International Journal of Arts & Sciences,

CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 08(07):397–410 (2015)

CAREER MANAGEMENT OF OFFICERS IN THE NIGERIAN ARMY

(1970-2014)

Abubakar Ubale Dauda

Post Graduate School, Nigeria

Defence Academy, Nigeria

The current study discusses Career Management of Nigerian Army Officers and attempts to examine
the importance of personal development during their service years as a necessary ingredient for proper
reintegration into civilian society. A stratified sample of serving and retired officers from the rank of
Captains to Major Generals was selected to determine their social and economic satisfaction in their
military career. The study employs the socioeconomic (SES) model to measure the work experience
based on income, education and occupation and uses Grounded Theory in its approach and analysis.
The study acknowledges that personal development for the officers in form of entrepreneurship
education to enhance proper reintegration into the civilian society is grossly lacking. The problem was
found to be connected with the career management predicated in the history, policies and administration
of the Nigerian military force. Another challenge is the lack of time and allowance for the officers to
develop themselves individually while in service due to the nature of military job. The socioeconomic
condition of the officers therefore changes on retirement leading to all sorts of behaviours. The study
postulates a change management approach through policy reviews and robust institutional arrangement
for personal development in order to provide motivation and achieve the desired satisfaction.

Keywords: Career, Officers, Welfare, Personal development, Socioeconomic status.

Introduction

The career management of officers in the Nigerian Army has for a very long time been the topic for
discussion by military analysts, policy makers and the military officers themselves. A lot of questions
have been raised by these analysts on whether Nigerian Army officers enjoy a good career with prospects
of a successful reintegration into civilian society. This assertion was borne out of the prevalent concern
over the condition of retired officers and the expected satisfaction over military career in Nigeria. The
concern, therefore, borders on what makes a military career in Nigeria attractive that people want to be
part of it and what do personnel reap as the benefits of military service that enable military officers
maintain a reasonable socio-economic status after disengagement. The status symbol in the Nigerian
military is high in the officer corps who by their training and education takes higher leadership roles in
the organization. The officers as leaders are expected to thrive and develop themselves individually. This
is in addition to the platform that is provided by the military institution so as to have a successful military
career. However, this perception seems no longer relevant in the face of global changes which over time
have generally affected the concept of warfare and by extension military career. Presently, armies
including those in Africa are becoming more functional and therefore throughout one’s life in the


397

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398 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

military, series of choices will have to be made both in the military setting and in a probable second
career which will all be considered as a part of a person’s career development.
Most professions or occupations in the civilian setting establish their strategic career planning
mechanisms for the development of their human resource with choices and options. Career attractions are
outlined at inception with the appropriate necessary information on benefits, rights and privileges for the
prospective candidate or potential employee. The organizations make series of commitments to attract
people both for achieving their set goals and staying in the competition. This is, however, different in the
military environment. The military career path contrasts with a career in the civilian society. The choice
of a military career by a person limits certain rights and privileges obtainable in the civilian society. That
is because the development of personnel in the military is geared towards moulding them as professional
soldiers and making them to function as such. Most military organizations, however, make palatable
institutional provisions to enhance the career of their personnel and ensure satisfaction at various stages in
their career paths and after retirement. One of the ways the military institution guarantee satisfaction is
through enhanced capacity for both professional and personal development of the personnel. The personal
development is given equal priority by the military institution so that on disengagement, they can
favourably compete and be marketable in a second career.
In the Nigerian military, both professional and personal developments are entirely an individual
responsibility. Career planning by the military institution in that direction to streamline its conduct is
more or less non-existent. What entails in the military institution are rather rules and regulations
enshrined in the condition of service within which personnel are expected to organize their career. The
career planning with institutional commitment is only structured to build expertise along military lines. It
has been predicated on training and education towards military professionalism and geared towards
imparting knowledge that would make personnel to effectively perform their military duties and progress
to the next rank. The nature of military work in Nigeria, however, like in many armies around the world
does not give time and allowance for personnel to pursue personal development on their own. The
avenues for self-development are slim unlike in other armies such as in the United States of America and
the United Kingdom. The provisions in the Harmonized Terms and Condition of Service (TACOS) in
respect to training and education remain the same since the 1970s. The provisions have not been reviewed
to accommodate personal development which is part of the changing trends in line with global practice.
This makes the choice of a second career or occupation by military personnel almost impossible after
disengagement from service.
This study targets the officer corps of the Nigerian Army who is equally vulnerable in the career
management problem. There are a lot of assumptions hinged on the capability and professional nature of
the Nigerian Army officer corps. The indoctrination that the officers can conquer situations despite all
odds or to use the popular saying that officers ‘can do it on their own’ has placed them in a precarious
situation. The impact of uncoordinated system manifests in the larger society leading to all sorts of
challenges and attitudes. The impact goes against the conceptualization of unbroken service in the
Nigerian military which was to ensure that those who render service to the nation will be proud.1 But are
they?
It is on this premise that the study seeks to examine the career management of Nigerian Army
officers which is affected by a lot of management issues right from the inception of the force. The
management of the officer’s careers seems to affect the socio-economic status of the officers on leaving
military service despite certain provisions in their condition of service. The study, therefore, intends to
explore from historical perspectives the career management issues of the officer corps of and its impact
on the officer’s socio-economic status on retirement. The origin and growth of the Nigerian Army officer
corps would be necessary to put the discussion in context. The study will then examine the existing
provisions in respect of career management including the avenues for personal development. A further
discussion on the challenges of officers in retirement cum second career to determine the efficacy will be
undertaken. The study will make appropriate suggestions.

