ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of NATURAL HAZARDS edited by PETER T. BOBROWSKY Simon Fraser University Canada al Springer Reference552 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDR)_ INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDR) Karl-Otto Zentel’, Thomas Glade” ‘Deutsches Komitee Katastrophenvorsorge, Bonn, Germany "University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Terminology Disaster Risk Reduction: The concept and practice of reduc- ing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyze andINTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (DNDR AND ISOR) 553 manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessetted vulnerability of peo- ple and property, wise management of land and the environ- tment, and improved preparedness for adverse events. Early Wamning: The set of capacities needed to generate «and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities, and organizations threat- ened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. ENSO-El Nino Southem Oscillation Phenomenon: A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of changed ocean and weather pattems in many parts of the world, often with significant impacts over many months, such as altered marine habitats, rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and changes in storm pattems. National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction: A generic term for national mechanisms for coordination and policy guidance on disaster risk reduction that are multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary in nature, with public, private, and civil society participation involving all concemed entities within a country (UNISDR, 2009, Terminology of Disaster Risk Reduction) Background During the 1970s and 1980s more than 800 million people wore affected by natural disasters, More than 23 billion USS damage were caused and 3 million people killed (General Assembly A/RES/43/202). The worst disasters were the droughts in sub-Saharan A rica region and floods in Southeast Asia, each of which claimed several hundred thousand vietims. These developments led to an increasing attention to the subject of disaster reduction, The President of the American Society of Science, Frank Press, started an initiative to declare the 1990s ‘a Decade for Disaster Reduction. The aim of this initiative was to integrate already existing scientific knowledge in the field of disas- ter reduction into development decisions and projects. The increasing losses caused by natural disasters led to a number of developments in the humanitarian sector. The tragic events of the 1980s led to the decisions in 1992 at the European Commission to establish the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO) and at the United Nations to improve coordination of the work of the UN Agencies by a central coordinating orga- nization with a humanitarian mandate (today), the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). In its Report “Our Common. Future,” the World Commission.on Environment and Development (so-called Brundtland Commission) made a clear link between the need for implementation of disaster reduction measures and sus- ‘ainable development (Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”) ‘The Commission has sought ways in which global develop- ‘ment ean be put on a sustainable path into the 21” century During the 1970s, twice as many people suffered each year from “natural” disasters as during the 1960s. The disasters most directly associated with environmentdevelopment mismanagement ~ droughts and floods ~ affected the most people and increased most sharply in terms of numbers affected. Some 18.5 million people were alfected by drought annually in the 1960s, 24.4 milion in the 1970s, There were 5.2 million flood vietims yearly in the 1960s, 15.4 million in the 1970s, Numbers of victims of cyclones ancl earthquakes also shot up as growing numbers of poor people built unsafe houses on dangerous grounds ‘The results are not in for the 1980s, But we have seen 35 million affected by drought in Africa alone and tens of millions affected by the beter managed and thus less- publi- cized Indian drought. Floods have poured off the deforested ‘Andes and Himalayas with increasing force. The 1980s seem destined to sweep this die trend on into a crisis-flled 1990s (Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development “Our Common Future”. p 23). ‘The Commission identified the link between the negative effects of natural disasters and poverty: “Such disasters claim most of their victims among the impoverished in poor nations, ...” (Report of the World Commission on Environ- ‘ment and Development “Our Common Future”., p 42). Reasons for the increasing negative effects of natural disasters were seen in unsolved development problems: “All major disaster problems in the Third Worldare essen- tially unsolved development problems. Disaster preven- tion is thus primarily an aspect of development, and this ‘must be a development that takes place within sustainable limits.” (Grann et al., 1985, p 43) The start In its 42nd General Assembly in 1987 the United Nations ~ based on the Report of the World Commission on Environ- ment and Development ~ already made important and guiding decisions to establish an International Decade on natural disaster reduction in the 1990s. It was expected that special attention should be given to less developed coun- tries as those are the most affected by natural disasters, Goals for the Decade were identified and member states were asked to establish national committees in order to sup- port the goals. The main emphasis was given towards the transfer of technology and scientific knowledge in the field of disaster reduction. Resolutions (refer to Box 1). An Ad Hoc Expert Group, chaired by Frank Press, was established to further define the role and structure of the Decade. On April 11, 1989, this expert group provided a joined declaration the “Tokyo Declaration” in which the experts clearly identified the root causes of the increas- ing losses, identified the important role of the international system, and underlined the need for national activities to support the decade. Within the Tokyo Declaration it was stated: ‘Vulnerability to natural disasters is rising due to population ‘growth, urbanization, and the concentration of industry and inftastructure in disaster-prone areas, ‘We believe that the Decade is a moral imperative, It isthe first coordinated effort to prevent the unnecessary loss of life from natural hazards.sa INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDR) ‘The Group calls for all countries to form national committees to plan for and coordinate national efforts (Tokyo Declara- tion, 1988, p.1), In ts letter to the Secretary General dated June 1, 1989, Frank Press gave a strong statement toward the need for action, for integrated approaches combining different constituencies as well as a continuum approach through- out the disaster management cycle, Fatalism is not longer acceptable; it i time to bring the full foree of scientific and technological advancement to re the human tragedy and economic loss from natural disaster. We must take an integrated approach to disaster reduction, bringing new emphasis to pre disaster planning, prepares ness. and prevention, while sustaining our post disaster reliet capabilities. Our humanitarian efforts must be broadened to ‘encompass disaster- resistant instrument as well as timely warnings in which people at risk receive, understand and act upon the information conveyed (ref. June 1. 