Module 2 – 35

Ecosystems
Lesson 2 Ecosystem Structure

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to, on your own:
1. describe the structure and function of an ecosystem

Explore
Observe your surroundings. List at least 10 things that you see and
classify them whether living thing or non-living thing.

Things that you see around Classified as…

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Explain

What is an Ecosystem?
The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the
living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In
other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their
environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English
botanist, in 1935.

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935).
Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and functions. The
structure is related to species diversity. The more complex is the structure the
greater is the diversity of the species in the ecosystem. The functions of
ecosystem are related to the flow of energy and cycling of materials through
structural components of the ecosystem.

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According to Woodbury (1954), ecosystem is a complex in which habitat,
plants and animals are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and
energy of one passing in and out of the others.

According to E.P. Odum, the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of

organisms and their environment interacting with each other and with their own
components. An ecosystem may be conceived and studied in the habitats of
various sizes, e.g., one square metre of grassland, a pool, a large lake, a large
tract of forest, balanced aquarium, a certain area of river and ocean.

All the ecosystems of the earth are connected to one another, e.g., river
ecosystem is connected with the ecosystem of ocean, and a small ecosystem of
dead logs is a part of large ecosystem of a forest. A complete self-sufficient
ecosystem is rarely found in nature but situations approaching self-sufficiency
may occur.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an
ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem: Terrestrial
Ecosystem and Aquatic Ecosystem.

1. Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are

different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:
 Forest Ecosystems
 Grassland Ecosystems
 Tundra Ecosystems
 Desert Ecosystem
 Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants,

animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon
sink.

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In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is

dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the
examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and

are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of
the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain
tops is tundra type.

Deserts are found throughout the world. These

are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and
the nights are cold.

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be

further divided into two types, namely Freshwater Ecosystem and Marine
Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,

rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater
ecosystem.

Structure of Ecosystem:
The structure of an ecosystem is
basically a description of the
organisms and physical features of
environment including the amount and
distribution of nutrients in a particular
habitat. It also provides information
regarding the range of climatic
conditions prevailing in the area.

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From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following
basic components: Abiotic components and Biotic components.

1. Abiotic Components
Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment.
Abiotic component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and
compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a
variety of organic compounds.
It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind
currents and solar radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy
source for any ecosystem. The number of non-living components, such as
carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known
as standing state or standing quantity.

2. Biotic Components
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the
environmental system. From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can
be grouped into two basic components:
a. Autotrophic components, and
b. Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the
radiant energy of sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The
heterotrophic components include non-green plants and all animals which take
food from autotrophs. So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described
into three:
1. Producers (Autotrophic components),
2. Consumers, and
3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing

crop which is usually expressed as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in
terms of calories/meter.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements, chiefly green plants. They
use radiant energy of sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is
assimilated and the light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical
energy is actually locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is
evolved as by-product in the photosynthesis.

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This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other
hydrophytes of a pond, grasses of the field, trees of the forests are examples of
producers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that
also assimilate CO2 with the energy of sunlight but only in the presence of
organic compounds also belong to this category.

The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context,

producers produce carbohydrate and not energy. Since they convert or
transduce the radiant energy into chemical form, E.J. Kormondy suggests better
alternative terms ‘converters’ or ‘transducers’. Because of wide use, the term
producer is still retained.

Consumers:
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized
by producers are called consumers. Under this category, all kinds of animals
that are found in an ecosystem are included.

There are different categories of consumers, this includes:

(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,
(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,
(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and
(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

Primary consumers:
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on
producers or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are
some of the common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small
crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat. Elton (1939) named
herbivores of ecosystem as “key industry animals”. The herbivores serve as the
chief food source for carnivores.

Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals
and the omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as
well as plants as their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow,
crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc.

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Tertiary consumers:
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores
and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or
top consumers.
Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes
are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the
living tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes
utilize dead remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the
ecosystem and they are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead
remains of producers and consumers and degrade the complex organic
substances into simpler compounds. The simple organic matters are then
attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers which change these
organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are suitable for reuse by
producers or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very
important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that

involves the exchange of energy.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy
required for all plant life. The plants utilize this energy for the process of
photosynthesis, which is used to synthesize their food.

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During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical

energy and is passed on through successive levels. The flow of energy from
a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a
detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down
into its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these
constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to
the environment, which can be utilized again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the
graphical representation of the number,
energy, and biomass of the successive
trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton
was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in
1927. The biomass, number, and energy of
organisms ranging from the producer level to
the consumer level are represented in the
form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the
ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed

by primary and secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the
apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers are at the very apex
of the food chain. The producers generally outnumber the primary
consumers and similarly, the primary consumers outnumber the secondary
consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.

3. Food Web

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Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all
the food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that
plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment,
phytoplankton forms the primary producer.

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