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 399

Conceptual Discourse

In this study, the conceptualization of ‘career’ would be quite necessary so as to put the discussion in
context. Generally speaking, career planning and career management has been conceptualised as an
important ingredient in the success of an organization because it is an instrument to enhance the personal
development of the workforce. In one part, career management is an avenue to increase efficiency and
planning generally ensure the realization of the organization’s goal. Personal development on the other
part is an aspect of change management and a method to develop personnel within their choices. The
overall objective is to increase efficiency. This is achieved through imparting skills to the personnel
which they can utilise in a second career employment or occupation. Both personal development and
organizational development are closely interrelated and impact on each other at all times. They are part of
change management which according to Barret and Enroth is a new approach in the study of human
resource and consists of formal and informal activities that must be carried through if the change is to be
delivered.2 These change activities or transformation is better conducted when stakeholders are put
through value orientation.
Career development and management also include a number of different settings that will help to
gain more skills, knowledge, behaviours and attitudes. To harness the acquired skills is an excellent way
to effectively manage one’s career. Effective career management could be achieved through planning by
both the employer and employee in order to develop a system that will guarantee satisfaction. Career
development is, therefore, the way one thinks about one’s life when it relates to employment, training and
education, all of which places one in control of decisions that affect one’s future. When the ingredients of
training or education form part of the career development, it is considered a good career management.
One of the objectives of career development is taking control of a person’s personal development. It
has been established that employers take less responsibility for careers. Employees need to control their
personal development in order to maintain their career and enhance their employability in a second career.
They have to plan their career and personal development, but the organization must have a stake since
personal development is a subset of career management. It applies the concepts of strategic planning and
marketing to taking charge of one’s professional future. It also consists of steps and process in
implementation. Strategic planning in this context will comprise defining strategy and its direction and
then making decisions on allocating resources. This will involve setting goals, determining the action to
achieve the goals and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. This way the organization could derive
maximum value in its human resource development efforts.
Value based organizations such as the military nurture and develops their personnel with skills and
leadership qualities especially to their officer corps in order to build trust and increase internal cohesion.
Barret et al reiterate further along this line of thinking when he states that values are always directed
towards satisfaction of needs and needs are always the source of motivation. When needs are fulfilled
they do not go away, they engender deeper levels of knowledge, motivation and commitment.3 In the
Nigerian military organization, the satisfaction of the needs to achieve motivation is directed towards
some welfare activities to boost the morale of the personnel. Welfare issues and activities primarily
comprise self-knowledge, improving skills or learning new ones, enhancing the quality of life and
initiating a life enterprise. Ideally, it also involves defining and executing Personal Development Plans
(PDP) which is a process of creating an active plan based on among others reflection and goal-setting
within the context of a career.
Personal development takes place in organisations through training and using a framework for the
development of the personnel. The personnel of the Nigerian military whose personal development for
enhancement of their career is necessary are the officers and soldiers. They are the most important
resource in the military profession whose professional and personal development must be given high
priority. Since this study concerns the officers’ corps, more clarification of the officer is important. The
Pamphlet on Tradition and Custom states that:

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400 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

An officer in the Nigerian Army is a person who is selected, trained

and granted a Presidential Commission into the Nigerian army.
Officers form the nucleus of the organization and derive their
authority direct from a sovereign power. They, therefore, hold a
commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a
specific office or position. Officers are distinguished from soldiers
because of the ‘commission’ and the social status they occupy as
leaders and managers of men. Commissioned officers are typically
the type of people that act in command positions. The contents of
their training are expected to be unique. Commissioned officers
generally receive training in leadership and management functions in
addition to their military occupational speciality. There is an
assumption that the combination of these indices and requisite
education makes them ‘professionals’ in their chosen fields.4

On commission, the officer takes the oath of allegiance to the Commander-in-Chief who is the
President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The quality of an officer and his responsibilities are
enormous. It is a convention that:

At any rank, the officer as a leader must be exemplary in courage,

conduct and proficiency. Beside his personal attributes, an officer
must be knowledgeable in the field of specialization. This will
place him on a high pedestal to exercise leadership and mould his
subordinates into the competent, disciplined and motivated team.5
The quality of the officer corps is the more reason why the military institution must ensure the right
types of personnel are recruited into the service. Recruitment over the years, however, has been
predicated with the enlistment of fresh personnel to fill gaps due to the shortfall. Recruitment in Nigeria’s
military is being conducted based on the need of the moment as provided in the policy guidelines. So
many factors are considered in the recruitment selection process of officers which includes among others
age, education, quota and medical fitness. The potential officer has to undergo rigorous screening exercise
to determine his or her suitability for selection. Thereafter, the person will undergo training for a length of
time in Nigeria Defence Academy (NDA), the institution earmarked for the training of officers. The mode
of entry determines the person’s enlistment as an officer and the type of commission he will receive at the
end of the training.
The officer’s career in the Nigerian military commences on graduation and consequent deployment
in a ‘unit’. The person’s career starts from his first unit which progresses through successive courses and
deployments as he grows in the service. The coordinating department for the officer’s career is the
Department of Military Secretary. The career management focus of an officer in the Nigeria Army has
been planned as a period that consists of unbroken service in the Nigerian Armed Forces which starts
from the date of commissioning or enlistment to the date of retirement from service.7 Officers are
reasonably comfortable while in service and they are financially well rewarded with good pay and
allowances. They also enjoy high social status as stakeholders in governance. It is, however, the other
way round after retirement.

