Chapter 6 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM OF GAUSS states that if V is the volume bounded by a closed sur- face S and A is a vector function of position with con- tinuous derivatives, then ii V-AdvV = [fvres = Gf aas Hn s s where n is the positive (outward drawn) normal to S. STOKES’ THEOREM states that if S is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a closed, non-inter- secting curve C (simple closed curve) then if A has continuous derivatives i Off ratte ae Sf cups. ; ' C where C is traversed in the positive direction. The direction of C 1s called positive if an observer, walking on the boundary of S in this direction, with his head pointing in the direction of the positive notmal to S, has the surface on his left. | GREEN’S THEOREM IN THE PLANE. If R is a closed region of the xy plane bounded by e simple | closed curve C and if M and N are continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivatives in R, then | Mdz+Ndy = J (ON _ My de dy ax (Oy e f | where C is traversed in the posttive (counterclockwise) direction, Unless otherwise stated we shall | always assume § to mean that the integral is described in the positive sense. | Green's theorem in the plane is a special case of Stokes’ theorem (see Problem 4): Also, it is of Interest to notice that Gauss’ divergence theorem is a generalization of Green's theorem in the plane where the (plane) region R and its closed boundary (curve) C are replaced by 8 (space) region V and its closed boundary (surface) S. For this reason the divergence theorem is often called Green’s theorem in space (see Problem 4). Green’s theorem in the plane also holds for regions bounded by a finite number of simple closed curves which do not intersect (see Problems 10 and 11). i 106see 10 IVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS. L [fies + we.ciner : fforwas F s This is called Green’s first identity or theorem. . [[fors- roa ‘ ili (VY — WVey-ds 4 s ‘This is called Green's second identity or symmetrical theorem. See Problem 21. | Biiieam = ffans - {fan s s Note that here the dot product of Gauss’ divergence theorem is replaced by the cross product, See Problem 23. SS ar, few Uifnvos iter Let ¥ represent either a vector or scalar function accor toss, or an ordinary multiplication, Then \ Sffe-ver = Lfa-vs = Sfesew ‘ding as the symbol © denotes a dot or __ EGRAL OPERATOR FoRM For V, It ean thet, using the terminology of Problem 19, erator V can be expressed symbolically in the form Vo » 1 am. ay FP as « 4s Or an ordinary multi of gradient, ean (see Problem 25). The result proves use- 4nd also Chapter 7) "2 °UFl to coordinate systems other than rec- Fe denotes a dot, cross {in extending the concepts ular (see Problems 19, 24 ae108 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS SOLVED PROBLEMS GREEN'S THEOREM IN THE PLANE. 4, Prove Green’s theorem in the plane if C is a closed eurve which has the property that any straight line parallel to the coordinate axes cuts C in at most two points, Let the equations of the curves AEB and AFB (see adjoining figure) be y=¥%(x) and y=¥,{x) respectively, WR is the region bounded by C, we have i Tz) b b OM a. ou e (z) 4 fl Sfx dxay iL [ f s of - f Men ae J [ae-t0) —Mea.t |e sta Ly Kay x=a o a : = f Mey ax = fms ee B ~ fue b > ae le tee Eee c R ‘Similarly let the equations of curves EAF and EBF be x=Xxy) and x=X,{y) respectively. Then Speer Mf fr Bele +f [ree nen] ; ! ye Lesko e f =f mandy + [i rcane = fives c ‘Then (2) f vay 2 ff Bee e t aaaine oyant ay, fiuaeryey = ff QX - Brees. p 2 Verity Gr fervtie +xtdy where C is the ns ra in the plane for closed curve of the region bounded by yex and y=x7. yex and y=? Intersect at (0,0) and (1,1). ‘The positive direction in traversing C is as shown in the adjacent diagram, 6— ia oeIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS — 109 | Along y= x7, the line integral equals : 19 i (@@) ex) de + ANd = P Gd * 5 Along y =x from (1,1) to (0,0) the Line integral equals fio / SPB — Brus» ff tRer-Boymlage 277 7 ® i Beifeewte 8 ff r-nien x= 0 yaa? , ee : ae { wre + -2 0 that the theorem is verified. ‘3. Extend the proof of Green's theorem in the plane tiven in Problem 1 to the curves C for