An Overview of The Global Market, Fleet, and Components in The Field of Aviation Gasoline

aerospace
Review
An Overview of the Global Market, Fleet, and Components in
the Field of Aviation Gasoline
Mikhail A. Ershov 1,2, * , Nikita A. Klimov 1 , Vsevolod D. Savelenko 1 , Ulyana A. Makhova 1 ,
Nikita O. Burov 1 , Egor V. Karpunin-Ozherovskiy 1 , David R. Aleksanyan 1 , Elena S. Donskaya 1 ,
Daria Y. Mukhina 1 , Vladimir M. Kapustin 1,2 , Kirill A. Ovchinnikov 3 , Ekaterina V. Podlesnova 3
and Andrey V. Kleymenov 4
1 Department of Oil Refining Technology, Faculty of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,

Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas (National Research University), Moscow 119991, Russia
2 Academy of Engineering, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University),
Moscow 115419, Russia
3 Gazpromneft Industrial Innovations, LLC., St. Petersburg 197350, Russia
4 Gazprom NEFT, PJSC, St. Petersburg 190000, Russia
* Correspondence: ershovma@ntwc.ru
Abstract: Aviation gasoline is a fuel for spark-ignition piston internal combustion engines, which
are usually used in light aircraft (small aviation and general aviation). This technique is widely
used for regional and interregional transportation, for the initial training and retraining of aviation
staff, for private use, for agricultural purposes, for the development of aviation sports and tourism,
and for combat and rescue operations. This article gives some estimates of the production and
consumption of aviation gasoline in the EU, North and South America, Asia–Pacific, Africa, and
CIS countries. Export possibilities and the reliance on import within different regions are analyzed.
Economic indicators for aviation gasoline are calculated by assessing the share of its production in
the GDP and per capita consumption. In the context of the transition to unleaded aviation gasoline,
the structure of the piston aviation fleet and its readiness for the transition are considered. The paper
Citation: Ershov, M.A.; Klimov, N.A.;
also analyzes the following existing components of unleaded aviation gasoline: technical capabilities
Savelenko, V.D.; Makhova, U.A.;
and promising components.
Burov, N.O.; Karpunin-Ozherovskiy,
E.V.; Aleksanyan, D.R.; Donskaya,
Keywords: aviation gasoline; tetraethyl lead; unleaded aviation gasoline; general aviation; piston aviation
E.S.; Mukhina, D.Y.; Kapustin, V.M.;
et al. An Overview of the Global
Market, Fleet, and Components in
the Field of Aviation Gasoline.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863. https://
1. Introduction
doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863 Aviation gasoline is a class of petroleum fuels, the characteristics of which are subject
to increased requirements due to the special conditions of their application. To ensure
Academic Editor: Tiegang Fang
reliable, uninterrupted engine operation, aviation gasoline must have high chemical and
Received: 14 August 2023 phase stability, optimum vaporizability, high detonation resistance, and compatibility with
Revised: 26 September 2023 fuel system materials [1]. Aviation gasoline is distinct from automotive gasoline due to
Accepted: 27 September 2023 its enhanced antiknock properties, which are traditionally achieved using tetraethyl lead
Published: 30 September 2023 (TEL) [2]. For jet fuel, the structural characteristics of a turbojet engine require the fuel
to have a high energy density, high temperature oxidation stability, and high combustion
efficiency. Improved low temperature properties are also required. There are no detonation
resistance requirements for jet fuel [3]. Therefore, kerosene fraction has been widely used as
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
jet fuel due to its higher density compared with gasoline, better low-temperature properties,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and improved combustion efficiency compared with diesel. Jet fuel cannot be substituted
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
with gasoline at high altitudes due to the high pressure of its vapors, which causes the fuel
conditions of the Creative Commons
to boil as the pressure decreases.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The main peak of piston aircraft utilization was in the first half of the twentieth century.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ At that time, the main research on the development of aviation gasoline was carried out.
4.0/). Both in the USSR and abroad, several grades of aviation gasoline were developed, differing
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 2 of 24
in some characteristics and intended for different operating conditions. However, due to
the gradual replacement of piston aircraft with jet aircraft, the range of grades was reduced
over time [4]. Currently, the global market of aviation gasoline is represented with the
following grades:
• Avgas 100LL (Low Lead)—the most universal and widespread aviation gasoline grade
in the world in terms of production and consumption, which is approved for use in
almost all piston aircrafts. Requirements for this fuel grade are set in the specifica-
tions ASTM D910 and UK DEF STAN 91-90. There is also a more environmentally
friendly modification of Avgas 100LL—Avgas 100VLL (Very Low Lead)—for which
the maximum lead content is set to 0.45 g Pb/L (from 0.56 g Pb/L for Avgas 100LL) [5].
• B-91/115—a grade developed in the USSR, produced according to the Russian stan-
dard GOST 1012 or Polish specification WT-06/OBR PR/PD/60 [6]; it is mainly used
in Russia and in the CIS for aircrafts equipped with Russian engines (ASH-62ir, AI-26V,
M-14B, M-14P and M-14V-26); it is also allowed on most engines produced by Conti-
nental and Lycoming. It differs from Avgas 100LL in its lower antiknock resistance
and less stringent lead content standard.
The negative impact of lead on human health has been studied in detail in a number
of works [7–9]; in particular, some have investigated the effect on children living within
500 m of airports [10,11]. Thus, the reformulation of the composition of gasoline is an
issue that is quite essential. Some studies suggest replacing aviation gasoline with aviation
kerosene [12]; however, it is shown that kerosene is not fully burned and may lead to
spontaneous combuction, which indicates the limitations of using kerosene in the spark-
ignition engines. To improve the properties of gasoline, alcohols can be used to improve
the completeness of combustion and reduce toxic emissions, such as n-butanol [13], n-
pentanol [14], or ethanol [15]. It should be noted, however, that using such gasoline
increases fuel consumption and its hygroscopicity. Thus, the main directions of research in
the field of aviation gasoline are aimed at eliminating the use of TEL in their composition
within the framework of the EAGLE (Eliminate Aviation Gasoline Lead Emissions) initiative.
Research is under way to develop new unleaded aviation gasolines, and new piston aircraft
engines are being designed so that there is potential for them to operate on such fuels.
In 2023, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is expected to publish a final lead
hazard bill [16], at which time a legislative phase-out of leaded gasoline will be initiated.
The standard process for a transition takes approximately 7–8 years, so it is likely to be
implemented in 2030 [17].