1989 p ii) Atthe 44th session the General Assembly of the United Nations the members proclaimed IDNDR. paral“Proclaims the International Decade for Natural Disas- ter Reduction, beginning on I January 1990"; (GA 44/236, 85th Plenary meeting; 22 December 1989) The goals defined in the Resolution of 1987 were kept as objectives for the Decade. The member states agreed: ‘The objective ofthe Intemational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction is to reduce through concerted intemational action, especially in developing countries, the loss of life, property nage and social and economic disruptions caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, voleanic eruptions, wildfires,” grasshopper and locust infestations, drought and desertification and other calamities of natural origin (ref. GA/RES/44/236 Annex A). Member states were asked to establish National ‘Committees and inform the Secretary General about their initiatives. IDNDR became through this request one of the very few United Nations organizations/structures linked to corresponding national structures. UNESCO and WMO are ‘examples of similar protocols. A special high-level council should be established to provide advice to the Secretary Gen- ‘ral, A Scientific and Technical Committee (STC) to develop ‘overall programs, identify gaps in technical knowledge, and to assess and evaluate activities carried out was foreseen. ‘A secretariat was established — attached to the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator - to manage and coor- dinate the day-to-day work. The United Nations Develop- ment Programme (UNDP) became the focal point to oversee the programs. The resident coordinators were asked to integrate the goals of the Decade into their work. The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Education and Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) became major contributors to the Decade. In order to fund the secretariat and programs, member states were asked for voluntary contributions to a trust fund. Already in this declaration a review of the Decade was foreseen for 1994, Based on the broadly defined goals, the STC identified a number of specific areas of activities which would mark progress to be achieved at the end of the Decade period (ef, Plate/Merz Naturkatastrophen p. 33). Herein it was ctai- ‘med that by the year 2000, all countries should have in place: 1. Comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these assessments taken into account in development plans 2, Mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, involv- ing long-term prevention and preparedness and com- munity awareness 3. Ready access to global, regional, national, and local ‘warming systems and broad dissemination of wamings Box 1 “The General Assembly . Recognizing the responsibility of the United Nations system for promoting intemational coopera- tion in the study of natural disasters of geophysical ori- gin and in the development of techniques to mitigate risks arising there from, as well as for co-ordinating disaster relief, preparedness and prevention, including prediction and early warning. para 3. Decides to designate the 1990s as a decade in which the intemational community, under the auspices of the Unites Nations, will pay special attention to fos- tering intemational co-operation in the field of natural disaster reduction. para 4. Goals (a) To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention to assisting developing countries in the establishment, when needed, of carly warming systems; (b) To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing knowledge, taking into account the cultural and economic diversity among nations; (©) To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property; (@) To disseminate existing and new information related to measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and mitigation of natural disasters (©) To develop measures for the assessment, predic tion, prevention and mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and | education and training, tailored to specific hazards | and locations, and to evaluate the effeetiveness of | those programmes; para 7. Calls upon all governments to participate during the decade in concerted intemational action for the reduction of natural disasters and, appropriate, to estab- lish national committees, in co-operation with the rele- vant scientific and technological communities with a view to surveying available mechanisms and facili- ties for the reduction of natural hazards, ...” (42/169, 1987 96th plenary meeting, 11, December 1987)INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IONOR AND ISR) 555 The midterm review “World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, Japan, 23-27 May 1994” In the beginning years of the Decade, the efforts made were very scientifically oriented, giving special emphasis, on technical possibilities in the sectors of prevention and mitigation. The Yokohama conference 2004 clearly recog- nized the still existing gaps between the vision — as formu- lated at the beginning of the Decade — and reality. This, reality was that the goals and targets were far from being achieved as one would have expected after half of the Decade had passed by: Many of the delegates of the 147 nations represented at the conference commented that 95% of the Decade's work needs to be done in its second half. In the “Assessment of the status of disaster reduction midway into the Decade/ Yokohama Strategy” it was con- cluded that “Awareness of the potential benefits of disaster reduction is still limited to specialized circles and has not been successfully communicated t0 all sectors of society, in particular policy makers and the general public™ (Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action, 1994, p 7). The conference came to the conclusion that the intended impact of the technical solutions could only achieve the given goals if they were integrated in_an appropriate socioeconomic and political framework. This can be evaluated as a major turnover for problem-oriented thinking and management, Suddenly, the involved parties realized that structural measurements indeed help to address the problems; however, they were far from solving the issues, The conference unanimously accepted the declaration ofthe “Yokohama Strategy.” The 18-page document gives clear outlines and a plan of action although no specific disaster or action is mentioned in detail. The targets of IDNDR were broadened in the “Yokohama Strategy” to integrate cultural, socioeconomic, and political aspects into disaster reduction programs of the Decade, End of the IDNDR decade ‘The international community was increasingly aware that natural disasters