Socioeconomic Status

Socio-economic Status (SES) is used in this study to measure the level of satisfaction derived by Nigerian
Army officers in their career. Socioeconomic Status as a management tool is used to measure the social
and economic work experiences of individuals or group based on income, education and occupation.
There are three different classifications of SES, that is high SES, middle SES and low SES. An individual

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 401

can fall within any of the three categories and all the three variables can be assessed. Income refers to
wages, salaries and any other entitlements of an individual. Income could also come from compensation,
social security, pensions and government financial assistance. Income is used as a measurement tool in
SES because it is easy to figure for most individuals.
The second variable as a measurement tool is education. An individual’s earning increase with the
level of education. Education also plays a major role in fashioning skills for jobs. Thirdly, occupational
status measures social position. It reflects on the educational attainment and the skills for the job.
Although occupation is difficult to measure due to so many competing scales, it gives psychological
satisfaction. In any case, the combination of income and education and occupation together represents the
best measure for SES.
The officers of Nigerian Army enjoy a high socio-economic status. This was made possible right
from the beginning of the force by the British occupations who vested some part of state power to the
military. The military personnel became the force of subjugation during the war of occupation and that of
suppression after the establishment of colonial administration. The practice continued even after
independence and was at its worst during the civil war. By the end of the civil war in 1970, the Nigeria
military has fully established itself as an agent of coercion and a serious stakeholder in governance. The
military personnel are feared, respected and forcibly recognized in the civilian society. They enjoy the
status symbol of security, recognition and respect. In the barracks, the officers enjoy better
accommodation, working condition and pay. The officer corps, therefore, is the one associated with high
SES.
However, this study found that the high SES enjoyed by the officers while in service almost
suddenly drops immediately after retirement. The SES related to income drops drastically because the
gratuity and pension for obvious reasons are always not enough. Since pension is a function of salary in
Nigeria, certain allowances that officers receive while in services such as allowances related to risk and
personal servant are stopped. Other utility rates like water and electricity for instance subsidized by the
government must be paid as they are in the civilian society. The officers are therefore faced with the
reality of Nigerian economic situation. The fluctuation of the Naira that affect income, high rate of
inflation, reduced ability for officers to invest and lack of opportunity and capacity for second career
employment are some of the visible challenges. It is imperative to state that 85% of Nigerian Army
officers are retired in their mid-career paths. An additional 78% do not possess the required educational
qualifications to compete for jobs in the civilian society. More so, most military professional courses
especially the ones that are technically biased are not convertible in the civilian society in Nigeria. The
present challenges experienced by officers had their genesis at the inception of the Nigerian military
force.

History of the Nigerian Army Officer Corps

The history of the officer’s corp in Nigeria’s military began in 1948 when Lieutenant LV Ugboma
became the first Nigerian who was granted Short Service Commission in that year.6 Before this time,
Nigerians were part of the British Government Forces that was first organized under the Glover Hausas
and later Lagos Constabulary in 1863. This force metamorphosed into the Nigeria Regiment. Throughout
First and Second World Wars in which the Nigeria Force participated as part of British Government
Force, no Nigerian was commissioned as an officer in the Regiment.7 This was because the British
colonial army in Nigeria, for the most part, was a mercenary army. It was the political activities of
nationalists who agitated and pressed for the independence of Nigeria from British rule that accelerated
and prepared the few Nigerian officers for training. The first crop of the trained officers was the ones who
eventually took over the leadership and command of the Nigeria Regiment after independence was
granted in 1960.
The Nigeria Army Officer Corps originated when few outstanding Non- Commission Officers with
reasonable education and technical know- how were sent to train as officers at Eaton Hall Officer Cadet

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402 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