The Federal Aviation Administration announced the approval of unleaded aviation
gasoline grade G100UL for all spark-ignition aircraft engines starting September 1, 2022 [18].
Earlier in June 2021, this grade was only allowed for low-compression ratio piston engines.
The use of unleaded aviation gasoline for all engines was approved after 12 years of testing.
GAMI elected to use the existing and approved STC pathway to obtain approval instead of
ASTM specifications. The possibility of using unleaded aviation gasoline in piston engines
is also shown in papers [19]. Thus, a key difference of the aviation gasoline of the future
will be the absence of TEL in its composition. Currently, several grades of unleaded aviation
gasoline have already been actively used:
• UL82 and UL87—unleaded aviation gasoline, designed for engines with a low-compression
ratio. Requirements are regulated according to ASTM D6227.
• UL91 and UL94—the most researched and widely used unleaded grades of aviation
gasoline that were developed to replace Avgas 100LL and have been approved for
more than 90% of the fleet. The standards are established according to the ASTM
D7547 standard.
• UL100 and UL 102—promising grades of aviation gasoline designed to replace Avgas
100LL. The standards for test gasoline blends are established in the specifications
ASTM D7960 and ASTM D7719.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 3 of 24
The aviation gasoline industry remains one of the furthest away from decarbonization,
as there is still partial dependence on the use of lead to improve antiknock properties. The
introduction of new technologies in general aviation requires thorough research, which
slows down the implementation of ideas into reality. In civil aviation, there are noticeable
decarbonization trends observed wherein sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), electricity, and
hydrogen are being adopted [20]. The most progress has been made in the production of
kerosene surrogates, which can be used in a blend with petroleum fuel as per jet fuel standards
ASTM D1655, Def Stan 91–91. The usage of drop-in fuels is considered a temporary solution
for facilitating the shift from conventional resources to net-zero technology.
Hydrogen and electricity require the creation of a completely new infrastructure for
aviation, as well as significant modifications to the engine and fuel equipment of the
aircraft—all of which require additional time. Hydrogen aviation is the closest to being
introduced into passenger transportation [21], with one of the closest marketing statements
coming from the Australian company Skytrans, which intends to launch hydrogen air
transportation as early as 2026 [22]. Electrification is a more complex solution for short-haul
aviation, but no less promising due to fewer iterations to obtain clean energy. In this
part, we can highlight the NASA report [23], according to which demonstration flights are
planned for 2023–2025. Decarbonization affects general aviation to a lesser extent through
the replacement of fuels with sustainable ones, due to the high requirements for their
properties, but it affects it through the substitution of piston engines to jet engines.
To evaluate the prospects of the aviation gasoline market, the purpose of this study
is to analyze the changes that have occurred in the piston aviation industry over the last
10 years in relation to the following tasks:
• To assess the aviation gasoline market globally and in key regions according to
consumers/producers, as well as the relation to economic indicators (presented in
Sections 3.1 and 3.2).
• Evaluate the state of the fleet: the number and types of aircraft and its development
prospects (described in Section 3.3).
• Analyze aviation gasoline key components (presented in Section 3.4).
2. Methodology
The study presents four subsections, of which the selection of information for each
has its own characteristics. For Section 3.1, it was necessary to analyze the market,
which was done with the help of open government sources that collect statistical infor-
mation. In the case of the United States, data from the U.S. Energy Information Admin-
istration [24]; Canada—Canadian Center for Energy Information [25]; and the European
Union—Eurostat [26] were used. For other regions and countries, data were used from
the United Nations [27], which collected information in cooperation with industry or-
ganizations and national governments. Data for the Russian market were obtained by
analyzing the number of piston aircraft, their consumption, and flight hours as part of a
previously defended dissertation on the subject [28]. In the case of countries for which
very few statistics are available, a gray literature search was conducted to gain a general
understanding of the aviation fuel situation in that country.
In order to assess the economic indicators in Section 3.2, it is necessary to estimate the
cost of aviation fuel in the selected regions. The cost of aviation gasoline for the European
Union and the United States [29,30] is a data set for which the estimated deviation and
dispersion have been calculated. Because not every country has a data set, the average
price reported in transactions or by manufacturers was used for other regions [31,32]. The
calculation of the economic indices, i.e., aviation gasoline consumption per capita and the
share of fuel production in GDP, was based on the World Bank’s GDP data for 2022, the
population of the USA, Canada [33–35], Mexico, and other countries [36–55].
Section 3.3 is based on data from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and
the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA). The study of aviation gasoline
composition is based on patents and articles issued by fuel producers and is presented in
price reported in transactions or by manufacturers was used for other regions [31,32]. The
calculation of the economic indices, i.e., aviation gasoline consumption per capita and the
share of fuel production in GDP, was based on the World Bank’s GDP data for 2022, the
population of the USA, Canada [33–35], Mexico, and other countries [36–55].
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 Section 3.3 is based on data from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the 4 of 24
General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA). The study of aviation gasoline
composition is based on patents and articles issued by fuel producers and is presented in
Section 3.4. The search and selection of literature for this section was carried out using
Section 3.4. The search and selection of literature for this section was carried out using
sources in the period 1999–2023, articles—using the Web of Science, Google Scholar, SAE,
sources in the period 1999–2023, articles—using the Web of Science, Google Scholar, SAE,
and articles in Russian—e-library electronic library, and patents—using Patentscope and
and articles in Russian—e-library electronic library, and patents—using Patentscope and the
the European Patent Office. In addition, the work examined the studies of organizations
European Patent Office. In addition, the work examined the studies of organizations such as
such as the Coordinating Research Council (CRC) and doctoral theses from research in-
the Coordinating
stitutes found fromResearch Council
university (CRC)
websites and
and doctoral
Google thesesThe
searches.. from research
search termsinstitutes
includedfound
from
the following: “aviation gasoline”, “unleaded aviation gasoline”, “aviation gasolinefollowing:
university websites and Google searches. The search terms included the pro-
“aviation
duction”,gasoline”,
“aviation“unleaded aviation gasoline”,
gasoline technology”, and in the“aviation gasoline
case of a search for production”, “aviation
a specific country,
gasoline
its name.technology”, and in the case of a search for a specific country, its name.
One
Oneshould
should also
also note theassumptions
note the assumptionsmademadein in this
this article:
article:
1. 1. According
According to market
marketanalysis,
analysis,notnotallall countries
countries publish
publish openopen information
information aboutabout
the the
aviation gasoline
aviation gasolinemarket;
market; forfor
such regions
such as the
regions asAPR
the (namely China) and
APR (namely some
China) Af-some
and
rican countries,
African UNUN
countries, information is not
information isavailable or may
not available orbe unreliable.
may be unreliable.