are a major threat to social and economic stability and that disaster prevention is the main long-term solution to this threat. The largest challenge of the Decade laid, therefore, in the creation of a global culture of pre- vention as the Secretary General Kofi Annan stressed: “We must, above all, shift from a culture of reaction to « culture of prevention. Prevention is not only more Jnuman eure; itis also much cheaper ... Above all, let us not forget that disaster prevention is a moral imperative, no less than reducing risks of war.” (International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, Programme Forum, 1999, Proceedings p 13) The IDNDR Secretariat in the United Nations organized the “IDNDR International Programme Forum ~ Towards Partnerships for Disaster Reduction in the 21" Century” as the closing event of the Decade. ‘The Geneva Programme Forum ended with the “Geneva Mandate”, a joint statement of the participants of the Forum. Furthermore, the strategy “A Safer World in the 21" Century: Disaster and Risk Reduction” was developed. In this strategy the following goals were formulated: (a) To increase public awareness of the risks that natural, technological, and environmental hazards. pose to modem societies. (b) To obtain commitment by public authorities to reduce risks to people, their livelihoods, social and economi¢ infrastructure, and environmental resources. (©) To engage public participation at all levels of imple- ‘mentation so as to create disaster-resistant communi ties through increased partnerships and expanded tisk reduction networks at all levels (@) Toreduce economic and social losses caused by disas ters as measured, for example, by gross domestic product. (A Safer World in the 21* Century: Disaster and Risk Reduction, _hitp://www.unisdrorgleng! about_isdr/bd-safer-world-eng.htm) These goals were the basis for the successor arrange- ‘ment “Intemational Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDRY". During the Decade tragically the number of major nat- ural disasters rose by nearly a third, compared to the 1980s, more than two and a half times ax many people died, and economic damage tripled, according to statistics provided by Munich Reinsurance Company. Some suggested that this showed the failure of the IDNDR Decade. However, it has to be emphasized that first of all any action taken on the political level needs time to be implemented and therefore, visible also in decreasing con- sequences. Additionally one could also argue: If the IDNDR had not been in place, the losses would have been even greater. In any case, these developments made it evi- dent how necessary further efforts in the area of disaster reduction were and how important it was that the findings from the Decade become implemented. The need for continuation was obvious. However the discussion about if and how to organize a follow-up to the IDNDR was very much dominated by diverting interests of agen- cies and member states on structural and administrative aspects. The Decade contributed very much to an increased understanding for the need of disaster reduction in order to achieve sustainable development. One of the major achievements of the Decade was the clear recognition that hazards are only one factor which may cause disasters and that human activities are at least equally important. Thus, the humanity is not the victim of environmental condi- tions, itis also responsible and even partly the driver of this adverse development. However, the focus of the Decade on natural disasters was based on several reasons: (a) Larger losses and more negative effects by natural disasters in developing countries (b) The traditional point of view by developed countries with regard to vulnerabilities, different levels of556 development, coping capacities, and the need for a transfer of technology (© Avoiding diverting discussions about real causes of susceptibility to disasters (@) Developing a program which could be acceptable to the majority of member states From the political point of view, the shift of real causes from poverty and underdevelopment to natural hazards proved to be successful in order to reach an agreement for the IDNDR. Continuation and the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) The negative trends in disasters throughout the 1990s clearly underlined the need to continue with international coordinated efforts to reduce the impacts of natural disas- ters, The Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, proposed to the member states to continue the iccessful work of IDNDR in form of an International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The objectives and goals are based on the outcomes of the Geneva Forum of IDNDR. They show a shift from protection to the manage- ‘ment of disasters. Emphasis is placed on the resilience of societies. para 6 The main objectives of the Strategy are: (a) to enable communities to become resilient to the effects of natural, technological and environmental hazards .... (b) to proceed from protection against hazards fo the management of risk, by integrating risk prevention strategies into sustainable development activities, (Intemational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction: successor arrangements (Report of the SG) A/54/497, 1 November 1999) The strategy is based on four main goals derived from the above objectives taken from the Geneva Mandate, In its resolution 1999/63, the Economic and Social Council requested the Secretary-General to: (@ Establish, as at January 2000, an inter-agency task force, with representation from all relevant United Nations bodies and members of the scientific and technical communtiy including regional representation, to serve asthe main forum within the United Nations for continued and concerted emphasis on natural disastér reduction, in particular for defining strategies for international cooperation at all levels in this field, while ensuring complementarity: of action with other agencies; (b) Maintain the existing inter-agency secretariat function for natural disaster reduction as «@ distinct focal point for the coordination of the work of the task force, to place the inter-agency task force and inter-agency secretariat under the direct authority of the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs. and to finance it from extrabulgetary resources through a specific trust fd. (International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction: successor arrangement, A/S4/497) ALthe same time member states were asked to maintain their IDNDR Committees in the form of National Platforms for disaster reduction, This change from Com- ‘ittees to Platforms was based on the recognition of disas- ter reduction being a cross-cutting issue which needs to involve many stakeholders. The term “Platform” was seen _ INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDA) as being the appropriate one to express the model of a place where all stakeholders — despite their background ~ could meet at the same level. The General Assembly agreed to this proposal and by Resolution A/RES/54/219 the Intemational Strategy for Disaster Reduction became established. By