which lines Daiallel to the coordinate axes may cut C in more a than two polnts. Consider a closed curve C such as shown in the ade Joining flee, In which Uses parallel to the axes may aw110 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES' THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS it Toco ‘ e where R consists of regions Ry and Ry av _ OM ‘Then Max +Ndy = (SY — M4) dedy and the theorem is proved. resvr e A region R such as considered here and in Problem 1, for which any closed curve lying in R can be continuously shrunk to a point without leaving R, is called a simply-connected region. A region which 1s not simply-connected 1s called multiply-connected, We have shown here that Green's theorem in the plane applies to simply-connected regions bounded by closed curves. In Problem 10 the theorem 1s extended to multiply-connected regions. For more complicated simply-connected regions it may be necessary to construct more lines, such as ST, to establish the theorem. 4. Express Green's theorem in the plane in vector notation, We have Méx + Ndy = (MLANS)= (det + ays) © Avdr, whore A= MI+NS and r= xttys so that dr = dete dys. Also, if A= ML+N{ then ik vx 2 Se ou NY _ OM A =< atts ie GaSe yoo sothat (Vx A)-k = ‘Then Green's theorem in the plane can be written (YT Ua c g A generalization of this to surfaces S in space having a curve C as boundary leads quite naturally to Stokes’ theorem which is proved in Problem 31. where dR = dedy. poset Methad. a tte ia ey sy na mace oon aH where Eo unl tangent vector 10 C (ate alacant ure). If ms the outward drawn unit normal to C, then T= kxn so that Mdz + Ndy = AcTds = Ac(hoen)ds = (AxK)-nds Since A= Mi+Ni, B= Axk = (MI+N))xk = MI—MJ and 2 - = = V-B. Then Green's theorem in the plane becom ge ds = Sfrs where dR = dxdy.[VERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL TH EOREMS 111 ced by Generalization of this to the case where the differential arc length ds of a closed curve a ee ES the differential of surface area dS of a closed surface S, and the corresponding plane nae reste hi € is replaced by the volume V enclosed by 5, leads to Gauss’ divergence theorem or Green space. pe : Sf ee .. Interpret physically the first result of Problem $. IEA denotes the force field acting on a particle, then g ‘Ads is the work done in moving the particle around a closed path C and is determined by the value of VxA.. It follows in particular that if Vx.A=0 or equivalently it A=V0, then the integral around a closed path Is zero. This amounts to saying that the work done in moving the particle from one point in the plane to another is independent of the path in the plane Joining the points or that the force field is conservative. These results have already been demonstrated for force fields and curves in space (see Chapter 5). Conversely, if the integral is independent of the path joining any two points of a region, i.e. if the integral around any closed path is zero, then VxA~=0. In the plane, the condition VxA=0 {s equivalent to mn OM. ON = Mit tne condition SM = SN where A= Mi + Nj a - Evaluate if (10x* —2ey") dx — 32°y? dy along the path x*— Gry = 4y2, 0,0) A ditect evaluation is difficult. However, noting that M = 10e*—2ey9, N= 324? and SM = gay? oe = GY. stolons that the integra is independent ofthe path, ‘Then we een use any path, for example the ath consisting of straight Line segments tom (0,0) o (2,0) and then trom (2,0) to (2:1). Along the straight line path from (0,0) to (2.0), 2 dy =0 and the integrai equals if 1ox*dx = 64 x0 Along the straight line path from (2,0) to (2,1), x=2, de = : Then the required value of the line inteeral = 64-4 = gq oD Another Method. since M6 BY (gee ay? : BY fro — aay dx — 2047 oy tan exact differential (of 225 c i y (ot 2523. Then 1024 — aay a2 a re 4 Ae sea, . f dart 2,5) {0, 0) a Geet altincteety ea T= Sy P Win A N= 5. Then $y : Ui 28), 7 where 4 is the required wea, Thus 4 « j fs ey ~ yag, —112. “DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 8. Find the area of the ellipse x = acos@, y =} sing. 27 area = ag x2 -ydz = if (@ cos 6)(b cos 6) d6 — (6 sin6)(—a sin®) dO a 20 if ab (cos?