2.2. Using
Using the
the average
average cost
costofofaviation
aviationgasoline
gasoline allows for for
allows onlyonly
a rough estimate
a rough of theof the
estimate
levelof
level of revenue
revenue from
fromfuel
fuelsales.
sales.
3.3. Technology
Technology is is also
also evaluated
evaluatedonly
onlythrough
through public information
public informationfound in patents
found and and
in patents
articles; the actual components may be slightly different.
articles; the actual components may be slightly different.
3.3.Results
Resultsand
and Discussions
Discussions
3.1.Aviation
3.1. AviationGasoline
Gasoline Market
Market
3.1.1. Global Aviation Gasoline
3.1.1. Global Aviation GasolineMarket
Market
AsAsofof 2022,
2022, thethe global
global aviation
aviation gasoline
gasoline market
market is estimated
is estimated to betoover
be over 600,000
600,000 tons/year
or 224 million gallons/year. The annual growth rate was 0.1% between 2010 and and
tons/year or 224 million gallons/year. The annual growth rate was 0.1% between 2010 2020, but
in2020, but in
general, thegeneral,
overall the overallfor
demand demand forgasoline
aviation aviationisgasoline is projected
projected to declinetoby
decline by
0.6% through
0.6% through 2043 [56]. Global aviation gasoline production, consumption, exports, and
2043 [56]. Global aviation gasoline production, consumption, exports, and imports are
imports are summarized in Figure 1 [24–27,57].
summarized in Figure 1 [24–27,57].
Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1. Statistics on the global aviation gasoline market for 2020–2021 (by region): (a) Aviation
Figure 1. Statistics on the global aviation gasoline market for 2020–2021 (by region): (a) Aviation
gasoline production; (b) Aviation gasoline consumption; (c) Aviation gasoline exports; (d) Aviation
gasoline production;
gasoline imports. (b) Aviation gasoline consumption; (c) Aviation gasoline exports; (d) Aviation
gasoline imports.
The leading positions in both the production and consumption of aviation gasoline
are held by North American countries—the United States and Canada. Together they ac-
count for more than 70% of the global production and more than 60% of the global con-
sumption of aviation gasoline. Among European countries, the Netherlands and Poland
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 5 of 24
The leading positions in both the production and consumption of aviation gasoline are
held by North American countries—the United States and Canada. Together they account
for more than 70% of the global production and more than 60% of the global consumption
of aviation gasoline. Among European countries, the Netherlands and Poland hold the
leading positions in aviation gasoline production, and France and Great Britain are the
leading countries in its consumption. However, most of the gasoline produced by European
countries is exported, with the total volume of aviation gasoline exports accounting for
more than 50% of global exports (including exports within the European Union).
Australia is a major actor in the Asia–Pacific region, and Brazil is a major participant
in South America—both of which have sufficiently powerful complexes for the production
of aviation gasoline to fully satisfy their own fuel needs. The African region lacks its own
production, so importing is the only way to provide fuel. The largest importers of aviation
gasoline are Ghana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. Let us consider the market of each
region separately.
3.1.2. The European Aviation Gasoline Market

The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption and production volumes in the Eu-
ropean domestic market is presented in Figure 2. Over the last 8 years, aviation gasoline
consumption in Europe has decreased by almost 17% (from 83.8 to 70.3 thousand tons/year)
and has stabilized at around 73 thousand tons/year over the last few years, barring the
2020 crisis. The main consumers of aviation gasoline in Europe are France, Great Britain,
and Germany, which account for more than 55% of total European consumption. The6 main
Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 25
producers of aviation gasoline in Europe are the Netherlands, Poland, and France. They
account for more than 90% of the European region’s production volume.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure2.2.Statistics
Statisticson
onthe
theaviation
aviationgasoline
gasolinemarket
marketinin
thethe
EU: (a)(a)
EU: Aviation gasoline
Aviation consumption
gasoline in
consumption
the EU; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the EU, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation gas-
in the EU; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the EU, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation
oline production in the EU; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in the EU, 2013–2021.
gasoline production in the EU; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in the EU, 2013–2021.
Statistics on exports and imports in the European Union are presented in Figure 3.
The leading positions in exports among European countries are occupied by the Nether-
lands, Poland, and France. The share of the Netherlands is more than 50% of the total
export of aviation gasoline in Europe, and the total of the three cited states is more than
95%.
(c) (d)
Figure 2. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in the EU: (a) Aviation gasoline consumption in
the EU; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the EU, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation gas-
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 6 of 24
oline production in the EU; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in the EU, 2013–2021.
Statistics on exports and imports in the European Union are presented in Figure 3.
TheStatistics
leading positions in exports
on exports among
and imports inEuropean countries
the European Union areare
occupied by the
presented Nether-3. The
in Figure
lands, Poland, and France. The share of the Netherlands is more than 50%
leading positions in exports among European countries are occupied by the Netherlands, of the total
Poland, and France. The share of the Netherlands is more than 50% of the total than
export of aviation gasoline in Europe, and the total of the three cited states is more export of
95%. gasoline in Europe, and the total of the three cited states is more than 95%.
aviation
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in the EU: (a) Aviation gasoline imports in the
Figure 3. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in the EU: (a) Aviation gasoline imports in the
EU; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the EU, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation gasoline
EU;exports
(b) Theindynamics
the EU; (d)of aviation
The gasoline
dynamics consumption
of aviation in the EU,in2013–2021;
gasoline production (c) Aviation gasoline
the EU, 2013–2021.
exports in the EU; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in the EU, 2013–2021.
The leading countries in terms of aviation gasoline imports are France, the United
The leading
Kingdom, andcountries
Germanyin(more
termsthan
of aviation
65% ofgasoline
the totalimports
importsareof France,
aviationthe UnitedinKingdom,
gasoline Eu-
andrope).
Germany
Total imports in Europe are decreasing in contrast to exports, despite theTotal
(more than 65% of the total imports of aviation gasoline in Europe). imports
fact that
in Europe are decreasing
in the period in contrastthe
before the pandemic, to behavior
exports, of
despite
importstheand
fact that inwas
exports theapproximately
period before the
pandemic,
the same.the
Thebehavior of imports
largest producers and exports
of both wasunleaded
leaded and approximately
grades of the same. gasoline
aviation The largest
producers
are shownof both leaded
in Table 1. and unleaded grades of aviation gasoline are shown in Table 1.
