where @ =< js angular i fly heeds Se Ee sr sin(ot + §) where @ === is angular fequency. * Then oscillation 1" c Energy stored as electric field in capacitor at any time is observed. 2 any instant 19g @ The total ae the sum.of electric and magnetic eZ ea sin (ot 4) the osc F v ae The maximum energy stored in electric field is , 5 ie, U=Uat Une a @ 3& +t Li? + ere aC 2c "2 : : Energy stored in inductor as magnetic field is Differentiating with respect to time, we get y ee #90 Us= Hi) 72 L0°Q5 cos" (ot + 4) a Ua C at 1 Sd oe =3 Lye Qo cos’ (ot + re 2 LZ E Qocos* (wt + 4) ard at & 1 wu = 8949 , 90 =3¢ 608 (wt+ 4) OF “at dt de C dt , The maximum energy stored in magnetic field is ‘Conservation of energy implies ao ae Use = 30 a? This proves that maximum energy stored in electric field is o, L 8Q4Q_ QdQ_ ° equal to maximum energy stored in magnetic field. dt Cat 2.4 Damped Electromagnetic Oscillation the motion is affected by uch as electric field and magn: This is the differential equation of LC osci The differential equation of SHM is oxy at ox0 os ii) Pana eee: GAGA 36 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS Scanned with CamScanner current ampli ion, amplitude of tially, with time Ue 10 exter, ive factor which decays thy ciret ig, shows LCR Figs pone ion decreases force. Heres jrude exponen L f conservation of energy, We have ispree(l), By the principe o =P uPtaG U=Us+ Ur since rate of change of enersy is power, we write, ie BAAR oe @) where —ve sign represents’ that the’ energy stored, U decreases with time. From(), Sag +8.) From equations (2) & (3), aa. i +0 9-7R o, i +Siver~ol o, L893 +2sin-o “fe ‘ AG BR oR 0 This is the required differential equation of, dampe? electromagnetic oscillation, 5 The sofution of above differential equation is i 4=4q sin (wt-4) Zee 38 | INSIGHTS OW ENGINEERING PrIVSICS eS Ee ee 2.5 Forced Electromagnetic Oscillation and Resonant Frequency > A circuit containing resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C) driven by extemal source is called forced electromagnetic oscillation. If E = Ep sinot be the external emf applied to the circuit, then, from Kirchoffs law, -() 948 +ik= Eysinat...: i (da); dgR, a (Es) oe a) atk 7) sna &q, (R) da, gE or, $2 (B) Sods Pst nee) the differer equation of forced electromagnetic Solution of this equation is, & sin (ot ~ 6) ‘From equation (2), angular frequency due to force is eae ae Te o=\/ic-20 observed frequency of os frequency, then resonance will occur. jon is equal to natural sin(ot— 4) LC OSCILLATION | 33 Scanned with CamScanner amplitude of current, For maxim Ge) 9 peck of, O=TE or, o- Fe =. Resonant frequency (1) = = aa 26 Sharpness of Resonance ‘Sharpness of. resonance is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of the circuit to the resonant frequency. =f, Bandwidth __1 Sharpes of resonance == iE Ge Sharpness of resonance gives the selectivity of the circit ‘As the bandwidth decreases, selectivity of the circuit increases. 27 Differences Between Mechanical Oscillation and Electromagnetic Oscillation Mechanical oscillation and electromagnetic osci {llation both mass of an’ object 0s¢i tion, negative or positive charge 05 ). Mechanical oscillation can be represented Y ¢ Grey- ©, whereas e.m. oscillation cane represented Yt acement in mechanical oscillation is analogous” oscillation, eo 40 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS SOLVED PROBLEMS" A 13mH inductor in LC ‘circuit stores 2 maximum energy of 175. what is the value of peak current? (2058 Chaitra] Inductance(L) = 1,5mH =1.5x10°.H Energy (Eps) = 17a = 17x10 We know, Emax Deduce thé frequency and quality factor for a circuit with L=2mH, C=5pF ,and R= 0.20 We know, rowan (0-2/6) T Saat Geert Or, f= 5— 2k =1591.53Hz Now, 2«10°271591.53 Quality factor (Q) =e = LOGAN _ 2810 ERISIT SS 2. Q= 100 EXERCISE ‘A damped LCR oscillation