accepting the by ECOSOC proposed structure the secretariat kept its status equal to OCHA. The structure ‘was chosen in order to ensure the universal, interdise ary, and intersectoral nature of the secretariat instead of integrating disaster reduction into the structures of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) or the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, However, with the structures of an Inter-Agency- Secretariat and an Inter-Agency Task Force the contact to structures outside the United Nations like the scientific community and member states was weakened. World Summit on Sustainable Development, South Africa, 2002 The first important World Conference following the estab- lishment of ISDR was the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, 2002, which pro- vided the floor for the follow-up to the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992. In the out- ‘comes of the WSSD member states of the United Nations recognized disaster reduction as a prerequisite to achieve sustainable development. In Chapter IV member states agreed on: “An integrated, multi-hazard, inclusive approach to address vulnerability, tisk assessment and disaster management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, is an essential element of a safer world in the twenty-first Century. Actions are required at al levels to: (@) Suengthen the role of the Intemational Strategy for Disaster Reduction and encourage the ternational come unity to provide the necessary financial esoures os ‘Trust Fun (b) Support the establishment of effective repional, sb regional and atonal strategies and scientlic and ist tinal suppor for disaster management: (H Encourage the dissemination and use of traditional and indigenous knowledge t© mitigate the impact of disasters and. promote community-based. disaster management planning by local authorities, including through taining activities and raising public awareness; (Report of the Worid Summit on Sustainable Development, Annex, Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. (Document A/CONF.199/20). Chapter IV Protecting and managing the natural resource base of ‘economic and social development, No. 37, pp. 27-28.) ‘These references were clear improvements with regard to the recognition of disaster reduction compared to the Outcomes of United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro 1992. The Outcomes of the WSSD led to a number of resolu- tions on ISDR with the title “Natural Disasters andINTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDA) 357 Vulnerability.” The first of thiSresplutions A/RES/S8/215 (2003) referred to the Johamesburg Declaration on Sus- tainable Development-and: surges the international contianity‘ to continue to address ‘ways and means, including through cooperation and techni cal assistance, to reduce the adverse effects of natural disas= ters, including those caused by extreme weather events, in paricular in vulnerable developing countries, through the implementation of the Intemational Strategy’ for Disaster Reduction, and encourages the Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction to continue its work in this regard; (WRES/S8/215 para2) ‘A link to climate negotiations was made the first time and kept in the following resolutions until today: encourages the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to continue £0 address the adverse effects of climate change, especially in those developing countries that are particularly vulnerable, in accordance with the provisions ofthe Convention, and also encourages the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to continue (0 assess the adverse effects of climate change on the socio-economic and natural disaster reduction systems of developing countries; (A/RES/S8/215 para’6) Since A/RES/60/196 (2005) a reference to the WCDR and the Hyogo Framework for Action was included into the Resolution as well as to the role of National ISDR Platforms. Reaffirming also the Hyogo Declaration and the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience ‘of Nations and Communities to Disasters, as adopted by the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held at Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, from 18 to 22 January 2005, (A/RES/60/196) Encourages Governments, through their respective Intema- tional Strategy for Disaster Reduction national platforms and national focal points for disaster risk reduction, in coop eration with the United Nations system and other stake- holders, to strengthen capacity-building in the most vulnerable regions, to enable them to address the socio- ‘economic factors that increase vulnerability, and to develop ‘measures that will enable them to prepare for and cope with natural disasters including those associated with earthquakes and extreme weather events, and encourages the intemational community to provide effective assistance to developing ‘countries in this regard; (A/RES/60/196 paraS) ‘These references were kept (WSSD, WCDR, National Platforms and the Climate negotiations) in A/RES/61/ 200 (2006) and in the Resolution of 2008 A/RES/63/217. World Conference on Disaster Redu Kobe 2005 However, despite these resolutions, the review of the Yokohama Strategy for Action (2004) undertaken in the preparation to the World Conference for Disaster Reduction (WCDR) in January 2005 provided quite disil- lusioning findings: In its report to the General Assembly the Sectetary- General pointed out: in (WCDR), Para 14. Since the Yokohama Strategy was adopted, there have been about 7,100 disasters resulting from natural haz- ards around the world. They have killed more than 300,000 people, and caused more than USS 800 billion in losses. The UN Under-Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs has indicated “that on average, with well over 200 million people affected every year by ‘natural’ disasters since 1991, this is seven times more than the average of 30 million people affected annually by conflict.” Para 22, While only 11% of people exposed to natural haz ards live in low human development countries, they account for more than 53% of total recorded deaths. - The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 Para 79, Particular significance has been given to the sociol- ogy of disasters and other human dimensions that highlight the relevance of vulnerability in conditioning people’s expo sure to risk, (Draft Review of Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World A/CONF.206/PC(I1/3 8 September 2004) In the General Assembly Resolution A/RES/58/214, the United Nations decided to convene a World Confer ence on Disaster Reduction in 2005 (para7), The WCDR was the second World Conference on Disaster Reduction following Yokohama. Taking place in January 2005, still under the full impressions of the Indian Ocean Tsunami from December 26, 2004, the con- ference got the full attention of politicians and interna- tional media; 168 member states and more than 4,000 participants were present in Kobe. The member states vol- untarily agreed on the Hyogo Framework for Action which provided the workplan for the period 2005-201 The Document is structured