School. On the successful completion of their course, they were granted Short Service Commission as
officers in the rank of Lieutenants. Records have shown that the first Nigerian with Short Service
Commission (SSC) was Lieutenant LV Ugboma who in 1948 happen to be the first Nigerian
commissioned officer.8 Others that were later commissioned in 1949 were Lieutenant WU Bassey,
Lieutenant Sey, Lieutenant JTU Aguiyi-Ironsi, Lieutenant SA Ademulegun. They were followed by
Lieutenant RA Shodeinde and Lieutenant Wellington in the year 1950 and 1952 respectively.9 This first
group of officers were originally Senior Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs) who were commissioned
due to their educational background having acquired a minimum level of education equivalent to General
Certificate of Education (Ordinary Level) or its equivalent.
In the year 1953, the Colonial Office established the regular Officer’s Special Training School
(ROSTS) at Teshie Gold Coast (now Ghana). This institution served as a transit recruiting and training
centre for officer cadets. The cadets train for about six months and then proceed to the United Kingdom
for the complete commission training at any of the British cadet training institutions. At the same time,
with the idea of independence gaining ground and the possibility that it would materialise, the need to
increase enrolment and augment for the shortfall the departing of British officers would bring about
necessitated for more officer cadet training units to be established. Consequently, recruitment centres
which equally serve as training centres were established at prominent selected public schools in Nigeria
such as Government College Zaria (now Barewa College), Kings College Lagos and Government College
Umuahia. These recruitment centres looked for young secondary school certificate holders interested in
making a career in the Nigerian Army.
Some of the first notable people who joined the Nigeria Army through this process and become
officers were Zakari Maimalari and Umar Lawan who were commissioned as officers in 1954. Also,
others commissioned within the period include Kur Mohammed and Largema in 1954, JY Pam and GY
Kurubo in 1955. This group of officers all trained in the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst England.
Others who were commissioned in 1956 from the same military institute and through the same program
include UA Banjo, DA Ejoor, Y Gowon, AA Madiebo and A Unegbe. These officers became quite
prominent in the Nigerian military cycle both as military commanders during the civil war and as political
leaders.10
The demand to further attract more potential and build skilled manpower led to the establishment of
Nigeria Military School Zaria in 1954. The school was planned to provide secondary education and light
military training to young boys of secondary school age. On completion of their education, the product
was expected to further enrol in the officers’ training institute to become officers thereby serving as a
regular source of manpower for the Nigerian army. The products of Nigeria Military School were
supposed to increase the value of the officer’s corps and fill the gaps created in the Nigerian regiment as a
result of wastage rate due to retirements. The retirement of officers in the Nigerian military is a process in
the life of every personnel.
With the indigenization of the military force after the British Army Council relinquished its control
in April 1958, there was a rapid expansion of the Nigerian military force which also resulted in the
growth of the officer corps. The growth increased with the establishment of Nigerian Military Training
College (NMTC) in 1960 that took over the responsibility of training Nigerian Army officers. At
independence therefore in 1960, there were about 48 Nigerian officers with Combatant Commission and 2
Non-Combatant officers.11 The training of officers was henceforth conducted at Nigerian Military
Training Centre instead of Teshi (in Ghana) and Britain except those officers that were sent as part of a
special programme.
The training to increase the number of officers at independence and after continued hand-in-hand
with the plan expansion of the Nigeria Army. The expansion was geared towards an increase in
manpower and the provision of equipment and facilities for the force. By the year 1964, it was completed
and all officers’ appointments have been filled by Nigerians except that of the General Officer
Commanding (GOC) which was still retained by the British. However, the last British officer who was the
GOC Major General Welby-Everard relinquished the appointment and left Nigeria in February 1965. This
last change of baton completed the indigenization process with an officer corp consisting of 336

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 403

Combatant Officers and 181 Non-Combatant Officers.12 The growth of the Nigerian force up to the year
1965 was conducted with careful planning and in consideration of the financial implication. However, all
these changed with the outbreak of the civil war.
The Civil War that engulfed the country in 1967-1970 altered the equilibrium of the Nigerian Army
in respect to manpower, growth and career planning. The exigencies of the war led to indiscriminate
recruitment in both officers and soldiers’ category without adequate planning. Wushishi posits that:

The numerical strength of the army rose astronomically from less

than 10,000 before the war to about 250,000 personnel at the end of
the war in 1970. That is to say, the Nigerian Army had grown 25
times in strength in less than 3 years without a corresponding and
sustained developmental program.13

Regrettably, most of the people who showed practical ability were recruited as officers during the
Civil War. They lacked the necessary educational qualification and were only used purposely to execute
the war. The officers were therefore given field commission. It was these field-commissioned officers
thereafter who formed the bulk of the demobilized officers at the end of the civil war. They were given
training on various vocational jobs at the newly established Nigerian Army Training Centre (NATC)
Oshodi. The idea was to ensure that the demobilized officers and soldiers learn a vocation that would
make them reintegrate smoothly in the civil society. They were to use their gratuity to establish their
business ventures in the civil society and at the same time also collect pension monthly. Controversies
surrounded the demobilization which could be said to be unsuccessful in the long run as it opened another
mirage of problems in the management of retired personnel. It also created shortages of officers as the
field commissioned officers constituted the bulk of the demobilization.

Growth, Career Management and Career Issues

The career planning template in Nigerian Army could be divided into three phases. The first phase from
pre-independence up to the year 1970 was concerned with getting the correct size of the Nigerian Force
and the qualified officers to fill the appointments in the officer corps. There was, therefore, no significant
attention to career planning besides the adopted model of the British. The second phase commenced after
the civil war in 1970 up to the year 1990. This was the period when the need arose for the military to
double the increase in the number of officers with requisite education to function as leaders. The third
phase was the introduction of a new Order of Battle (ORBAT) in 1990. Between this year up to the year
2004, attempts were made to achieve the manpower level that need to be adequately catered for. The
fourth phase from the years 2004-2014 is the transformation stage and an attempt to fashion out
redirection in human resource development to bring the Nigerian Army in tandem with global practice.