with 1000 resistance is given aby the differential equation $9 + 494 + Sq = 0. Find: (a) capacitance (b) inductance (c) relaxation time (d) undamped frequency (c) damped frequency (f) quality factor. Ans: 8m, 25H, 0.25s, 0.35 Hey 0.16 He, 0.25 UC OSCILLATION | 41 Scanned with CamScanner LR cient containing L = 10H, R= 20 with sour, An . the time to each magnetic energy 4 op, voltage 10V: al value. dias 475 tation of LC oscillation, Show 4 Derive a differential equ 30 that ‘pe frequency ofsuchosilation is f= 77 eycles/nin, damped LC civcuit, find the time required for thy Tre mum energy present in the capacitor during op oscillation to fall Assume that q= qn at = 0 Ans: 0.693¢ 42'| INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PaYSios 3 2 waver) 3.1_Wave Motion Any disturbance that travels onwards through a medium due to the repeated periodic motion of its particles about their mean position is called wave. It may-also be defined simply as the transfer of energy fiom one point to another. For example, we know that water wavés, sound light waves, and radio waves, all carry energy from one io another. For light and radio waves propagation, no medium is required at all. There is just propagation of energy takes place. Such mode of transfer of energy is called wave motion and may be divided into two categories: is possible only in material liquid, and gas) which possess inertia as wel , water waves and sound waves and example of mechanical waves. li, Non-mechanical or electromagnetic wave motion: It docs not required material medium for its propagation so that light and radio waves can travel through empty space. 3.2 Mechanical Waves in String ed along x-axis under tensile force along y-axis to generate waves in X x+de Resultant force on the small segment ab of the string WAVE MOTION | 43 Scanned with CamScanner for small 8, and Bxrax Oyosx—ta00.) ay) _ (dv) -Ft(G) ... ey oF gy ‘Also, resultant force = ma = WAX Gi ~ From equations (i) and Gi), éy _ pa wage Frequency of sound (f) = 512 Hz Amplitude of sound (A) = 0.5 cm=0.5 x107 m poet we beet -48 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ‘Velocity of sound in air (y) = 332 ms! Density of air (p) = 1.29 kg/m" Energy flow per square unit per sec (I) =? We have, Intensity ()=3 pvota? .29 x 332 x (2 x $12)? x (5 x 107) = 55347 wattim? ‘A source of sound has a frequericy of 256 Hz and amplitude of 0.50 cm, calculate the energy flow across a square em per sec. The velocity of sound in air is 330m/s and density of air is 1.29 kg/m’. [2072 Chaitra] Frequency of sound (f) = 256 Hz Amplitude of sound (A) = 0.5 cm=0.5 * 107 m Velocity of sound in air (v) = 330 ms" Density of air (f)= 1.29 kg/m? Energy flow per square unit per sec (I) 1 vata? =z pvora’ =} X 1.29 x 330 x (2x x 256)? * (0.5 « 107) = 3092 Sim's Tae bh 3092, nergy flow across a square cm pet see = [aq g5) = 0.3092 Jiem’s. A string has linear density 525 gram/m? and tension 45N. When sinusoidal wave of frequency 120 Hz and amplitude 8.5 mm is sent along the string, at what average rate does the wave transport energy? [2069 Poush} WAVE MOTION | 49 Scanned with CamScanner Here, linear density (1) = 525 g/m > Tension (1) = 45N Frequency of wave ()= 120H2 “Amplitude (ya) = 8.5 m= 85x10" m @=2nf=2n x 120 754 rad/s as Velocity of wave, ¥ afi =| ggas 79265 ‘Average power transferred, Pay = ; neva Py <2 x 0.525 x 9.26 0754 * 0.0085 = 100 watt 4. Alwave of frequency 500 Hz has a phase velocity of 200 m/s. (1) How far apart are two points 30° out of phase? (i) “What is the phase difference between two displacements at a point at times 10°s apart? [2068 Magh] => Frequency of wave (f) = 500 Hz. Phase velocity (v)= 200 m/s vaif>h =F =500 = =04m Time period (T) = i. A cycle is equivalent to 360° so that 30° corresponds to “ G 1) ofacycle, 12712 “30 ii, Here the time 10° sec is half of time