Assignment# 2

Subject: Compiler Construction

Submitted To: Ma’am Maryam Izzat

Submitted By:
Name Roll No
Ammar Sajid Khan 03

Semester: BS(CS)6th

Session: 2020-2024

Submission Date: 25-09-2023

 Part (a)

Explain what shift-reduce parsing is and how it works. Provide a step-by-step example of
shift-reduce parsing for the sentence: "The cat chased the mouse."

Answer:

Shift-reduce parsing is a type of bottom-up parsing technique used in natural language processing and
compiler construction. It's commonly used to analyze the syntactic structure of sentences in natural
language and to build parse trees or parse forests. In shift-reduce parsing, you start with a stack, an input
buffer, and a set of parsing rules (grammar) and use a sequence of shift and reduce operations to build a
parse tree.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of shift-reduce parsing using the sentence: "The cat chased the mouse."

➢ Initial Setup ➢ Step 1

We start with an empty stack and the input buffer.
- Stack: [ ]
- Stack: [ ]
- Input Buffer: ["The", "cat", "chased",
"the", - Input Buffer: ["The", "cat", "chased", "the",

"mouse"] "mouse"]

- Grammar Rules: Assume a simple We perform a SHIFT operation, moving the first

grammar where we can represent the sentence as word from the input buffer to the stack:

`S -> NP VP`, `NP -> Det N`, and `VP -> V NP`. - Stack: ["The"]
- Input Buffer: ["cat", "chased", "the", "mouse"]
Here, "Det" stands for determiner, "N" for noun,
and "V" for verb.

➢ Step 2 ➢ Step 3

We continue with another SHIFT operation:
- Stack: ["The", "cat"]
- Input Buffer: ["chased", "the", "mouse"]
We perform more SHIFT operations until we have
a partial match with a grammar rule. In this case,
we have "Det N" on the stack, which matches the
"NP" rule in our grammar. So, we perform a
REDUCE operation:
- Stack: ["The", NP]
- Input Buffer: ["chased", "the", "mouse"]
 ➢ Step 4 ➢ Step 5

We continue with SHIFT operations: Another SHIFT operation:

- Stack: ["The", NP, "chased"] - Stack: ["The", NP, "chased", "the"]
- Input Buffer: ["the", "mouse"] - Input Buffer: ["mouse"]

➢ Step 6 ➢ Step 7

A few more SHIFT operations: Now, we have a partial match for the "VP" rule,
- Stack: ["The", NP, "chased", "the", "mouse"] "V NP." So, we perform a REDUCE operation:
- Input Buffer: [ ] - Stack: ["The", VP]
- Input Buffer: [ ]

➢ Step 8

Finally, we have a complete match for the "S"

rule, "NP VP," on the stack. We perform the last
REDUCE operation:
- Stack: [S]
- Input Buffer: [ ]

At this point, we've successfully parsed the sentence, and the stack contains the "S" symbol, which
represents the full sentence. This demonstrates a successful shift-reduce parsing of the sentence "The cat
chased the mouse" using a simple grammar. The parse tree or parse forest can be constructed based on
these reduction steps, with "S" as the root, "NP" and "VP" as its children, and so on.

Part (b)

Compare and contrast shift-reduce parsing with top-down parsing. Highlight their
strengths and weaknesses.

Answer:

1. Shift-Reduce Parsing
2. Top-Down Parsing
Shift-reduce parsing and top-down parsing are two different approaches to parsing in natural language
processing and compiler construction. Each has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice between
them often depends on the specific application and the grammar being used. Here's a comparison of the
two techniques:

Shift-Reduce Parsing:

Bottom-Up Approach: Shift-reduce parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique, which means it starts
with individual tokens and builds up to higher-level structures. It attempts to find the rightmost derivation
of the input.
Strengths Weakness
✓ Efficiency: In many cases, shift-reduce ✓ Lack of Human Intuition: Shift-reduce
parsers are more efficient than top-down parsing might not align with our intuition
parsers because they avoid backtracking. of how humans parse sentences, as it
They tend to work well for parsing starts with individual words and builds up
ambiguous grammars. the parse tree from there.
✓ Can Handle a Wide Range of ✓ Complexity: Building and maintaining a
Grammars: Shift-reduce parsers can
stack can make the parsing process more
handle a broader range of grammars,
including ambiguous ones, by using a complex.
stack to keep track of partially matched
constituents.

Top-Down Parsing:

Top-Down Approach: Top-down parsing starts with the highest-level structure (e.g., the start symbol)
and attempts to match it to the input tokens, recursively breaking it down into smaller constituents. It
follows the leftmost derivation of the input.
Strengths Weakness
✓ Human-Readable: Top-down parsing can ✓ Backtracking: Top-down parsers often
closely mirror how humans read and require backtracking when they make
understand sentences, making it more incorrect choices, which can be
interpretable and intuitive.
 ✓ - Ease of Error Reporting: It can provide
informative error messages when a parsing
error is encountered, making it useful for
debugging.
computationally expensive and can lead to
inefficiency.
✓ Limited Handling of Ambiguity: Topdown
parsers may struggle with parsing ambiguous
grammars and might require additional
techniques or heuristics to resolve ambiguity.