around three strategic goals and five Priorities for Action which are summarized in Box 2. The Hyogo Framework for Action provided the workplan for the ISDR systems for the period 2005 2015. The clear structure of the documents and the assign- ments of tasks in the implementation of the Framework made it necessary to analyze the existing structures and identify arrears where they could be improved. The need for a better interlinkage with the scientific community and a closer involvement of member states into the ISDR structures were identified. In order to address these topics it was decided to establish a Scientific Committee. Addi- tionally the General Assembly agreed that every 2 years a Global Platform would be organized as a Forum for ‘member states, UN agencies, scientific community, and civil society to meet Inorder to move froma focus on hazards and losses and to address the dynamic nature of risk UNISDR started biannual publication “Global Assessment Report” (GAR) which was presented for the first time at the Global Platform 2009, This publication addresses the changing nature of risk. It builds on studies undertaken among others by UNDP and the World Bank While @ number of advancements were reported in the 2009 GAR, major obstacles to improve disaster risk reduction were identified in the underlying root causes.558 Poverty, lack of integration of disaster risk reduction into development planning, and weak govemance structures were recognized as the main barriers. At the same time it became evident that it needs additional efforts to integrate disaster risk reduction firmly into the intemational debate ‘on the negative effects of Climate Change. The decision of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to prepare a special report on “Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation” and its findings presented in Novem ber 2011 is a milestone in this direction. The Global Platform 2009 meeting and the launch of the GAR were the major ISDR events in 2009. While they stimulated the discussions and contributed to a further integration of disaster risk reduction in the development agenda, a number of gaps were identified. The issue of disaster statistics is not sufficiently addressed. Until today the disaster reduction community felles on three main sources, the sigma database from SwissRE, the NATCAT Service of Munich Reinsurance, and EMDAT, the data- base of the Center for the Research and Epidemiology of Disasters. The same is true for the important topic of cost-benefits of disaster reduction, A study of the World Bank addressing this issue “Natural Hazards, UnNatural Disasters ~ The Economies of Effective Prevention” was published in 2010, Box 2 Strategic goals 12. To attain this expected outcome, the Conference resolves to adopt the following strategic goals (a) The more effective integration of disaster risk con- siderations into sustainable development policies, planning, and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitiga- tion, preparedness, and vulnerability reduction (b) The development and strengthening of institutions, ‘mechanisms, and capacities at all levels, in particu- lar at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards (©) The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response, and recovery programs in the reconstruction of affected communities Priorities for action 14, Drawing on the conclusions of the review of the Yokohama Strategy, and on the basis of deliberations at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction and especially the agreed expected outcome and strategic goals, the Conference has adopted the following five Driorities for action: INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FORDISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR AND ISDR) Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and 4 local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation. Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warming. Use knowledge, innovation, and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels. Reduce the underlying risk factors. . Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at_all levels (Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005). The midterm review of the Hyogo Framework for Action In order to investigate the effectiveness of the Hyogo Framework for Action, a midterm review was carried ‘out. It was stated that “We are still far from having empowered individuals to adopt a disaster risk reduction approach in their daly lives and demand that development, environmental and huma tarian policies and practices be based on sound risk reduction measures” (HFA MTR, Foreword the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action, p 9) In the document of the Hyogo Framework for Action it was declared that its implementation “will be appropri- ately reviewed” (HFA, IV Implementation and follow- up, A. General Considerations, para 29, p 14). The terms of reference of a Midterm Review were discussed in three Plenary sessions of the Global Platform 2009. It was decided to carry out the Midterm Review based on the following five analytical tools: 1. A Literature Review 2, Outcomes of structured workshops held at regional and national level 3. Selected in-depth studies 4, One-on-one interviews with key policy makers 5. Online debates To provide advice on the MTR an Advisory Group of senior experts in disaster risk reduction, donor representa- tives, evaluation experts, and civil society were established. One of the challenges identified in the review process was: “Measuring progress against the expected ‘outcome of reducing the loss of lives and assets due o disasters is difficult in the absence ofa commonly agreed baseline at the time of the HFA adoption and of regular, standardized data collection by governments on disaster losses.” (HFA Midterm Review, 2.1 Challenges, p 18) ‘While the Midterm Review noted that: “.. significant progress has been made over the past five years in disaster risk reduction and that the adoption of the HFA 2005 has played a determinant role in pushing this process acrossINTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IONOR AND SbF 559 intemational, regional and national agendas ...” it also was concluded“... that these connections, strongly driven by the disaster risk reduction community, have not been fully internalized in the ways in which international development assistance agencies, some government insti- tutions, and the United Nations are institutionally and financially organized to manage disaster risk reduction.” (HFA MTR, Suggestions for accelerating implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action, p 55) Based on these findings an institutional reassessment is suggested: “...where disaster risk reduction is placed within the intemational national and regional agencies to ensure that critical functions such as mainstreaming for sustainable development, strategic advice, monitoring of implementation, and reporting on impacts can effectively, influence development policies and plans.” (HFA MTR, Suggestions for accelerating implementation of the Hyogo. Framework for Action, p 