period T = ant? sec and corresponds to half of one cycle or half of 360”. ‘Thus, the phase difference is 180°, 50|| INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ee amplitude of 1.5 mm in a string of linear mass density 2 gni/m. If the tension in the string is 15 N, what is the average power supplied by the source? [2074 Bhadra] oft Sei. vetosiy «=a =\/zoF 761-23 ms ‘Average power supplied by the source is P= Su va's <3 2x10°%X61.23x(2nx12) (1 5x10) = 0.78 Watt/m? . Show that the function y = A sinkx cosot satisfies the wave function, [2076 Baishakh] Here, the function is y= A sinkx cosat. @ dy. —Ao sinkx sinat.. Differentiate with respect to a 2 Again differentiating, oy Aa" sinkx cos @y_ ary Again, differentiating equation (i) with respect to x twice, we get $3 = -AK sink coset. Sa azy.. From equation (iv) and (vi) ww (v) vi) Hence, the given function represents a wave funct WAVE MOTION | 51 Scanned with CamScanner a linear density 525e/m, and is under 1 wave of frequency 120Hz and ‘one end, At what average 1. Astretched spring has tension 45N. A sinusoidal amplitude 0.85em is send from on rate does the wave transport energy? ‘ow Al sm and length L hangs from a werse wave on the 2. A aniform rope of mass m and Tenth ceiling. (a) Show that the speed of a tr rope is a function of y, the distance from the lower end is given by v=1/gy « (b) Show that the time a transverse wave: i takes to travel the length of the rope is given by t= aft : 52 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS pee 4 ACOUSTICS 41 _Introduction ‘Acoustics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in soli and gases medium vibration sound, ultra sound and infra sound ect. phenomena can be discussed in term of frequency into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and infrasonic. The range of audio-wave falls between 20Hz to 20 KHz which can be detected by human ear and has number of applications in speech communication and music. Ultrasonic waves-refer to waves of frequency higher than 20 KHz and are useful in imaging technology such as ultrasonography and elastography. The lowest frequency’ wave is called. infrasonic which is used to study geological phenomena such as earthquakes. 4.1.1 Sound Friendly Auditorium Hall For the clear and distinct sound from the speaker, the hall should have the lowing characteristics: a. Structural design Distribution of intensity throughout the hall should be uniform. Usual design of the hall should be parabolic shape. __ At the speaker's end as shown each syllable of sound should be distributed in such a way that each word is heard and there is no reinforcement causing the change in-quality. Coyed wall or comers should be bare minimum because there may be unduly concentration of sound at some place and some other place may become zone o b. Materials to be used In friendly auditorium, there’ should be provision to al the unnecessary reflected sound. Some porous materi clothes, asbestos, cushions, ete, should be used and they are put at various places of the hall, Open window is considered ‘ACOUSTICS | 53 Scanned with CamScanner eae. =~ 1d singe there is no reflection ang as perfect absorber of sou we vee sound simply passes through. So, 10 get option value of aie ex tering cutee, ata Er reverberation time, We should have few windows. negative sign indicates the decrease of intensity, ce. Reverberation Inthe expr of n, S is total surface area, V is volume of Interval of time taken by continuous sourid,to fall to an oom, and v is velocity of sound, by 60 decit led reverberation, Now, equation (1) can be expressed as Sv aI=-a Fy lot to become zero. Due lection ‘wall, ceiling and floor sound reverberates and persist in side es: = room for longer time. For good acoustic, reverberation time or, Baa ot eo should have optimum value (not too small not tod large) If ‘small, sound Vanishes instantaneously and gives’ the hall dead effort. If too large, there is multiple reflection and lar asvt ‘overlapping thereby causing confusion. Different frequency I To av lg. 8t Integrating equation (2), we have 1 __aSv ‘of sound may change. This produces unpleasant effect, | or, [int] --F [tj especially in time of music. | * These are some suggestions to miake sound friendly or, int~inly=~ S310) auditorium hall. eee ee SS ae far by & Be oa 42 Sabine's Relation | ! av ‘The reverberation time of sound can be obtained from the =aSvt volume, surface area and absorption coefficient of the’sound | on hee 4V absorber in hall by simple relation known as Sabine's relation. Let I be the intensity of sound in the room at any inst From the definition of reverberation time T, I= 768 be the fall in intensity in small interval of time 6t, n is the number of reflections per second, It has been found that, aa 10%=e 4V Slal . sian © oF, 6in10= Bl bt _ 6 inl0x4Vv. Combining these, 0, Ts vase Sheen st Taking velocity of sound, v=332 mvs or, 61=-a nit 54 | INSIGHTS PES | 7 'S ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS . ACOUSTICS | 55 [ose Bis eS Scanned with CamScanner =o gv Hence, the reverberation sound absorbing area. aaa eer caiman ea 43 Ultrasound The sound wave which has frequency greater than 20,000 time decreases with increasing the Hzis called ultrasonic sound wave. Since they yea velocity ee haa Geis aaa of sound, marginal wavelength of such wave i 29999 = 166 em at 1. Frequency of ultrasound | 1. Frequency of ordinary és is greater’ than 20,000 | sound ranges from 20 Hz pa ee Ultrasonic Wave - Piezoclectric jeez, $020,000 Hz. 43 Pee Ee 2. It can't be heard 2._Itcan be heard, Certain crystals like quartz, tourmaliné, etc. exhibit etectrical Pine ainy ani | Se charges when heated or cooled. This phenomenon is called iveneaeeing applications. eycles/sec can be produced. These _vibr inal in nature and frequency of vibration is given by [x ap where k= 1, 2,3... Y = Young's modulus of elasticity is mode of vibration p= density of the crystal __ SOLVED PROBLEMS: Figure shows a simple piezoelectric generator. Q is a slice of crystal placed between metal plates A and B_ so as to form A room has dimensions 6mx4mxSm, Find: i, Mean free path of sound wave in the room i. The number of reflections made per second by the sound wave with the walls of the room. (Take velocity of sound in air = 350ms"), (2068 Chaitra] ‘Volume of room (V) = 6m x 4m x Sm= 120m* i, . Mean free path is the average distance covered by a sound wave through air between two consecutive reflections with the walls of the room. ates are connected to the 4xvolume sformer which is coupled inductively to the om" Area . oscillator circuit of a valve as shown in figure. If natural Total surface area = 2(/b + bh+/h) frequency of oscillation of valve circu - frequency of the crystal mode to which we cae see resonance will occur and: crystal will undergo 7148 expansion and contraction at same fate, 2 0 5 349 ae moderate size erystal, ultrasonics of frequency 5,40,000 Ree ae s Scanned with CamScanner pe 56 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ACOUSTICS | 57 | t—_ i ©» ‘Number of reflections made Per second by sound wave ii, Nu is yelocit = = 108 velocity a s5a5 = 10 n= Fjean free path ~ acoustic power enters the window of area 1.58 2, How much m’, through 10" Wem’)? The street noise results in at 60 cB. = Area of window (A)= 1.58 m? Fe ‘Standard intensity (I) = 10°" W/em? = 10" Intensity level = 60 4B 1 We know that, intensity level = 10 log @) low opens on a street where the ty level at the window of intensit 2 Win? or, 60= 10 log 7g . 1=10% Win? ‘Acoustic power= Intensity x Area =10%% 1.58 = 1.5810 watt 3. The reverberation time for an empty hall is 1.5 sec. With 500 audiences present in the hall, the reverberation time falls to 1.4 sec. Find the number of persons present in hall if the reverbération time falls down to 1.312 sec. : [2070 Ashad! 