The First Phase (Pre-Independence -1970)

This phase was the period that signifies the origin and subsequent growth of the officer’s corps. The
origin of officers in the Nigerian Army could not be divulged from the history of the force. Records have
shown that the first group of people who were later to be made soldiers in the first instance were actually
slaves. Slaves who fled from their masters and those yet under the yoke off their masters were rescued by
Lieutenant John Glover of the Royal Navy at Jebba. They were taken to Lagos, freed and organized into a
force which later became ‘Glover Hausas’. The growth of the Nigerian Force was in addition linked to the
activities of the Royal Niger Company. In 1886, the Royal Niger Company was granted a charter to
establish its authority over the Niger Delta and the valleys of the Niger and Benue. Consequently, a force
which was later known as Royal Niger Constabulary was raised to subdue the local population and
impose the will of the Company in areas which it claimed control.

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404 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

It was this same force that the British Government converted and added a new one to form the West
African Frontier Force (RWAFF) in 1897. By the time the British embarked on occupation and subdued
communities in Nigeria, more people were drafted into the force. The occupations further requested from
the traditional leaders of the subdued communities for able-bodied men to be converted into soldiers. The
traditional rulers, especially in Northern Nigeria, contributed the vagabonds, drunkards and social misfits
with the assumption of ridding their societies with such group of people. Officers mostly of British
extraction formed the first crop of leaders in the force. The indigenous personnel were mostly drafted as
soldiers until about the 1940s when some of them distinguished themselves and became officers in a
command capacity.
At independence, however, the need arose for the Nigerian Army to boost its manpower by
recruiting people with requisite education and train them to become officers who will lead the force. This
became obvious with the departure of British officers in 1963 and the outbreak of the Nigerian Civil War
in 1967. The increase in manpower with the assurance that there will be leaders that was reasonably
educated and could execute the war, all led to the recruitment of young people with minimum secondary
school qualification. The careers of the young potential officers were to be rightly managed from training
institutions such as the Nigeria Military School and the Nigeria Defence Academy. The manpower
requirement was augmented with the Short Service officers mostly soldiers that excel who were
commissioned as officers.
In respect to the management of officer’s career, records have shown that the Terms and Conditions
of Service (TACOS) for African and other ranks in the Nigeria Regiment (RWAFF) Engagement (1949)
emphasise the professional aspect of the work and were almost silent on personal development as part of
career management. The same provision applied to the Terms and Condition of Service (TACOS) of
1956. Subsequent TACOS after 1956 did not sufficiently address issues of personal development in the
career management. At the end of the Nigerian Civil War, the closest attempt to personal development
was the training given to the demobilized officers at Oshodi for life after service. The training started with
the revival of the Vocational Rehabilitation Centre at Oshodi Lagos. It was more or less a rehabilitation
training in which both the officers and soldiers were involved. Matami writes that:

It was for the first batch of Nigerian Army personnel made up of

752 disabled officers and soldiers who were moved into the centre
for rehabilitation. It was conducted under a program to provide
disabled and demobilized soldiers with skills useful in Nigeria
burgeoning civilian economy and to help these soldiers find useful
employment.14

Second Phase (1970-1990)

After the Civil War in 1970, the focus still was how to arrest the officer’s manpower shortage and
strengthen the number of educated officers. The re-introduction of Short Service Courses this time for
graduates and those with diplomas or equivalent was formulated. The short service recruitment also
catered for specialists in critical areas such as in the medical, ordnance and education. Other
developmental programs to enhance the military career were the commencement of the degree
programme in Nigeria Defence Academy in 1984 to enhance the officers’ education.
The main issue at the end of the war in 1970 was revitalization. After demobilization, the next
challenge was focused on how to restructure the military to a manageable force within the budgetary
provision. The essence of the revitalization was to inject new blood into the Nigerian military system.
More officers were needed to fill in the vacant appointments in the organization created by the
demobilization of field officers. The re-introduction of training for the short service course in 1973 was
thought by the policy makers to be one of the ways to balance the manpower shortage. The short service
elements recruited mostly consists of first-degree graduates and diploma. They contributed to a certain

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 405

extent to raise the educational level of the officer corps. But at the same time, another problem of
seniority between the Regular Combatants (RC) and the Short Service Combatants (SSC) was created.
Another dimension in the career management of officers was exacerbated by the effect of prolonged
military stay in power brought which was widely believed to have brought more harm than good to the
Nigerian military system. At the emergence of the first military administration in 1966, Nigeria was
believed to have cohesive and detribalized armed forces. The military intervention and its long
participation in governance afterwards to say the least corrupted the armed forces, jettisoned
professionalism and neglected career development. The establishment of Military Government after the
civil war brought the need to break the country into 12 states. Military administrators were sent to these
states and each administrator finds it convenient to report with a retinue of officers as personal aids. It
became habitual afterwards for subsequent military administrators to pull out officers from the barracks
for political assignments. This same practice continued with the military administrators upgrading the
personal aids to their family, kinsmen and close acquaintances. In the end, the military job was
compromised, the management of personnel and other developmental activities neglected. The bulk of
military personnel were used to provide security to military appointees. Officers left behind in the
barracks in command capacities were given free hand to do and undo pathetically personalising the
military job. This, of course, had a tremendous effect especially on the general attitude of personnel in the
organization. Writing on the attitude of Nigerian military personnel, Adeniran states that:

The behaviours of the personnel were overtaken by the ills of the

civil society which includes bribery, corruption and other forms of
malpractices. The unlimited power that has been conferred to
military personnel to do and undo encourage Nigerians to push their
wards to seek to commission into the armed forces not for a career
or professional prospects but as an avenue to drastically change the
economic fortune of their family.15
The spoil of governance made the military leadership abandon their duties. The condition of service
for officers was left un-reviewed especially the aspects relating to personal development.