Table
Table 1. The
1. The Major
Major Importersand
Importers andExporters
Exporters of
ofAviation
AviationGasoline
Gasolinein in
Europe.
Europe.
Company AVGAS Grade|Standard Country of Import
Company AVGAS Grade|Standard Country of Import
North and South Amer-
Shell (London, UK) Shell (London,
100LL|ASTMUK) 100LL|ASTM
D910 and DEF STAN D910
91-90and DEF North
STANand91-90
South America, EU, Asia–Pacific
ica, EU, Asia–Pacific
UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90
TotalEnergies (Paris, France) TotalEnergies UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 EU
100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90
EU
Vitol Group (Rotterdam, (Paris, France) D910
100LL|ASTM D910
100LL|ASTM and DEF STAN 91-90and DEF STAN 91-90
EU, Asia–Pacific, North America, Africa
The Netherlands)
Vitol Group (Rot-
BP (London, UK)
UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 EU, and
EU, Asia–Pacific, North Asia–Pacific, North
South America, Africa
terdam, Nether- D910
100LL|ASTM 100LL|ASTM
and DEF STAND910
91-90and DEF STAN 91-90 America, Africa
Repsol (Madrid, Spain) lands) 100LL|ASTM D910 EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South America, Africa
UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 EU, Asia–Pacific, North
Warter Aviation (Plock, Poland)
UL91|ASTM
100LL|WT-09/OBR D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 EU, CIS
PR/PD/48
BP (London, UK)
B-91/115|GOST 1012-72 and WT-06/OBR and South America, Af-
100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90
PR/PD/60 rica
91/96UL|ASTM D7547 mod. 100LL ASTM EU, Asia–Pacific, North
Hjelmco Oil (Sollentuna, Sweden) Sweden, Japan
Repsol (Madrid,
D910 and DEF STAN 91-90
100LL|ASTM D910 and South America, Af-
Spain)
rica
UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90
Warter Aviation 100LL|WT-09/OBR PR/PD/48
EU, CIS
(Plock, Poland) B-91/115|GOST 1012-72 and WT-06/OBR
PR/PD/60
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 7 of 24
3.1.3. The North American Aviation Gasoline Market

The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption and production volumes in the North
American
Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW domestic market are shown in Figure 4. Over the last decade, the volume of
8 of 25
aviation gasoline production and consumption in North America decreased from 559 to
504 and from 604 to 557 thousand tons per year, respectively. The USA and Canada are
undisputed leaders in both the consumption and production of aviation gasoline. They
account
account for
formore
morethan
than94%
94%ofofthe
theNorth
NorthAmerican
Americanregion’s consumption
region’s andand
consumption 100% of its
100% of
production.
its production.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Statistics
Statistics on
on the
the aviation
aviation gasoline
gasoline market
market in
in North
North America:
America: (a)
(a)Aviation
Aviation gasoline
gasoline con-
con-
sumption in North America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in North America,
sumption in North America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in North America,
2013–2021; (c) Aviation gasoline production in North America; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline
2013–2021; (c) Aviation gasoline production in North America; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline
production in North America, 2013–2021.
production in North America, 2013–2021.
The dynamics of export and import volumes of aviation gasoline in North America
are presented in Figure 5. There is no information on the amount of aviation gasoline ex-
are presented in Figure 5. There is no information on the amount of aviation gasoline
ported from the United States on the official website of the Department of Energy. When
exported from the United States on the official website of the Department of Energy. When
calculating
calculating the
the quantity
quantity of
of exports
exports through
through current-period
current-period balances,
balances,imports,
imports,production,
production,
and
and consumption,
consumption, thethe value
value of exports appears
of exports appears insignificant.
insignificant. Over
Over 2013–2021,
2013–2021, gasoline
gasoline
imports
imports toto the
theUnited
UnitedStates
States(a (a
keykey importer)
importer) increased
increased due due to consumption
to consumption growing
growing faster
faster than production.
than production.
The largest producers of aviation gasoline, as well as prospective importer companies
(mostly European) in North America, are presented in Table 2.
(a) (b)
are presented in Figure 5. There is no information on the amount of aviation gasoline ex-
ported from the United States on the official website of the Department of Energy. When
calculating the quantity of exports through current-period balances, imports, production,
and consumption, the value of exports appears insignificant. Over 2013–2021, gasoline
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 imports to the United States (a key importer) increased due to consumption growing 8 of 24
faster than production.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. 5.
Figure Statistics onon
Statistics thethe
aviation gasoline
aviation gasolinemarket inin
market North
NorthAmerica:
America:(a)(a)
Aviation gasoline
Aviation imports
gasoline imports
in in
North America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in North America, 2013–2021;
North America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in North America, 2013–2021;
(c) Aviation gasoline exports in North America; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production
(c) Aviation gasoline exports in North America; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in
in North America, 2013–2021.
North America, 2013–2021.
The
Table 2. largest producers
The Major ofand
Importers aviation gasoline,
Exporters as well
of Aviation as prospective
Gasoline importer companies
in North America.
(mostly European) in North America, are presented in Table 2.
Company Avgas Grade|Standard Country of Import
Table
ConocoPhillips (Houston, TX, USA) 2. The Major Importers and Exporters
100LL|ASTM D910 of Aviation Gasoline in North America.