0.165 V “Sa ds where V is volume of the hall and Eads is the sound absorbed by the surface, | T or, 1L.5=— | paar rr | 58 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS | the sound wave (standard intensity level. | - => _ Reverberation time for empty hall is given by } When 500 audiences are present, 0.165. V T= Ta ds +5000 where a is absorption coefficient for a single person and its value is nearly equal to 0.43. 0.165 V Ea ds + 500 x 0.43“ or, i) Solving equation (ii) and and V = 27363.636 mi? For reverberation time reduced to 1.312 see, let’s suppose that n be the number of audiences present in hall. 0.165V Eads+na 0.165V. of 1312 i), we get Za ds = 3010m? sabine T= Putting value of V and Za ds , we get n= 1003, ‘The volume of a small hall in BICC is 900 m°. The wall area of the hall is 150 m’, ceiling area 90m* and floor area is 95 m’. 0.04, for ceiling is 0.04 and for the floor is 0.08. Calculate average sound absorption coefficient and reverberation time. [2071 Chaitra) ‘Volume of hall (V) = 900 m?* ‘Wall area (s,) =.150 m” Ceiling area (s:) = 90 m? Floor area (53) = 95 m? Absorption coefficient for wall (cx) = 0.04 Absorption coefficient for ceiling (a) = 0.04 Absorption coefficient for floor (a3) = 0.08 =P ACOUSTICS | 58 Scanned with CamScanner ee ‘Average sound absorption coefficient Reverberation time (T) =? We haye, ‘Average sound absorptior aysyt ays + 38 Oa = 5 FES 50 « 0.04 +90 x 0.04 + 95 * 0.08 150 0.08 +90 0.04495 * 005 150+ 90+95 n coefficient = 0.05134 Reverberation time is .1S8V, Zas t= 0.158 x 900 = T50 = 0.04 + 90 x 0.04 +95 * 0.08 =8.26 sec 5 A source of sound has a frequency of 256 Hz and amplitude of 0.50 cm , calculate the energy flow across a square em per sec. The velocity of sound in air is 330m) and density of air is 1.29 kg/m’. [2072 Chaitral => Frequency of sound (f) = 256 Hz Amplitude of sound (A)=0.5 cm=0.5 *107 m Velocity of sound in air (v) = 330 ms“* Density of air (p) = 1.29 kg/m? | Energy flow per square unit per sec (I) 24 para? 1 =z % 1.29% 330 x (2m x 256)? « (0.5 « 107)? = 3092 Jim's Bae wsconsseae snp aes = 0,3092 Vom’s. A reverberation time of 2:3 sec is observed in a hall of yolume 5500 m°. The sound absorbing surface of the hall has an area of 750 m’, Calculate the average absorption coefficient. [2074 Chai Reverberation time (T) =2.3 8 Volume of hall (V) = 5500 m? ‘Surface area (S) = 750 m° ‘Average absorption coefficient (a) = ? We know, o.1ssv iieeras _0:158%5500 ma" 234750 0504 Hence, the sound absorption coefficient of the hall is 0.504. By how much would intensity level at a given. place change when intensity of sound produced by a source at that place is doubled? ‘The intensity level of sound is expressed as ie=10gu(2) : ‘We may write for two cases as 1 1 =10k @ hi = 10 logial 7 : 1 12 = 10 log, @) By the question, b= 21, 1 =10 tosio(Z) Ia= Lo tosio(F4) . Change in intensity level is calculated as Besser On eee 60 | INSIGHTS ON ENGINEERING PHYSICS ‘ACOUSTICS | 61 Scanned with CamScanner web loge) he area of wall is 200cm?, is 100cm’. If absorption it and floor are 0.03,0.04 and he reverberation time for the hall. [2073 Bhadra] ousy aS > Nore, Reverberation time (T) = T= "GopeTO%O.03F100%10°%0.05 F000" 0.04) T=0.0005 s eee sae a Ee sa 5a “A lens is a portion of a transparent medium bounded by two spherical surfaces. The line joining the center of curvature of two Spherical surfaces is known as principal axis. The distance from Jens where parallel rays of light converse or appears to diverse is called focal length. 3.2 Equivalent Focal Length of Two Lenses. Let f; and f be focal lengths of two lenses separated by distance 4. EXERCISE

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