Third Phase (1990-2004)

An attempt at career planning that would place the organization in the right perspective was conceived
when a new Order of Battle (ORBAT) was introduced in 1990. This ORBAT was the first positive step to
redefine the manpower situation in the Nigerian Army that will give credence to human resource
planning. The 1990 ORBAT notwithstanding, the emphasis was on getting the correct number of
personnel based on the specified allocation of the establishment. By establishment, the ORBAT 1990
provided for a total of 6,179 officers who were to fill the various ranks and appointments in the officers’
corps.16 This number was based on the vacancy in the existing units at that time and which will enable the
organization cater for the socio-economic well-being of the officers. When the ORBAT, however, came
into force in 1990, the expected strength of officers was supposed to be about 6200.17 But this could not
be achieved and the strength stood at 4,164 leaving a shortfall of 2,015 officers required filling the vacant
appointments.18 Despite the shortfall, there seem to be no concrete planning for officers career
development up to the year 2003. The status-quo ante remained.

Phase (2004-2014)

Another attempt towards career development was done in the year 2004 when the policy direction of the
Nigerian Army shifted. An instruction from the Chief of Army Staff produced the Framework for the
Transformation of the Nigeria Army in the next decade. The thrust of the idea deals with job satisfaction,
career planning and re-engagement after service through a recycling process. The framework was the

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406 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

institution’s first attempt at self-examination aimed at totally reforming the military system to achieve an
anticipated value-centred army. The effort was further enhanced in the year 2007 by the ‘Vision and
Transformation Process’ which was equally an attempt to build a mental image of what the Nigerian
Army should be in the near future. It is believed that since the transformation is about change, the
Nigerian Army envisage the identification and development of clear, concise and shared meanings of
values, beliefs, priorities and direction.
The first segment of the transformation process which was pegged at ten years from 2004-2014
regrettably did not achieve much. The timeline period was supposed to be strictly followed with structure
put in place. However, this was not to be the due non-challant attitude of the implementers at every level.
Therefore, the transformation agenda right from its inception suffered a heavy blow. At the same time, the
little provisions in the Harmonized Terms and Condition of Service (TACOS) in respect to the career
development of officers are not being implemented to the later. That responsibility is vested on the
department of Military secretary (Army).

Career Management and Responsibilities

The office of the Military Secretary over the years has been placing emphasis on the provisions in the
TACOS relating to an officer’s career which according to the department is more of a function of the
individual than a collective responsibility. The Military Secretary himself is fond of reiterating this all
important function at every forum. What the Nigerian Army only does, he explains, is to ensure the
existence of an enabling environment that would facilitate career enhancement. The Military Secretary is
always emphatic that the Harmonized Terms and Condition of Service have laid down the requirement for
a successful career in the Nigerian Army. The set objectives the requirement is meant to achieve include
optimizing efficiency, job satisfaction, proper performance evaluation and adequate reward.19 The
objective is also geared towards the provision of a systematic approach for the management of officer’s
progression from commission up to the time of disengagement from service.
The Department of Military Secretary is at present solely responsible for managing the career of
officers in the Nigerian Army.20 The department was exorcised from the department of Administration to
make it efficient. It was made into one of the principal branches in Army Headquarters. The department
was tasked with the responsibility to advise the Chief of Army Staff on related issues bordering on the
career of Nigerian Army officers. The department also draws up policy matters on officer’s career for
deliberations by Army Council and thereafter implements whatever decisions are taken. The department
further acts as the custodian of officer’s records and Personal Evaluation Reports (PER). It is also
responsible for promulgations, publications and gazettes.21
The department of Military Secretary is the vital and important place in the career management of
officers. In the present circumstances, however, the department has limited itself to career progression of
officers related to promotions. The department only offer advises to officers in respect to their career
development. In retrospect, what officers receive most times in terms of advice from the department is a
reminder. That is when an officer is flouting the laid down rules or procedure. In certain instances, the
actions the department will take in the case of officers who have not fulfilled the requirements for
promotions to the next rank are explained. Correspondences from the department of Military Secretary
are therefore received with mixed feelings by officers because they may carry good or bad tidings.
Career management of officers in the Nigerian Army is a paradox. Since an officer’s career solely
depend on him to make or to mar, the issue still remains on what are the institution’s responsibilities in
enhancing the career development of officers. What is the organization presently doing in respect to
personal development which is an important component in reintegration into civilian society? It is apt to
know the available tools and necessary directions in the career development including the information in
the work environment. All these are issues that constitute the missing links in the management of officers’
careers in the Nigerian Army.