56) The conclusion and recommendations address the key point of @ further implementation of disaster risk reduction. In order to be able to measure progress they ask for targets to be set, *. standards to ensure quality, in the delivery...” and “Intemational, national and local level accountability mechanisms should be encouraged and developed to help measure action taken and progress, achieved. ..” (HFA MTR, Conclusions and recommenda tions for the way forward, p 70) In order to strengthen the ISDR system the improve- ment of government for disaster risk reduction at intema- tional and national level and an assessment of the eflectiveness of National Platforms is proposed. The MTR of the HFA started the debate about the expected outcomes of the HEA by 2015 and actions to be taken. At the same time it already launched the debate about a Post 2015 Disaster Risk Reduction Framework, Special thematic foci throughout IDNDR and ISDR Starting with the IDNDR two selected core topics were put prominently on the agenda of disaster reduction. The fol- lowing points will introduce how Early Waring and the EI Nino phenomenon have been addressed Early Warning was seen as one of the most effective instruments to save lives and reduce losses caused by disasters. Thus, the development and implementation of local, regional, and global early waming centers was for- mulated as one of the goals of IDNDR by the Scientific and Technical Committee. Atthe World Conference 2004 in Yokohama, a specific technical commitiee session was devoted to this subject. ‘Subsequently, at its forty-ninth session, the General Assem- biy called for improvements and better coordination within the United Nations system with regard to natural disasters and similar disasters with an adverse effect on the environ- ment. The General Assembly, in. its resolution 49/22 B, placed this initiative distinctly within the concerted efforts of implementing the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action, and thus within the framework of IDNDR (A/S4/132 E/199980, para 22), In order to address this complex issue scientifically and to get a State of the Art on Early Warning, the First Intemational Conference on Early Warning EWCI was ‘organized in 1998 in Potsdam, Germany. In its final decla- ration participants emphasized: “The Potsdam Early Waring Conference has idemified major strenaths and weaknesses in early warning capacities around the World, Participants repeatedly emphasized the multidis- ciplinary and multi-sectoral character of the early warning process. Although based on scientific and technology, early ‘wating must be tailored to serve people's needs, their envi- ronments, and their resources. Successful early warning reqqites Unrestricted aecess to data that is freely available for exchange. Ultimately, all resulting information must be credible, and emanate fom a single offically designated authority (Final Declaration EWC 1, http:/www. ‘Eeomuseum.com/ewe98)), The conclusions of the conference highlighted the importance of Early Warning in the framework of disaster reduction, put special emphasis on the multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary character of Early Warning, and the need to support the implementation of early waming systems on the local level 1. Barly warming represents a comerstone of disaster reduction. It should, therefore, become a key element of future disaster reduction strategies for the twenty- first Century that are to be formalized in the conclusion of the IDNDR. 2. Effective early waming depends upon a multi-sectoral and intetdisciplinary collaboration among all concerned actors, as demonstrated during the Potsdam, Early Waming Conference. 3. While early waming capabilities must continue to be strengthened at the global level, it is important that greater emphasis be given to developing capacities that are relevant, and responsive to, the needs of local communities (Conclusion EWC 1). The Final report of the Scientific and Technical Com- mittee of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (A/S4/132/Add.1-E/1999/80/Add.1) shared these opinions (para 37-38). Following the end of IDNDR and the establishment of ISDR and 5 years after EWCI, the Second International Conference on Early Waming (EWCTI) took place in 2003 in Bonn, Germany. The subtitle of EWCH “Integrat- ing Early Waming into Public Policy” expressed the concept of EWCIL. It was based on the recognition of increasing scientific knowledge on early warning, but gap on the side of integration into public policy. Thus. the conference aimed to establish links between science and policy. The conference statement emphasized this ‘goal and asked for the establishment of an early warning platform to sustain the dialogue. Calls for the integration of carly waming systems into ‘goverment policies and requests the organizers to dissemi- hate widely to authorities at all levels the relevant guidelines recommended by the Conference, governments and relevant560 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION (IONDR AND ISDA) ‘organizations including the private sector 0 support the implementation of tie early waming programme as recommended by the Conference and to integrate the programme into disaster reduction strategies at all levels, the early waming programme to focus on: (i) integration of early warning into relevant development policies and programmes; (i) improvement of data collection, facilitating access to relevant data and forecasting; (iii) enhancement of capacities; (iv) people centered waming systems in particular ensuring gender balance and a; (v) platform to sustain the early warning dialogue. “Conference Statement EWCII” The intemational community followed this suggestion and in early 2004 an Early Waring Platform (later on renamed to: Platform for the Promotion of Early Waming “PPEW”) was established. As one of the first tasks, PPEW developed the Intemational Early Waming Programme (EWP), which was launched at the WCDR 2005 in Kobs ‘The program is a vehicle by which partner organiza- tions cooperate and develop shared and systematic approaches to advancing early waming systems world- wide. IEWP aims to: # Develop international dialogue and a common frame- work for action, and promote early warning in policy debates and as @ development priori + Collate and disseminate good practices and other infor- mation on early warming systems «Define and support capacity building projects in prior- ity areas of need, involving humanitarian and develop- ‘ment communi + Develop improved tools and techniques, including guide- lines and performance standards for early warning sys- tems, and formulate priorities for further research and development (Intemational Early Waming Programme) ‘Almost at the same time, following the Indian Ocean Tsunami, December 2004, the Secretary General asked the ISDR secretariat to carry out a Global Survey of Early ‘Waring Systems. In his March 2005 report to the Summit on the Imple- mentation of the Millennium Declaration Jn larger free- dom: towards development, security and human rights for all, he requested that a global survey of capacities and gaps for early waming systems