In summary, the choice between shift-reduce parsing and top-down parsing depends on the specific
requirements of the parsing task. Shift-reduce parsing is favored for efficiency and handling a wide range
of grammars, especially in cases with ambiguity. Top-down parsing is more human-readable and useful
for providing clear error messages but may struggle with ambiguity and can be less efficient due to
backtracking. Many modern parsing algorithms and systems use a combination of both techniques or
employ more advanced parsing algorithms like Earley parsing or CYK parsing to strike a balance
between their strengths and weaknesses.

Part (c)

Define the three basic actions in shift-reduce parsing: SHIFT, REDUCE, and ACCEPT.
Provide a brief explanation of each action.

Answer:

In shift-reduce parsing, there are three fundamental actions: SHIFT, REDUCE, and ACCEPT. These
actions dictate how the parser processes the input and constructs the parse tree or parse forest. Here's a
brief explanation of each action:
SHIFT REDUCE ACCEPT
- Explanation: The SHIFT - Explanation: The REDUCE - Explanation: The ACCEPT
action involves moving the next action is performed when there action is taken when the parser
input token from the input buffer is a partial match on the stack successfully parses the entire
onto the stack. It is used to with one of the grammar rules input string according to the
incrementally build up (production rules). It involves given grammar rules. It signifies
constituents or phrases in the replacing a sequence of tokens the successful completion of the
on the stack with a single non- parsing process.
 parse tree by adding individual terminal symbol, which
words or tokens.
- Purpose: SHIFT is used
when the parser recognizes that
the next input token can
potentially be part of a larger
syntactic structure. It continues
shifting tokens onto the stack
until a reduction (REDUCE)
- Purpose: ACCEPT indicates
represents a higher-level that the input string is
syntactic structure. syntactically valid according to
- Purpose: REDUCE is used the grammar, and the parse tree
to reduce a portion of the input
or parse forest is complete. This
on the stack into a higher-level
constituent based on the action marks the end of the
grammar rules. This step
parsing process.
simplifies the stack and helps in
forming the parse tree
incrementally.

operation becomes possible.

In summary, SHIFT adds input tokens to the stack, REDUCE replaces sequences of tokens with
nonterminals based on grammar rules, and ACCEPT signifies the successful parsing of the entire input
string. These actions are the core operations that enable shift-reduce parsers to build parse trees while
processing input tokens.

Part (d)

Given the stack and input buffer configurations below, perform the appropriate
shiftreduce actions until the parsing process is complete or until an error occurs. Provide
the resulting stack and input buffer configurations after each action.

Stack: [S]
Input Buffer: [NP, VP, .]

Answer:

To perform shift-reduce actions with the given stack and input buffer configurations, let's follow the
shiftreduce parsing process. We'll use a simplified grammar where "S" represents the sentence, "NP"
represents a noun phrase, "VP" represents a verb phrase, and "." represents the end of the sentence
Initially:

- Stack: [S]

- Input Buffer: [NP, VP, .]

Step 1 (SHIFT):
We perform a SHIFT operation by moving the first token "NP" from the input buffer to the stack.

- Stack: [S, NP]

- Input Buffer: [VP, .]

Step 2 (SHIFT):

Another SHIFT operation by moving "VP" from the input buffer to the stack.

- Stack: [S, NP, VP] - Input Buffer: [.]

Step 3 (REDUCE):

Now, we have a sequence "NP VP" on the stack, which matches the rule "S -> NP VP." We can perform a
REDUCE operation by replacing "NP VP" with "S" on the stack.

- Stack: [S, S]

- Input Buffer: [.]

Step 4 (REDUCE):

We now have "S" on the stack, and there is nothing left in the input buffer. Since "S" is the start symbol,

we can perform another REDUCE operation to indicate that the parsing process is complete. - Stack: [S]

- Input Buffer: []

Step 5 (ACCEPT):

With an empty input buffer and only the "S" symbol on the stack, we can perform the ACCEPT action to

signify that the parsing process is complete, and the input string is syntactically valid. - Stack: [S]

- Input Buffer: []

The parsing process is complete, and the input string consisting of "NP VP ." has been successfully
parsed, resulting in the "S" symbol on the stack. The ACCEPT action confirms that the input string is
valid according to the given grammar.