@ + sin?6)d6 = if abd8@ = mab n h 8. Evaluate $ osama + cosx dy, where C is the ‘Tiangle of the adjoining figure: (a) directly, (6) by using Green's theorem in the plane. (=) Along O4, y=0, dy=0 and the integral equals 7 fe if —sinx dx ho hy : ni eee ed Along 45. = =F, d==0 and the integral equals af (No + ody = 0 ong 20, y=, éy = 2e and the interal caus ° ° = Zz = (2 scosz +2 sinx “a2 [Ea stante + Zeoeste = ES scoee +2 stan’, = 1-7-2 aa Sie ger a Then the integral slong C = -1+0+1- 2-2. 7 _ 2 e ay au a @) = y—staz, N= cons, Ye sins, Me and oe om in, N = cos: nx, 3 & § warns a f an Be we f (-sinx — 1)dyex 2 a5 oe 2x/n i (sins 1) dy fade = 2 (oy sins [Oa st acd pes 2(-xcosx +sinsy 2] = 23 aan Bae ee ee ae i £ fn agreement with part (2). Note that although there exist lines parallel to the coordinate axes (coincident with the coordi- nate ares in this case) which meet C in an infinite number of points, Green's theorem in the plane still holds. tm general the theorem is valid when C is composed of a finlte number of straight line segments, _2z ¢ an 1. Show that Green’s theorem in the plane is also valid for a multiply-connected region R such as shown in the figure below. ‘The shaded region R, shown In the figure below, is multiply-connected since not every closed curreRELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 113 jIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEORE lying in R can be shrunk to a point without leaving R, as is observed by considering a curve surrounding DEFGD for example, The boundary of R, which con- sists of the exterlor boundary AHJKLA and the inte- lor boundary DEFGD, 1s to be traversed in the pos- itive direction, so that a person travelling in this di tection always has the region on his left. It is seen that the positive directions are those indicated in the adjoining figure. . In order to establish the theorem, construct a line, such as AD, called a cross-cur, connecting the exterior and interior boundaries. The region bounded by ADEFGDALKIHA is simply-connected, and so Gteen’s theorem is valid, ‘Then | ¢ Mdx+Ndy = ff Bh -Wae \ ADEFGDALESHA g ‘But the integral on the left, leaving out the integrand, ts equal to ie ff wD DEroD DA ALESHA Nee DEFGD ALkgHA natn fio f= f Guserny «ff Qw Ie y Pe ay and so. i AL Show that Green's theorem in the plane holds for the region R. ABDEFGA), Co(HKLPH), Peeters 6. of the figure below, bounded by Co(QSTUQ) and C,(VEXYY), feelon bounded by AHKLOSTVWXYVTUQLPHA- "8. The integral over this boundary is equal to Fag ah eee fff. f uPe A aaberca Tv 474 VT cancel out in pairs, tig becomes114 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREY poss [3 AKL osr VWXYT 100 ‘LPH ABDEPGA “(fof ) Cie ie fF KL = LPH Ost 100 VXI ABDEPGA AKLPE asta TWXYY ABDEPGA (ee (ee eee ii Ce Cy Cy 0; c where C is the boundary consisting of C3, Cs, Cg and C4. ‘Then ON ow. fring © ff Mas Oe if ey &s required. 12. Prove that f Mdz + Ndy = 0 around every closed curve C in a simply-connected region if and 3M. ON only if 5 = SF everywhere in the region. Assume that M and are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives everywhere in the region R bounded by C, so that Green's theorem 1s applicable. ‘Then frerne = [ft Baw 1 a SM in R, then cteariy fue + Ndy =0. Conversely, suppose f Max + Way = 0 for alt curves c, 1t BY =a > 0 ata point P, then f i tom cent ratie oon 28 — BF 5 @ sone een edie T'ts the boundary of A then f wee vay : Sf 2 Weesy >o ‘4 whlch contradicts the assumption that the line integral is zero around every closed curve, Similarly the Ov _ ou sssunotion $M — SM < 0 tendn to. contradiction, Tus 2 — SM = 0 at att pains, Note that the condition i . au 4s equivalent to the condition VxA = @ where A= wis Ny (see Problems 10 and 11, Chapter 5). For a generalization to space curves, see Problem 31.i iG pOREMS 115 (VERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS (a) Caloulate Var, (b) Evaluate fre around any closed path and 4 k . 2 DB} « g inany region excluding (0,0). Vans | 2 fe ae £ Fel at 8 Lat x= pcos, y= p sind, where (0,¢) are polar coordinates. de = =paind dp + dp con, ty = pcos dp + dp sing Srp te ty say = dare tan nd a0 Pi b= dee tan Z) For h closed curve ABCDA (see Figure (a) below) surrounding the origin, = 0 at A and d= 277 Hs Ars comee eh ack A, Ith ese te tne intenrateamis "4p = a. 1 y B Pia. a. (a) Fig.