North America
North and South America, EU,
ExxonMobil (Irving TX, USA) Company Avgas
100LL|ASTM D910 Grade|Standard Country of Import
Asia–Pacific, Africa
ConocoPhillips
Phillips66 (Houston, TX, USA) 100LL|ASTM D910 NorthNorth
America
100LL|ASTM D910 America
(Houston, TX, USA) North and South America, EU,
Shell (London, UK) 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90
Asia–Pacific
North and South Amer-
Vitol Group ExxonMobil (Irving 100LL|ASTM D910 EU, Asia–Pacific,
ica, EU, Asia–Pacific, Af-
100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 North America, Africa
(Rotterdam, The Netherlands)TX, USA)
UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 rica
EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South
BP (London, UK) Phillips66 (Hou-
100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 America, Africa
100LL|ASTM D910 North America
ston, TX, USA) EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South
Repsol (Madrid, Spain) 100LL|ASTM D910
America,
North andAfrica
South Amer-
Swift Fuels (West Lafayette, Shell (London, UK) 100LL|ASTM
IN, USA) D910 and DEF STAN 91-90
UL94|ASTM D7547 USA
ica, EU, Asia–Pacific
Vitol Group
3.1.4. The South EU, Asia–Pacific, North
(Rotterdam, Neth-American Aviation
100LL|ASTM Gasoline
D910 Market
and DEF STAN 91-90
America, Africa
The dynamics of the aviation gasoline consumption and production volumes in the
erlands)
South American domestic market are shown in Figure 6. Between EU,2011 and 2018, consump-
Asia–Pacific, North
tion was reduced UL91|ASTM
from 109 D7547
thousand andtoDEF
tons 56 STAN 91-90
thousand tons. Production had a similar
BP (London, UK) and South America, Af-
100LL|ASTM
correlation, falling from D910
90 thousand and
tons DEF
to 21 STAN 91-90
thousand tons over the same period. Brazil
rica
and Colombia are leaders in both the consumption and production of aviation gasoline,
EU, Asia–Pacific, North
Repsol (Madrid,
accounting for more than 60% of the region’s consumption and 80% of its production.
100LL|ASTM D910 and South America, Af-
Spain)
rica
Swift Fuels (West
UL94|ASTM D7547 USA
Lafayette, IN, USA)
Aerospace
Aerospace 2023,2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
10, 863 10 of 25 9 of 24
production.
production. However,
However, since
since2019, Brazil
Brazilhas
2019,ceased hasceased
ceased production
production as aa result
result of
of refinery
refinery clo-
However,
sures [58], since
and 2019,
the Brazil
country hashas
shifted to production
dependence as
on resultas
aimports.of refinery closures clo-
[58], and
sures
the [58], and
country has the country
shifted has shifted toon
to dependence dependence
imports. on imports.
(a)(a) (b)
(b)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 6. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in South America: (a) Aviation gasoline consump-
Statistics
Figure6.6.Statistics
Figure on on the
the(b) aviation
aviation gasoline
gasoline marketmarket in America:
in South South America: (a) gasoline
(a) Aviation Aviationconsump-
gasoline con-
tion in South America; The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in South America, 2013–
sumption
tion in South
2021; in America;
Southgasoline
(c) Aviation America;
(b) The (b) The dynamics
dynamics
production inof of gasoline
aviation
South aviation
America; gasoline
consumption
(d) The dynamicsconsumption
in aviation
of in South
South America,
gasoline America,
2013–
pro-
2021; (c) Aviation
2013–2021;
duction in(c) gasoline
Aviation
South America, production
gasoline in SouthinAmerica;
production
2013–2021. (d) The dynamics
South America; of aviation
(d) The dynamics ofgasoline
aviationpro-
gasoline
duction
production in South America,
in South 2013–2021.
America, 2013–2021.
The only country exporting aviation gasoline is Argentina, with an export volume
The
The
equal toonly
only country
country
1 thousand exporting
in 2020.aviation
exporting
tons gasoline
aviation
The gasoline
dynamics ofisimport
Argentina, with
is Argentina,
volumes anits
with
and export volume
anstructure
export volume
by
equal
equal to
country 1 thousand
to 1is thousand tons
presented in in
Figure
tons 2020. The dynamics
7. The increased
in 2020. of import
import of
The dynamics volumes
volume
importin 2019and its
is dueand
volumes structure
to the by
itsafore-
structure
country is
bymentioned presented
country is closure in Figure
of refinery
presented 7. The increased
in Brazil.
in Figure import
In addition
7. The increased volume
to import in 2019 is
Brazil, Argentina
volume in due
importsto the
2019 isfuel,afore-
dueasto the
mentioned
do Ecuador,
aforementionedclosure of refinery
Paraguay,
closure Chile, in Brazil.
and
of refinery In addition
Uruguay.
in Brazil.ItIn to Brazil,
is addition
possible that Argentina
Argentina
to Brazil, imports
may have
Argentina fuel, as fuel,
also
imports
do Ecuador,
asexported
do Ecuador, Paraguay,
fuel that Chile,
was previously
Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Chile, andimported. It is possible that Argentina may
Uruguay. It is possible that Argentina may have alsohave also
exported fuel that was previously imported.
exported fuel that was previously imported.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in South America: (a) Aviation gasoline imports
in South America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in South America, 2013–2021.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 10 of 24
Figure 7. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in South America: (a) Aviation gasoline imports
in South America; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in South America, 2013–2021.
3.1.5. The Aviation Gasoline Market of the Asia–Pacific Region
3.1.5.Let
TheusAviation
consider Gasoline Market
the market of theof the Asia–Pacific
Asia–Pacific Region
region, of which the largest and most
economically developed
Let us consider country
the market ofisthe
China. There isregion,
Asia–Pacific no publicly
of whichavailable information
the largest and moston
the production
economically and consumption
developed country isof China.
aviation gasoline
There is noinpublicly
China; therefore,
available only statements
information on
on consumption
the production and and production from
consumption news sources
of aviation gasolineare considered
in China; below.only statements
therefore,
on consumption and production from news sources are considered below. at 40 thousand
The volume of aviation gasoline consumption in China was estimated
tons The
including
volume imports. Thegasoline
of aviation largest producer
consumptionof aviation
in China gasoline is Lanzhou
was estimated at 40Petrochem-
thousand
ical. In 2015, the volume of aviation gasoline production
tons including imports. The largest producer of aviation gasoline is Lanzhouat its facilities wasPetrochem-
estimated
at 20Inthousand
ical. 2015, thetons
volume[59].ofAnother
aviationproducer
gasoline is ChangshaatTonglian
production Aviation
its facilities Technology
was estimated at
Co.,
20 Ltd. (Changchun,
thousand China),producer
tons [59]. Another whose production
is Changsha capacity is estimated
Tonglian at 1.5 thousand
Aviation Technology Co.,
tons(Changchun,
Ltd. per year. Until 2015, whose
China), China produced
production aviation
capacity gasoline of its at
is estimated own1.5 grades
thousandRH-75,
tons RH-
per
95/130, and RH-100/130, according to national specifications. In 2015,
year. Until 2015, China produced aviation gasoline of its own grades RH-75, RH-95/130, the two companies
Dongying
and Huayaaccording
RH-100/130, Guolian Aviation Fuelspecifications.
to national Co., Ltd. (Shandong
In 2015,Sheng,
the two China) and Guanghan
companies Dongy-
Tianzhou Aviation Engine Fuel Technology Co., Ltd. (Guanghan,
ing Huaya Guolian Aviation Fuel Co., Ltd. (Shandong Sheng, China) and Guanghan China) launched their
own production of 100LL grade gasoline.