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 407

The Issues in Career Management

The first career management issue springs up right from the beginning of the career during the
recruitment. Although there are so many issues associated with the recruitment itself, basically there is no
sufficient information to potential officers on what their career will be in the military. It has been
indicated in this paper more than three quarter percent of the people who join the Nigerian Army do not
have sufficient knowledge of the organization and information on what the military career would look
like. The military in Nigeria has been enjoying its historical antecedents as an elite organization.
Therefore, it does not need to showcase itself too much to attract people. The organization place an
advertisement stating the type of people it wants and encourage people to apply. Due to reasons stated
earlier and mainly to gain employment and uplift their social status, people rush to apply. The Nigerian
Army will always have people who want to join for now.
But since the organization is becoming more functional with the current security challenges, there is
a need to outline the bonded contractual agreement and pursue an active plan based on reflection and goal
setting. Personnel are supposed to right from the beginning of their career to know what and what they
will benefit in the service. That way, individuals can give their best and the present grumbling by
personnel may drastically reduce if not eliminated.
There is also the manpower state issue that has to be revisited in order to give credence to human
resource planning. The contextual explanation of having the officer corps in the Nigerian military is
basically to provide leadership and direction in military administration and combat duties. Officers are
therefore selected based on certain criteria. These criteria were designed in consideration to the political
diversity of the country and they include among others reasonable level of education, physical fitness,
willingness to serve and the strong principle of quota. These developments brought growth, more in
number than quality and a routine upward promotion mobility. The promotion altered the symmetric
nature of the promotion triangle to such an extent that there is presently a large number of senior officers
at the rank of Lieutenant Colonels and above.
Career management can only be efficient with credible human resource plan and that is one vital
aspect missing in the Nigerian army. Linked with this is the lack of adequate provision for the personal
development of officers. It is discovered that the Nigerian Army has no plan in the personal development
of officers outside their professional calling. It is every officer’s wish to one day retire and engage in
other life activities. Most Nigerian Army Officers do nothing in retirement besides rest. It is also true that
85% of the officers are retired before they could reach the peak of their career where they could enjoy
more retirement privileges. That means they have to engage themselves in another employment or
occupation because they are still young. Those officers who seek another employment have to contend
with series of challenges and stiff competition among the civilians in a post-military career. The mirages
of these challenges usually affect officer’s morale and they tend to have regrets of serving in the military.
In the Nigerian Army, career management as indicated earlier has not catered for personal
development of officers. The revitalization of the Nigerian Army after the Civil War and consequent
reorganization did not achieve much in entrenching institutional commitment to personal development.
Emphasis continued to be placed on the professional planning aspects of the service. Education appears to
be the appropriate medium for personal development. TACOS explains the importance of service in the
Nigerian Armed Forces. It reiterated the relevance of officers to be educationally sound in order to cope
with the demands of training and operations. TACOS explains that:

What the military institution offer to officers are classified into two,
the professional and the academic. The professional training is
designed to enhance the operational capability of the officers. The
academic was conceived to enable officers to derive maximum
benefit from professional training in addition to broadening their
knowledge. It will also assist officers to attain job satisfaction with

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408 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

the view of getting to the peak of their career and enjoying an

interesting post-service life.22

The professional career training is hinged on promotions to the next higher rank. Officers from the
rank of Lieutenants have to go through mandatory courses at every rank if they are to qualify for
promotion to the next higher rank. The academic training can be further sub-divided into two types. The
type officers receive in the process of professional training such as in Nigeria Defence Academy (NDA),
Armed Forces Command and Staff College (AFCSC), National Defence College (NDC), National
Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS) and other affiliated Nigerian Army schools. There is
also the type that officers could undergo for their personal development as part of the recycling process. It
is ‘privileged’ and personnel have to obtain sponsorship approval from the Nigerian Army to undergo the
academic training for self-improvement. TACOS stipulate that:

The two avenues for the officers’ training in the Nigerian military are as
follows:

a. Nomination for professional courses.

b. Self -improvement educational scheme courses including:

- In-service courses in any field decided by the services as

beneficial to her operation.

- Correspondence, open and part-time courses at institutions of

higher learning.

- Full-time study in higher institutions for first and higher degrees

and professional qualifications.23

There are conditions attached to the two types of academic training. Regrettably, the self-
improvement academic training that would reinforce personal development is downplayed and corrupted.
Officers are considered for this type of training most times based on personal acquaintance with the
approving authority, lobby and luck. There are a lot of bottlenecks in the process to secure approval
coupled with the lack of explicit explanation of the provisions in TACOS thereby subjecting it to personal
interpretations of the approving authority. Allocation of vacancies for training courses to units even in the
professional category is not enough.
In the present situation, it is discovered that personal development as an aspect of career planning
and management in the Nigerian Army is not available. The arrangement in place does not in any way
provide satisfaction. The Military Secretary writes that:

It is an officer’s responsibility to enhance his career by making

deliberate efforts to acquire detailed knowledge and
understanding of the TACOS, Manning Regulations and other
Service requirements or directives that may affect his career.
My advice is for officers to improve their professional ability,
employability and make adequate plans for retirement without
prejudice to the service.24