be undertaken: ‘The countries of the Indian Ocean region, withthe help of the United Nations and others, are now taking steps to establish 4 regional tsunami carly waming system. Let us not forget, however, the other hazards that people in all regions of the world are exposed to, including storms, floods, droughts, landslides, heat waves and volcanic eruptions. To comple- ment broader disaster preparedness and mitigation initiatives, recommend the establishment of a worldwide early warning system for all natural hazards, building on existing national and regional capacity. To assist in its establishment, I shall be requesting the International Strategy for Disaster Redue- tion secretanat to coordinate a survey of existing capacities and gaps, in cooperation with all United Nations system enti- ties concemed, and | look forward to receiving its findings ‘and recommendations (In larger freedom: towards develop- ‘ment, security and human rights for all Report of the Secre- tary-General (4/59/2005), The Survey coincided with the preparation to a Third Intemational Conference on Early Warming (EWCIII) 2006 in Bonn, Germany, an initiative which was also fueled by the tragic event of the 2004 Tsunami. The subti- tle “From knowledge to action” underlined the intention to ‘move to the implementation of early warning systems. The basic aims of the conference were: + To identify unused potentials in all areas of early warning - «To identify and launch specific early warming projects of high priority and illustrate the bridging of gaps ¢ To stimulate discussion and action toward concrete follow-up projects + To discuss proposals for global integration of early warning systems whenever feasible and useful The outcomes, a project portfolio of 100 peer-reviewed early warning projects and guidelines for the implementa- tion of early warning systems, were very practically ori- ented in order to support these aims. The Global Early Waming Systems Survey was presented at EWCIIL. The survey report recommends the development of a globally comprehensive early warning system, rooted in existing early waming systems and capacities. It also recommends a set of specific actions toward building national people-centered early warning systems, filling in the main gaps in global early warning capacities, strengthening the scientific and data founda- tions for early warning, and developing the institutional foundations for a global early warning system, (Global Early Warning Systems Survey, Summary) The Survey reached the following overall conclusion: Nevertheless, there are significant inadequacies in existing carly waming systems, as illustrated by the experience of the Indian Ocean tsunami in late 2004, Flurricane Katrina in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005 and other recent events such as heat waves, droughts, famine, wildfires, tsunami, floods and landslides. Early warning systems especially in develop- ing countries lack basic equipment, skills and. financial resources and are for certain hazards even nonexistent ‘A major challenge is to integrate the knowledge and insight of relevant social and economic communities into the pre- dominantly technically based existing systems, 13. One of the survey's key findings is that the weakest ele~ ments in early waming systems are the dissemination of warnings and the preparedness to respond. This is true for developing and developed nations alike, Warnings may fail to reach all those who need to take action, including local authorities, community-based organizations and the public at large, and often the wamings are not properly understood or may not be taken seriously. A good understanding by the public and by community organizations oftheir real vulnera~ bilities and the risk posed by an event is often lacking. Root causes of such failures appear to be inadequate political com ‘mitment, weak coordination among an often-diverse group of actors, and insufficient public awareness and participation in the development and operation of early waming systems. (Global Early Waring Systems Survey, Summary) Following these major initiatives the work on early waming obtained momentum in a sense that major playersINTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION ((DNDR AND ISDR) 561 of the UN family like the World Meteorological Organiza- tion (WMO) became more active. The PPEW became the focal point for the Indian Ocean Tsunami Consortium in orderto coordinate the implementation of a Tsunami Early Warning system in the Indian Ocean together with intemna- tional key players. Even national funding bodies incorpo- rated these developments into their funded thematic themes, For example, the BMBF (German Federal Mini tty of Education and Research) launched a key research program on “Early Waming Systems in Earth Manage- ‘ment” within their research program “Geotechnologies.” ‘At the fifty-second session in. 1998 with Resolution A/RES/52/200 (2 March, 1998) the first time a special resolution on: “International cooperation to reduce the impact of the EY Niio phenomenon” was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations. The resolution ‘made reference to a number of Resolutions on IDNDR, cstablished a clear link to the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World, and requested the Secretary General to develop a strategy within the IDNDR to integrate the EI Nino into the Intemational Framework of Action for the Decade, Recalling its resolutions 44/236 of 22 December 1989, 48/188 of 21 December 1993, 49/22 A of 2 December 1994, 49,22 B of 20 December 1994, 50/117 A and B of 20 December 1995 (A/RES/52/200) 2. Calls upon States, relevant intergovernmental bodies and ail others involved in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction to participate actively in the financial and technical support for Decade activities, including those related to international cooperation to reduce the impact of the EI Nifio phenomenon, in order to ensure the implementa- tion of the International Framework of Action for the Decade, in particular with a view to translating the Yokohama Strat- egy fora Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Pre- vention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action into conerete disaster reduction programmes and activities; (A/RES/52/200 para2) 4. Requests the Secretary-General to facilitate, within the framework of the Decade, an intemationally concerted and comprehensive strategy towards the integration of the pre- vention, mitigation and rehabilitation of the damage caused by the El Niso phenomenon, including the development of long-term strategies which take into due consideration the need for technical cooperation, financial assistance, the rans- fer of appropriate technology and the dissemination of existing Scientific knowledge, as part of the Decade's activi- ties, the Intemational Framework of Action for the Decade and the Yokohama Strategy for 2 Safer World: Guidelines, for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action, and taking into account the relevant parts ofthe Programme of Action for the Sustainable Devel- ‘opment of Small Island Developing States (A/RES/S2/200 para 4) In the follow-up to this resolution the govemment of Ecuador established together with WMO and ISDR the Intemational Center for the study of the El Nifio phenom- enon at Guyaquil. A development which was weleomed by the Resolution on El Nifto in 2005. Welcomes the efforts of the Government of Ecuador, the World Meteorological Organization and the inter-agency secretariat for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduc- tion which led to the establishment of the Intemational Cen~ tre for the Study of the El Nifio Phenomenon at Guayaquil, Ecuador, and to its opening in February 2003, and encour ages those parties to continue their efforts for'the advance- rent ofthe Centre; (A/RES/59/232) This positive comment was accompanied by a request to governments and intemational organizations to support the work of the center. Calls upon States, relevant intergovernmental bodies and all others involved inthe International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction to participate actively in the financial and technical support for Decade activities, including those related to international cooperation to reduce the impact ofthe El Nino phenomenon, in onder to ensure the implementation ofthe Intemational Framework of Action for the Decade, in particular witha view to translating the Yoko- hhama Strategy’ for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and) Mitigation and its Plan of Action into concrete disaster eduction programmes and activities; (A/RES/59/232) In the latest resolution on the “International cooperation to reduce the impact of the El Nifio phenomenon” of 2007 (A/RES/61/199) the support provided to the, center was positively welcomed together witha strong plea to main- tain the center. Welcomes the activities underaken|so fir to strengthen the Intemational Centre for ihe Study of the El Nilo Phenome- non, through collaboratin wish intertional monitoring centres, including the national ocganovraphie institutions, and efforts to enhance regional and international recognition and support for the Centre and to develop tools for dec ‘makers and Govemment authorities to reduce the impact of the El Niflo phenomenon; (A/RESI61/199) Underscores the importance of maintaining the El Nino’ Southem Oscillation observation system, continuing research into extreme weather events, improving forecasting skills and developing appropriate policies for reducing the impact of the El Nino phenomenon and other extreme ‘weather events, and emphasizes the need to further develop tnd strengthen these institutional capacities in all counties, in particular in developing countries, (/RES/61/199 para 7) ‘The Intemational Center forthe Study ofthe ELNifio Phe- nomenon is still operational and continues to work today. Conclusion ‘The international community undertook an important move when it agreed to address the issue of increasing losses caused by hazards through development and imple- mentation of disaster reduction strategies. The initiative was bome out of the sustainable development discussion, The focus on technical solutions was enlarged in the mid- 1990s and sociocultural aspects were integrated and con- sidered equally important. Consequently the conceptual discussion moved from preparedness and response to long-term aspects. Until today, however, disaster tisk reduetion is very much rooted in the humanitarian com- munity. It is only there where solid commitments with regard to a percentage of funding earmarked for disaster562 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR DISASTER REDUCTION IIONDR AND ISDA) risk reduction activities are made. The integration of disas~ ter risk reduction into development policies still needs to be improved. A reason for this situation might be the deci- sion of the United Nations to place IDNDR and later on ISDR under the umbrella of the Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs. ‘The structure which links UN level to the national level through National Platforms provides number of opportuni- ties for the integration of disaster risk reduction in ‘a concerted way through different levels. However, it has to be stated that the available synergies and added values of this structure have not been utilized to the extent possible. The current debate about negative effects caused by climate change and the recognition of adaptation as equally important to mitigation became a new driving force. Although links have been made in a number of Res- lutions on “Natural Disasters and Vulnerability” by the General Assembly following the WSSD in 2002, disaster risk reduction as being one important part of adaptation to climate change needs to be further promoted in order to ensure the necessary integration. The IPCC Special Report is an important step in this direction, ‘Since the beginning of the debate major improvements have been made. However a number of important issues still need to be addressed, + The conceptual evolution to capture the development of risk and its dynamics illustrates an important improve- ment made. However, following disasters still need to be assessed in detail and comprehensive vulnerability assessments are required in order to be able to build back better. ‘+ The existing data basis needs to be improved in order to ‘base the analysis of risk and its development on a sound foundation, Statistical agencies should be encouraged to collect systematically risk relevant data « Decision makers need to be convinced to invest money into risk reduction scientific information on_cost- benefit of risk reduction. This would allow to imple- ment an extremely usefull ool, The study undertaken by the World Bank may become a reference point for this discussion. «The GAR identified the underlying root causes as major problems for the reduction of risk. In order to overcome this burden it is needed to establish firm links between the different stakeholders (politicians, decision makers, scientists, civil society actors, disaster managers, and private sector) and establish cross-border and interna- tional cooperation, «The debate about a Post 2015 agreement on disaster risk reduction needs to take place in the context of the Millennium Development goals and the sustainable development agenda in order to ensure that DRR remains visible in the international agenda, Abbreviations ECOSOC-Economic and Social Council EWC- Intemational Conference on Early Warning GAR~Global Assessment Report IDNDR-Intemational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (Decade of the United Nations 1990-1999) IEWP- International Early Waring Programme IPCC-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISDR—International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (successor arrangement for IDNDR starting from 2000) PPEW_-Platform for the Promotion of Early Waming STC-Scientific and Technical Committee within the IDNDR UNCED-United Nations Conference on Environment and Development WCDR-World Conference on Disaster Reduction WSSD-World Summit for Sustainable Development Bibliography ‘Addressing the Challenge (German Committee for Disaster Reduc tion), 2009. 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