(6) FO 8 closed curve POKSP (se Figure (6) above) not Surrounding. = bo after & complete ctreult back to P, the origin, =o at P and ‘to 1D thls case the tine inogral equate A 400. Since P= MI +N, VxF «4 16 equivatent tp te results would neem to contra: Meh thoae of Problem 12, However, no contradiction ite Seay ‘not have continuous derivatives: ‘throughout ae + (8) BXDLONS the divergence (4) The mutace Ioteeral of the ‘MtOErAl Of the divergence normal Component of » y, OF A taken over the votunee neonatal v8" 8 stoned Surface 1s equal to the ‘“nelosed by the surtace. N116 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEORE: (b) Let A= Ayi+Agj+Agk. Then divA = V-A = a BS + ce ‘The unit normal to Sis m= m1 +ngJ +ngk. Then ny= n+l = cosa, ng= mj = cosB and nig = Wk = cosy, where @, 6,7 are the angles which n makes with the positive x,y,z axes or 4.4, directions respectively, The quantities cos @, cos 8, cos y ate the direction cosines of m. Then An = (Asi + Ao$ + Agk) «(cos 1 + cos BJ + cosy k) Aycosa + dgcos8 + dy cosy and the divergence theorem can be written Is 3 St Gelead = al (iden + dyc0sf + dq cosy) dS s 15. Demonstrate the divergence theorem physically, Let A= velocity v at any point of a moving fluid. From Pigure (a) below: Volume of fluid crossing dS in At seconds volume contained in cylinder of base dS and slant height vAr = (ve): ndS = yendsAr ‘Then, volume per second of fluid crossing dS = y-ndS Fig.(a) Fis. (b) From Figure (b) above: ‘Total Yolaie peg second of uid ameteox tom closed surtce =f fvnss ) 5 From Problem 21 of Chapter 4, V+v dV is the volume per second of fluid emerging from a volume ele- ment dV, ‘Then ‘Total volume per second of fluid emerging from all volume elements in $ é Sf Vevav aiae ff rns : Sf Vevey i: THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS — 117 % Ds Sy: heuy) S, seth) Let S be a closed surface which is such that any line parallel to the coordinate axes cuts S in at ‘mest two points. Assume the equations of the lower and upper portions, 5; and Sp, to be x =/(x,7) and ‘F=faley) respectively. Denote the projection of the surface on the xy plane by R. Consider [ffr~ - [Poon «Ii fo 6] on ae fu) - [feon Thos . ff Cjteir.f) — Ag(eref,)) dy dx 2 ? Por the a Shem dS, as. ydx = cos Yo dS, =h-ny 452 since the normal m, to S; makes an acute Por the lower portion S;, dy dx = — : ae» Sey cos 1 4S; = —k-m; dS, since the normal m; to S; makes an ob- ‘Then Sf seosoee : Sarna SPeseosoee = df as, Sfarsione - Sfrmoiooe z Ret fh cai eiiatn ” Sif or = ffarvrs ‘Simiuaty, Ny oredecting $ on the ether cocndinnts418 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL > fife = [fans s 2A, Sh atdvy = Ag §en dS Shas : 7 3 ‘Adding (1), (2) and (3), Sffe + Bar 2 [fst dod + datoon ds v s [fares s ‘The theorem can be extended to surfaces which are such that lines parallel to the coordinate axes meet them in more than two points. ‘To establish this extension, subdivide the region bounded by S into subregions whose surfaces do satisfy this condition. The procedure 1s analogous to that used in Green's theorem for the plane. 8 <= a > & 5 17. Evaluate Sf Fn dS, where F = 4xrzi—y?j+yzk and S is the surface of the cube bounded 3 by 2=0,2=1, y=0, y=1, 2=0, z=1. By the divergence theorem, the required integral is equal to [fore = SIP [Ban Bion -Bon]er Sffone = f° f° ['u-neina sto ys0 250 «Of fo wer lwe = f foenee -2 so yzo sto yre ‘The surface Integral may also be evaluated directly as in Problem 23, Chapter 5. 18. Verity the divergence theorem for A = 4x1 — 27j + 2° & taken over the region bounded by ety? z=0 and 2=3. ‘Volume integral = Sf Viadv = Sif [Sm + gem sge]e es Sffo-osmar . f as Se tt ts) dedyds = gen xat ye A ‘The surface S of the cylinder consists of a base S; (#=0), the top Sp (s=3) and the conver portion Sy (a? ty? = 4). ThenIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS = 119 ‘Surface integral = ffuse = [fanes, + [fares + i & & Om Ss (2=0), =k, A= x1—2y7j and A-n=0, 50 that [fmrssino. “ i Oe So(=3), mak, A = dxf — 277) + 9k and A-n=9, so that [frre - af fase = son, since aren of 5-47 = & On Sy (22+ 7? ). A perpendicular to x?+y?=4 has the direction V(x?