Part (e)

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of handling ambiguity in shift-reduce parsing

compared to other parsing techniques.
Answer:

Handling ambiguity in shift-reduce parsing, compared to other parsing techniques, has its own set of
advantages and disadvantages. Ambiguity in parsing arises when a sentence can be interpreted in multiple
ways, leading to multiple possible parse trees or interpretations. Here's a discussion of the advantages and
disadvantages of handling ambiguity in shift-reduce parsing:
Advantages of Handling Ambiguity in Shift- Disadvantages of Handling Ambiguity in Shift-
Reduce Parsing Reduce Parsing
1. Efficiency: Shift-reduce parsing is often 1. Complexity: Shift-reduce parsers can
more efficient when dealing with ambiguous become quite complex when dealing with highly
grammars because it doesn't require excessive ambiguous grammars. Managing multiple parse
backtracking. It can explore multiple parse paths paths and choosing among them can lead to
in parallel by maintaining a stack of partially intricate parsing algorithms and increased
matched constituents. This efficiency can be computational complexity.
especially useful when parsing real-world natural 2. Lack of Determinism: In ambiguous
language text, which can be inherently cases, shift-reduce parsers may produce multiple
ambiguous. valid parse trees, which can make it challenging to
2. Multiple Parse Trees: Shift-reduce select the "best" or most appropriate
parsing readily produces multiple parse trees or
interpretation. Determining which parse tree is the
parse forests for ambiguous sentences. This
feature is valuable when dealing with natural correct one may require additional postprocessing
language, where ambiguity is common. It allows
or heuristics.
parsers to generate and explore different
interpretations, which can be beneficial for 3. Interpretation Difficulty: The multiple
applications like machine translation or question parse trees generated in shift-reduce parsing can
answering. 3. Flexibility: Shift-reduce parsers
can be designed to handle various types of lead to difficulties in interpreting the parsing
ambiguities, including attachment ambiguities results. It may not always be clear which parse
(e.g., noun phrase attachment), coordination
ambiguities, and more. This flexibility makes tree is the most semantically meaningful or
them suitable for a wide range of parsing tasks. contextually appropriate.

4. Limited Intuitiveness: Shift-reduce

parsing doesn't necessarily align with human
intuition
about how sentences are parsed. It often starts
with individual words and builds the parse tree
incrementally, which may not match the way
humans understand language.
In contrast, other parsing techniques, like top-down parsing or Earley parsing, may handle ambiguity
differently. They may employ more extensive search or backtracking to explore various parse paths, but
this can come at the cost of increased parsing time and complexity. The choice of parsing technique
depends on the specific requirements of the application and how well it aligns with the nature of the input
language and the expected parsing results. Handling ambiguity in parsing is a challenging task, and the
choice of technique should consider the trade-offs between efficiency, flexibility, and ease of
interpretation.

Part (f)

Describe common types of errors that can occur during shift-reduce parsing. Provide
examples of each type.

Answer:

Shift-reduce parsing, like any parsing technique, can encounter several common types of errors when
attempting to build a parse tree for a sentence. These errors are typically related to the parsing actions
(SHIFT and REDUCE) and the input tokens. Here are some common types of errors with examples:

1. Shift-Reduce Conflict
2. Reduce-Reduce Conflict
3. Shift-Shift Conflict
4. Shift-Reduce Error
5. Invalid Input
6. Unmatched Parentheses or Brackets

Shift-Reduce Conflict:

Description: A shift-reduce conflict occurs when the parser faces a choice between performing a SHIFT
operation or a REDUCE operation, and the choice is not clear based on the current input and stack
configuration.

Example: Consider the sentence "I saw the man with the telescope." In this sentence, "with the
telescope" can either modify "saw" or "the man." The parser may encounter a shift-reduce conflict
when deciding whether to shift "with" or reduce "the man" as an NP.

Reduce-Reduce Conflict:
Description: A reduce-reduce conflict occurs when the parser has multiple REDUCE actions it can take,
but the choice between them is ambiguous based on the current input and stack configuration.

Example: In a grammar where "NP -> N" and "NP -> Det N" are both valid rules, parsing the sentence
"The book" may result in a reduce-reduce conflict when deciding whether to reduce "N" as an NP or
"Det N" as an NP.

Shift-Shift Conflict:

Description: A shift-shift conflict occurs when the parser has two possible SHIFT actions it can take,
and it's unclear which one to choose based on the input.

Example: In a grammar where both "Noun -> 'dog'" and "Noun -> 'cat'" are valid rules, parsing the
sentence "The dog chased the cat" may result in a shift-shift conflict when deciding whether to shift
"dog" or "cat.".

Shift-Reduce Error:

Description: A shift-reduce error occurs when the parser attempts to perform a SHIFT or REDUCE
action that is not valid according to the grammar rules.

Example: In a grammar where "S -> NP VP" is valid but "VP -> NP" is not, if the parser tries to
reduce "NP" as a VP before encountering "VP" in the input, it would result in a shift-reduce error.

Invalid Input:

Description: This error occurs when the input string does not conform to the grammar rules, and the
parser cannot proceed further.

Example: If the grammar does not allow certain tokens or token sequences, like "Verb Noun" without
an intervening preposition, parsing the sentence "She jumped table" would result in an invalid input
error.

Unmatched Parentheses or Brackets:

Description: In grammars that involve parentheses or brackets (e.g., for arithmetic expressions or nested
structures), an error can occur when there are unmatched or incorrectly nested opening and closing
symbols.

Example: In an arithmetic expression grammar, parsing "3 + (2 * 5" without the closing parenthesis
would result in an unmatched parentheses error

Handling these errors is crucial in parser design. Shift-reduce parsers typically use techniques like
lookahead tokens, precedence and associativity rules, and error recovery strategies to handle and report
errors gracefully while continuing the parsing process when possible.