Tianzhou Aviation Engine Fuel Technology Co., Ltd. (Guanghan, China) launched their
China has a government
own production of 100LL grade program to gradually reduce the consumption of leaded gasoline
gasoline.
and replace it with unleaded gasoline grades.
China has a government program to gradually Since 2015, the state
reduce thepetrochemical
consumptioncorporation
of leaded
China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation has started the production
gasoline and replace it with unleaded gasoline grades. Since 2015, the state of UL91 unleaded
petrochemical
aviation gasoline and received approval from the Chinese Civil Aviation Certification Center
corporation China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation has started the production of UL91
for its use on some aircraft models. As of 2019, Sichuan Tianzhou General Aviation Technology
unleaded aviation gasoline and received approval from the Chinese Civil Aviation Certi-
Co., Ltd. (Guanghan, China) has also received permission to produce UL91, 100VLL [60].
fication Center for its use on some aircraft models. As of 2019, Sichuan Tianzhou General
The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption and production volumes in the
Aviation Technology Co., Ltd. (Guanghan, China) has also received permission to produce
Asia–Pacific domestic market other than China is shown in Figure 8. The key consumer
UL91, 100VLL [60].
and producer of aviation gasoline in the region (over 60%) is Australia. In general, it can be
noted that the market is quite stable.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Statistics onthe
Statistics on theaviation
aviationgasoline
gasoline market
market in the
in the APR:
APR: (a) Aviation
(a) Aviation gasoline
gasoline consumption
consumption in the
in the APR; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the APR, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation
APR; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the APR, 2013–2021; (c) Aviation gasoline
production in the APR; (d) The dynamics of aviation gasoline production in the APR, 2013–2021.
Aerospace
Aerospace2023,
2023,10,
10,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1212ofof2525
gasoline
gasolineproduction
productionininthe
theAPR;
APR;(d)
(d)The
Thedynamics
dynamicsofofaviation
aviationgasoline
gasolineproduction
productionininthe
theAPR,
APR,2013–
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 112013–
of 24
2021.
2021.
The
Theexporters
exportersofofthe theregion
regionareareSouth
SouthKorea
KoreaandandAustralia,
Australia,with
witha alarger
largershare
sharebybythe
the
formerThe exporters
(15–20 of the
thousand region
tons in theare South
years Korea andImporters
2017–2020). Australia,(as
with
showna larger
in share 9)
Figure byare
the
former (15–20 thousand tons in the years 2017–2020). Importers (as shown in Figure 9) are
formercountries
mainly (15–20 thousand tonsproduce
in the years 2017–2020). Importers (as shown inLaos, Figure 9)
mainly countriesthat thatdo donot
not produceaviation
aviationgasoline,
gasoline,such
suchasasNew
NewZealand,
Zealand, Laos,the the
are mainly
Philippines, countries that do not produce aviation gasoline, such as New Zealand, Laos,
Philippines,India,
India,and
andvarious
variousisland
islandstates.
states.RegardingIndia,
RegardingIndia,ititisisinteresting
interestingtotonote
notethat
that
the Philippines,
country India, and various island states. RegardingIndia, it is interesting to note
countryhashasinitiated
initiateda aprogram
programfor forthe
theimport
importsubstitution
substitutionofofaviation
aviationgasoline
gasoline[61].
[61].AsAs
that
early country has initiated a program for the import substitution of aviation gasoline [61].
earlyasas2023,
2023,the
thecountry
countryexported
exported100LL100LLgrade
gradegasoline
gasolinefor
forthe
thefirst
firsttime,
time,which
whichwas was
As early as
produced 2023, theOil country exported 100LL grade gasoline for the first time, which was
producedby byIndian
Indian OilCorporation
Corporation[62]. [62].
produced by Indian Oil Corporation [62].
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure9.9.
9.Statistics
Statisticson
onthe
theaviation
aviationgasoline
gasolinemarket
marketinin
inthe
theAPR:
APR:(a)
(a)Aviation
Aviationgasoline
gasolineimport
importinin
inthe
the
Figure Statistics on the aviation gasoline market the APR: (a) Aviation gasoline import the
APR;
APR;(b)
(b)The
Thedynamics
dynamicsofofaviation
aviationgasoline
gasolineimports
importsininthe
theAPR,
APR,2013–2021.
2013–2021.
APR; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline imports in the APR, 2013–2021.
3.1.6.
3.1.6.The
3.1.6. TheAfrican
AfricanAviation
AviationGasoline
GasolineMarket
Market
Due
Due
Due to the
to the political
politicaland
and economic
economic
political and economic situation
situation
situation ininin
most
most African
most African
Africancountries
countries
countriesand
and the
and lack
thethelackofof
lack
other
other
of statistical
otherstatistical sources
statisticalsources and
sources and news
andnews in
news the
in in public
thethepublic domain
public domain
domainother
other than
than
other UN
thanUN data,
UN data,estimates
estimates
data, estimatesofof
the
of market
thethe
market
marketsituation,
situation, production,
situation,production,
production, and
and
andconsumption
consumption
consumption levels
levelsmay
levelsmay
may bebe
besubject
subjecttotosignificant
significant
significant
deviations.
deviations.This
deviations. This
This study
study
studyassumes
assumes
assumes that
that there
that there
thereisisnonoproduction
is no production ofofaviation
production aviation
of gasoline
aviation gasoline ininthe
gasoline inAf-
the Af-
the
rican
ricanregion.
African region. On
region.OnOnthis
thisbasis,
this
basis, the
basis, volume
thethe volume
volume ofofimports
of imports
imports by bycountry
by will
country
country bebenumerically
will
will be numerically
numerically equal
equal toto
equal
the
thevolume
to the
volume ofofconsumption
volume of consumption
consumption and,
and,accordingly,
and, the
accordingly,
accordingly, theoverall dynamics
the overall
overall ofofimports
dynamics
dynamics will
willcorre-
of imports
imports will
corre-
spond to
correspond the dynamics
to the of
dynamicsconsumption.
of The
consumption. dynamics
The and structure
dynamics
spond to the dynamics of consumption. The dynamics and structure per country are pre- and per country
structure per are pre-
country
sented
are
sented ininFigure
presented in 10.