+y2) = 2ri + 2yJ. 4 Tren seit nrmat iam = SLABS» 222 gine 324 7204 | vay? xi+ 2 Am = ei a7it any. ATH) = ay From the figure above, = = 2cos 6, y =2sin 0, dSy=2d0dz and so Sfure. E Lf tac or nner) ruse = fsa coe - 48 sin'@)de = [rs cosOd8 = aan a seo Beg = 8 ars dao = ot, atenne rh te ete tog as ain ‘ing the divergence theorem. ae | Note that evaluation of the si | Beas ory coordinate planes, j } 4 ace Integral over S, could also have been done by projection of Sy on X Tf div A denotes the divergence of a vector field A at129 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS: By the divergence theorem, Sffesea qv = Sfan ds ar AS By the mean-value theorem for integrals, the left side can be written a ff av where divA is some value intermediate between the maximum and minimum of div A throughout AV. ‘Then ff anas ae av Taking the mit as AV~0 such that P Js always interlor to AV, dIVA approaches the value divA at point P; hence i An dS diva = um 4$___ aro AV ‘This result can be taken as a starting point for defining the divergence of A, and from it all the prop- erties may be derived including proof of the divergence theorem diva AV ava = |. In Chapter 7 we use this definition to extend the concept of divergence of a vector to coordinate systems other than rectangular. Physically, ff Anas 43 av represents the flux or net outflow per unit volume of the vector A from the surface AS. If divA 1s positive in the neighbourhood of a point P it means that the outflow from P is positi flacly, if div A is negative in the neighbourhood of P the outflow is really an inflow and P is called a sink. If in a region there are no sources ot sinks, then divA =0 and we call A a solenoidal vector fleld. and we call P a source. Sim- 20. Evaluate [fe dS, where S is a closed surface. By the divergence theorem, [forse » Sffvve Ps : Si a eens - Slee Boer = fff = where V is the volume enclosed by S. 21. Prove Sffor — pV) dv = - [fore — ¥V¢)-ds. x s Let A= VW in the divergence theorem. Then “tein catete eae(IVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 121 If VeVWay = arenes F [forms . VV) = GUN + VHT = OV y + (Vor) me ff Ve@Vwar = sit [OV'Y + (Vo)-(Vy] av , 7 PY Q) Pff tore + verona “ Sforve which proves Green’s first identity. Interchanging and yin (1), \ 2) ile [WV + (Ven(Voy) av = ai WV p)-ds 7 s Subtracting (2) from (1), we have @) Wh @VY- wpa = ffov — UV eds 7 s which ts Green's second identity ot symmetrical theorem. -In the proof we have assumed that ¢ and Wi are Scalar functions of position with continuous derivatives of the second order at least. 22. Prove Sf Ve av = J feres. 7 s Inthe divergence theorem, let A= @C where C is a constant vector. Then Jffe-eorer = Lfecns since Vibe) = (Vd)-c = c-Vd and dc-n = c-~on, Ulla zea Sfevones Taking © outside the integrals, efffrow - o- ffane ‘and since C is an arbitrary constant vector, Ivo - ffoua mir fffooee« ffonne ‘ —_— a it122. DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREM In the divergence theorem, let A = Bx C where C ts a constant vector. Then ff V.(pxc) dv = cf (BxC)-n dS y s Since V-(Bxc) = c-(VxB) and (BxC)-m = B+(Cxa) = (Cxn)-B = C-(axB), Jffe-cvmmar = [fromm ‘Taking C outside the integrals, [ffs [fm Bds and since C Is an arbitrary constant vector, [ffvena ~ [fone 24. Show that-at any point P if nds ee Os ay Ve = i v = ii Ce 1 ap ee ee aay, Where AV 1s the volume enclosed by the surface AS, and the limit is obtained by shrinking AV to the point P, wo ronmainan, {ffveu- [fsees. mm ff fro = fforce. fe is ey "e Using the same principle employed in Problem 18, we have Sfennas Wastes atte eee | Av | | where VB-I is some value intermediate between the maxinum and minimum ot Vd throughout AY. ‘Taking the Limit as AV—0 in such a way that P is always interior to AV, Vob-i approaches the vain ff en-tas s ° “ ee rar | Similarly we find l | Sf uses | * Se | ey Boil ait es cashy } 2 Lites @) Vb-k = Lim aro | AYDIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 123 ‘Multipiying (1), (2), (3) by 1, j,k respectively, and adding, using Vb = (Wbsint + (Vb+ps + (Vow, om = (meidi + (med)§ + (mek (see Problem 20, Chapter 2) the result follows. (6) From Problem 23, replacing B by A, Sf Vx adv = Jf axass. ay as ‘Then as in part (a), we can show that f Pf caxayet ds ay ‘nd similar results with j and k replacing {. Multiplying by 1,J,k and adding, the result follows. Ve ayt = it ae aro ‘The results obtained can be taken as starting points for definition of gradient and curl. Using these definitions, extensions can be made to coordinate systems other than rectangular. 