The emphasis in Nigeria’s military is always on the ‘job’ and maintenance of the military system. It
is expected of every personnel in the service to work hard and exhibit the requisite loyalty.25 Personnel
loyalty to the system is expected to be one hundred percent or zero. Loyalty to the system is a requirement
to earn a good grade in Personal Evaluation Report (PER) which assures promotion to the next higher
rank. The lack of commitment to improving the conditions of service through change management,
however, does not compensate for the loyalty put in by personnel. This manifests in so many aspects

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 Abubakar Ubale Dauda 409

affecting performances of personnel in the course of the service. The reward system in the form of
welfare to enhance personal development which will ensure proper reintegration into civil society seems
not in tandem with the reality.
The greatest challenge that officers would face if they are to take control of their personal
development while in service is ‘time’. Military personnel in Nigeria are engaged throughout the day and
most times round the clock. The nature of military duty gives little allowance for personnel to have the
time of their own. Officers do almost everything in addition to their speciality function. They plan,
organize and lead troops in military operations. They manage and administer the troops placed under their
care. Time is, therefore, the greatest impediment to officers’ personal development. Officers who make
in-roads in personal development and make some achievement do so at the risk and a great cost of losing
their work. The Nigerian military has lost a quite a good number of fine officers through risk taking.
It would go a long way to making a military career in Nigeria worthwhile if the issue of personal
development could be taken seriously. There is a need to change the stringent measures attached to
education. The provision in TACOS states that all officers are encouraged to study for higher degrees and
professional qualification in any discipline as may be approved by each Service Headquarters.26 However,
in the Nigerian Army, for instance, the interest of each corps is paramount and courses approved must
reflect that interest. Most courses are not convertible in the Nigerian civil society such as studies relating
to armaments and armatures. Also, there is a need to separate the academic training from the military
training. The combination of the two does not provide officers with sufficient needed knowledge. Both
the Nigeria Defence Academy and Armed Forces Command and Staff College need to strategise for
obvious reasons. This would give officers the leverage to fully interact in a condusive academic
environment, share ideas and conduct meaningful research.
The Nigerian Armed Forces Resettlement Centre (NAFRC) should also be upgraded to
accommodate entrepreneurship courses for officers. Over time, officers have not been attending courses
in NAFRC despite provisions for officer’s courses in the school. The courses are very relevant especially
for officers wishing to engage in business after service.

Conclusion

The relevance of personal development as part of career management of officers in the Nigerian army has
been highlighted in this paper. It has been indicated that the most important tool for career development is
the personal development of the individual. The paper has shown that career development in Nigerian
Army gives preference to training at the professional level. The academic training is found to be
inadequate despite being the most important tool through which skills acquired are put into use in the
service and in a second career. The emphasis in military career has always been on the job and
maintenance of the military system. The lack of commitment to review the condition of service to
improve on personal development, however, does not compensate for the efforts and loyalty put in by
officers. The welfare provisions besides being outdated are also unrealistic. There are however steps to
address the situation such as reviewing the TACOS and other administrative policies so that they will be
more beneficial to both the personnel and the military institution and in line with modern practice.

Notes

1. Traditions, Customs and Ethics of Nigerian Army: Abuja, Nigerian Army Printer, 2005, p. 13.
2. R. Barrett and T. Eneroth, Value-Based Leadership, http://www.valuecentre.com/2006 (accessed December 10,
2014).
3. Ibid.
4. C. Osakwe, “Professionalism in the Nigerian Army”, In O. Tangban and C. Osakwe (eds), Perspectives in
African Historical Studies: Nigeria Defence Academy Press, Kaduna, 2013, pp. 73-76.

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410 Career Management of Officers in the Nigerian Army ...

5. Ibid., p. 78.
6. History of the Nigerian Army: Nigerian Army Education Corps and School Publication, Second Edition, Abuja,
1994, p. 105.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., p. 109.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., p. 153.
11. Ibid.
12. M. Wushishi, “The Nigerian Army: Growth and Development of Combat Readiness”, in T.A. Imobighe (ed),
Nigerian Defence and Security, Spectrum Publishers., Abuja, 1987, p. 78.
13. Ibid., p. 119.
14. O. O Matami & c. Nzewunwah & N. Osarenren (eds),” Origins of the Establishment of NAFRC”: In This is
NAFRC: Moving into the 21st Century, A Publication of Nigerian Armed Forces Resettlement Centre, Oshodi,
2004, p. 12.
15. T. Adeniran, “Nigeria and Great Britain”, In A. B. Akinyemi (ed), Nigerian Independence: The First 25
Years: Vol X, Heinemann, London, 1989, pp 56-59.
16. Order of Battle (ORBAT): Nigerian Army Printer, Lagos, 1990, pp.6-10.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. A. A. MshelBwala, “The Department of Military Secretary and Challenges of managing the Career of
Nigerian Army Officers”, Lecture Delivered to Students of Armed Forces Command and Staff College Senior
Course 26, Jaji, 2004, p. 5.
20. O. O. Buzugbe, “Challenges of managing the Career of Nigerian Army Officers”, Department of Military
Secretary (Army), Abuja, 2012, pp 3-6.
21. M. H. Garba, “Career Planning for Officers in the Nigerian Army”, Lecture Delivered to Students of
Management Course, College of Logistics, Lagos, 2014, p. 27.
22. Harmonized Terms and Conditions of Service (HTACOS): Abuja, Government Printer, 2004, pp. 11-17.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.

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