Figure 10.The
Figure
The largest
10. importers
The largest
largest ofofaviation
importers
importers gasoline
of aviation
aviation ofofboth
gasoline
gasoline of leaded
both both and
andun-
leaded
leaded and
un-
leaded
unleaded grades
leaded grades are
grades Gabon,
areare Gabon,
Gabon, Guinea, Ghana,
Guinea,Ghana,
Guinea, Mali,
Ghana,Mali, the
Mali,the Republic
theRepublic of South
RepublicofofSouth Africa,
SouthAfrica, and
Africa,and others.
andothers.
others.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure10.
Figure 10.Statistics
10. Statisticson
onthe
on theaviation
the aviationgasoline
aviation gasolinemarket
gasoline marketinin
market inAfrica:
Africa:(a)(a)Aviation
Africa: Aviationgasoline
gasolineconsumption
consumptioninin
consumption in
Africa;
Africa;(b) The
(b) Thedynamics
dynamics ofofaviation
aviationgasoline
gasolineconsumption
consumption ininAfrica,
Africa,2013–2020.
2013–2020.
Africa; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in Africa, 2013–2020.
3.1.7. The Aviation Gasoline Market of CIS Countries

The dynamics of the consumption and production of aviation gasoline in the domestic
markets of CIS countries in open sources is only given for Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and
3.1.7. The Aviation Gasoline Market of CIS Countries

3.1.7.
TheThe Aviation
dynamics of Gasoline Market of
the consumption andCIS Countriesof aviation gasoline in the domes-
production
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 12 of 24
The of
tic markets dynamics of thein
CIS countries consumption
open sources and production
is only given forofUzbekistan,
aviation gasoline in the domes-
Kazakhstan, and
tic markets
Russia; of CIS countries
it is presented in Figure in11.
open sources is
According toonly given for
the source Uzbekistan,
[27], the level ofKazakhstan,
aviation gas- and
Russia;
oline it is presented
consumption in Figurein
in Uzbekistan 11.the
According
period from to the source
2011 [27],decreased
to 2020 the level of aviation
from 2 thou-gas-
Russia;
sandoline it is presented
consumption
tons/year in Figure
in Uzbekistan
to 1 thousand 11. According
in the
tons/year. period from
Information to from
the source
2011 [27],
to 2020
source [63] the level from
decreased
confirms of
theaviation
2 thou-
exist-
gasoline
sand consumption
tons/year to 1 in
thousand Uzbekistan
tons/year.in the period
Information from
from 2011
source
ence of the production of aviation gasoline in Uzbekistan at the Fergana refinery. There to 2020
[63] decreased
confirms the from
exist-
is
2 thousand
information tons/year
ence of theabout production to 1 thousand
of aviationplans
Turkmenistan’s tons/year.
gasoline Information
in Uzbekistan
to start production from
at of source
theaviation [63]
Ferganagasolineconfirms
refinery.atTheretheis
the
existence of the
information about
Turkmenbashi production
refinery of aviation
Turkmenistan’s
[64]. Aviation plansgasoline in
to start
gasoline Uzbekistan
production
production at the Fergana
dataofforaviation refinery.
gasoline
Kazakhstan There
at the
is pre-
isTurkmenbashi
sentedinformation
in the Figure about11,Turkmenistan’s
refinerybased[64].
onAviation plans to information.
gasoline
UN statistical start production
production ofonaviation
data
Data for gasoline
the Kazakhstan
dynamics of at
is the
pre-
avi-
Turkmenbashi
sented
ation gasoline refinery
in theexports
Figurefrom [64].
11, basedAviation gasoline
oncountries
the CIS UN statistical production data
information.
and Russia for
are notData Kazakhstan
on the
available is
indynamicspresented
of avi-
open sources.
ination
the Figure
gasoline 11, based from
exports on UN thestatistical information.
CIS countries and Russia Data
areon
notthe dynamics
available of aviation
in open sources.
gasoline exports from the CIS countries and Russia are not available in open sources.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Statistics on the aviation gasoline market in the CIS: (a) Aviation gasoline consumption
inFigure
the CIS;
Figure (b)
11.
11.
The dynamics
Statistics
Statistics ononthe
theofaviation
aviation
aviation
gasoline
gasoline
gasoline
consumption
market
market in in
thethe
in(a)
CIS:
CIS:
the CIS,
(a) 2013–2021.
Aviation
Aviation gasoline
gasoline consumption
consumption in
in the CIS; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the CIS, 2013–2021.
the CIS; (b) The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in the CIS, 2013–2021.
Currently, the Russian aviation gasoline market is represented by two grades. About
Currently,
half ofCurrently,
the market the
the Russianaviation
isRussian
occupied aviation
by Avgas gasoline
100LL.
gasoline market
Due is
market toisrepresented
represented
the extensive bybyexperience
twogrades.
two grades. About
ofAbout
the
USSRhalfof
half inofthe
thethe market
production
market is of
occupied
its own
is occupied by Avgas
grades
by Avgas 100LL.
Due Due
of aviation
100LL. thetoextensive
gasoline,
to the asextensiveas in experience
wellexperience
the production
of the USSRof the
inUSSR
and the in the of
operation
productionproduction
domestic
of its ownof its
pistonown
grades grades
aviation of aviation
equipment
of aviation gasoline,
and
gasoline, the asaswell
presence
as well asain
of
in the the production
large
production number and
and operation
ofoperation
piston aircraft of domestic
produced
of domestic piston
back
piston aviation
in the
aviation USSR equipment and and
in the fleet,
equipment the presence
domestic
the presence a of
market
of a has
large large itsnumber
number ownof
of piston
peculiarities.
piston aircraft
aircraftThus, produced
B-91/115
produced back
grade,
back in the USSR
developed
in the USSR ininin the
the
the fleet,
USSR,
fleet, thethe indomestic
is domestic
demand market
and is has
market hasitsitsown
produced own
peculiarities.
inpeculiarities.
Russia. B-91/115 Thus,
Thus, B-91/115
grade
B-91/115 grade,
aviation
grade, developed
gasoline
developed inthe
is mostly
in theUSSR,
USSR,
used isisin
for indemand
the demand
needs of and
and theisisproduced
produced
Russian
ininRussia.
Russia.