25. Establish the operator equivalence 5m dSo wav es as where o indicates a dot product, cross product or ordinary product. ‘To establish the equivalence, the results of the operation on a vector or scalar fleld must be consist- ent with already established results, Ito tn the dot product, then for a vector A, Von & im + ffesen dro Av as diva = tim 1 ffasea Ao AV as = ge bh ffanes ao AV ae rt jablished in Problem 19, nS Similarly if © is the cross product, ata SaVIGAG. = auc 5 If Zz aro Oy JJ “S*A > Bs aliens Also {f 0 1s ordinary multiplication, then for a scalar d Vode era affare a w. ‘stablished in Problem 24(a).. established in Problem 24 (5). = eff on124 DIVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS, 26. Let S be a closed surface and let r denote the position vector of any point (x,y,z) measured from 27. Interpret Gauss’ theorem (Problem 26) geometrically. an origin O. Prove that Sfres : ; (b) 47rif O lies inside S. This result is known as Gauss’ is equal to (a) zero if O lies outside theorem, (a) By the divergence theorem, ff Btds = Sf Vv. av. 3 7 : : But V-5 = 0 (Problem 19, Chapter 4) everywhere within provided r #0 in , i.e. provided 0 4s outside of V and thus outside of S. Then ff Bf és = 0. 3 () If 0 As inside S, surround O by a small sphere s of radius a. Let Tdenote the region bounded by $ and s. Then by the divergence theorem a r eve ee cial fires son 3 Let d5 denote an element of surface area and connect all points on the boundary of dS to O adjoining figure), thereby forming a cone. Let {2 be the area of that portion of a sphere with O as centre ‘and radius r which is cut out by this cone; then the solid angle subtended by 4S at O is defined as da = ete accel oat aie sm opr tion of a sphere with centre 0 and unit radius cut out ee able ras ‘and call @ the angle between n and r; then cos @ = BeE_ Also, dQ = +45 cos @ = +3;1 dS so that dp = + ai dS, the + or — belng chosen according fas mand r form an acute or an obtuse angle 9 with each other. Let $ be a surface, as in Figure (a) below, such that any line meets 5 in not more than two points. dS = da); whereas at the corresponding position 2, If Ues outside S, then at a position such as 1, eR = oy ns ei lM25 MVERGENCE THEOREM, STOKES’ THEOREM, RELATED INTEGRAL THEOREMS 1. ul the solid dS = —de, An integration over these two regions gives zero, since the contributions to oe ff» F dS = 0, since for angle cancel out, When the integration is performed over S it thus follows that every positive contribution there is a negative one, ar Bt 4, Bgl ds = dw In case O is inside S, however, then at a position such as 3, "5' dS = dw and at 4, ‘y : i se I the area of a so that the contributions add instead of cancel. The total solid angle in this case is equal to anit sphere which is 477, so that f° aa dS = 47. s Fik.(a) Pig. (6) For surfaces $, such that 2 line may meet S in more than two points, an exactly similar situation holds as 1s seen by reference to Figure (4) above. If 0 is outside S, for example, then a cone with vertex at O intersects S at an even number of places and the contribution to the surface integral is zero since the solid angles subtended at 0 cancel out in pairs. If O is inside S, however, a cone having vertex at O in- tersects S at an odd number of places and since cancellation occurs only for an even number of these, there will always be a contribution of 47 for the entire surface S, 28. A fiuid of density pcx, prove that 341) moves with velocity v(x,y,z,2). If there are no sources or sinks, 80 Vea+ 2 = + 5p <0 where J = pv estiutiteary surface soclosing a volume V of the fluid. At any time the maas of fuid vithia v= fffow The time rate of increase of this mass is ¥- 2 [fon - [Ife : ‘The mass of fluid per unit time leaving V is Sfornas (See Problem 15) and the time rate of increase in mass se therefore