Ministry B-91/115
of Defense
B-91/115 grade
(ingrade aviation
particular,
aviation gasoline
forgasoline
aviation isis mostly
schools
mostly and used
used theforfor theneeds
Russian
the needs
Army, ofofthetheRussian
Air Russian
Force,
and Ministry
Navy Volunteer
Ministry ofofDefense
Defense (inparticular,
particular,
Society),
(in foraviation
while AVGAS
for aviation
100LL schools
aviation
schools and
and theRussian
gasoline
the Russian
is used Army,
for the
Army, Air
Air Force,
needs
Force,
andNavy
ofand
civil Navy
aviation Volunteer
Volunteer Society),while
Society), whileAVGAS
(commercial/non-commercial AVGAS100LL 100LLaviation
aviation, aviation gasoline
purposeisis
specialgasoline usedfor
used
aviation, foretc.).
theneeds
the needs
ofofcivil
civilaviation
Figure aviation
12 shows(commercial/non-commercial
(commercial/non-commercial
data on the dynamics of aviation aviation,
aviation, special
special
gasoline purpose
purposeaviation,
consumption aviation,
in Russia etc.).
etc.).
by
Figure
Figure
grade since 12
2010 shows
12 and
shows data on
data onup
a forecast the dynamics
thetodynamics of
2030 (under aviation
of aviation gasoline
the baselinegasoline consumption
consumption
scenario described in Russia
Russiaby
inabove). by
grade
gradesince
since2010
2010andandaaforecast
forecastup uptoto2030
2030(under
(underthe thebaseline
baselinescenario
scenariodescribed
describedabove).above).
Figure 12. The dynamics of aviation gasoline consumption in Russia since 2010 and a forecast
until 2030.
The demand of the Russian fleet regarding the grades consumed is equally estimated
between Avgas 100LL and B-91/115. The vast majority of aircraft in the Russian fleet
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 13 of 24
are also allowed to use automotive gasoline with RON 95, but in this case, additional
restrictions are imposed in the form of a shortened service interval, payload limitations,
and maximum flight altitude. Mogas was often used until 2014 due to the high price of
imported aviation gasoline in use in Russia. Imported gasoline was the only available
option at that time. At the moment, the volume of mogas used to operate piston aviation
equipment is estimated at 300 tons/year.
Unleaded aviation gasoline is currently unavailable on the Russian market due to
indirect legislative restrictions. Mandatory requirements for aviation gasoline are set by
the Technical Regulation of the Customs Union TR TS 013 “On requirements for motor
and aviation gasoline, diesel and marine fuel, jet fuel and fuel oil”. This document con-
tains mandatory requirements for “performance number” (rich mixture), which is at least
115 units and labelled as the color “green”. Regulatory requirements for imported unleaded
aviation fuel do not require the determination of the performance number due to the fact
that this indicator only has objective significance for leaded gasoline. Thus, imported un-
leaded aviation fuel cannot be legitimately used on the territory of the Russian Federation
and the Customs Union.
3.2. Production and Economic Performance Relations

Economic indices—the share of production in GDP and per capita consumption of
aviation gasoline—allow for an indirect assessment and comparison of the current states of
general aviation, as well as the refining industry. Thus, the highest per capita consumption
is observed in New Zealand, Australia, USA, and Canada due to the high levels of the
development of the general aviation industry.
The largest share of aviation gasoline production in GDP is observed in developed
countries with high GDP per capita, such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Poland, and the
Netherlands. A summary of the aviation gasoline market and its relation to GDP is given
in Table 3.
Table 3. Statistical indicators for aviation gasoline and their relationship with economic indices.
Consumption, Population, Consumption GDP, Production, GDP per Share in

The Region The Country
kt/Year Million per Capita Billion USD kt/Year Capita GDP, %
USA 507 335.16 1.52 24,462 468 73.0 0.0046
North Canada 27 40.2 0.67 2273 36 56.5 0.0038
America Mexico 18 129.04 0.14 2742 0 21.3 -
Brazil 27 203.06 0.13 3837 2 18.9 0.0002
South Colombia 10 52.26 0.19 1052 11 20.1 0.0031
America Argentina 5 46.05 0.11 1225 0 26.6 -
France 20 68.128 0.30 3769 25 55.3 0.0018
United Kingdom 12 67.026 0.18 3656 0 54.5 -
Europe Germany 4 84.358 0.05 5309 0 62.9 -
Poland 5 37.726 0.12 1625 32 43.1 0.0054
Netherlands 1 17.886 0.07 1231 63 68.8 0.0139
Russia 10 146.424 0.07 5326 9 36.4 0.0005
CIS Kazakhstan 6 19.854 0.30 604 6 30.4 0.0027
Uzbekistan 1 36.197 0.03 339 1 9.4 0.0008
Australia 43 26.659 1.61 1626 39 61.0 0.0044
Asia–Pacific New Zealand 7 5.199 1.35 237 0 45.6 -
Republic of
1 51.439 0.02 2585 13 50.3 0.0008
Korea
Ghana 7 30.832 0.23 196 0 6.4 -
Gabon 19 2.233 8.51 35 0 15.7 -
Africa Guinea 13 13.261 0.98 39 0 2.9 -
Mali 5 23.293 0.21 51 0 2.2 -
To carry out the calculation of the GDP share, average aviation gasoline prices were
considered, taking into account the following facts: In Europe, between September 2020 and
now, the price of Avgas 100LL leaded gasoline varies from 1.3 to 3.05 euro/L depending
To carry out the calculation of the GDP share, average aviation gasoline prices were
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 considered, taking into account the following facts: In Europe, between September 2020 14 of 24
and now, the price of Avgas 100LL leaded gasoline varies from 1.3 to 3.05 euro/L depend-
ing on the region. The average price at the same time is 2.43 euros with a standard devia-
tion
on of
the0.53 and The
region. dispersion
averageofprice
0.28.atUnleaded
the sameAvgas
time is91UL ranges
2.43 euros from
with 1.7 to 2.4deviation
a standard euro/L
of 0.53
with and dispersion
an average of 0.28.
price of 2.04 Unleaded
euro/L Avgas
euro with 91UL ranges
a standard fromof1.7
deviation toand
0.44 2.4 euro/L with
dispersion
ofan average
0.19. price
It should beofnoted
2.04 that
euro/L euroone
within with a standard
airport, deviationisof
UL91 gasoline 0.44
sold atand dispersion
a price 5–7%
of 0.19.
lower thanIt leaded
should100LL
be noted that within
gasoline oneaverage
[29]. The airport, price
UL91of gasoline is soldwas
Avgas 100LL at a taken
price 5–7%
for
lower than leaded 100LL gasoline [29]. The average price of Avgas
calculations. In North America, the price of Avgas 100LL aviation gasoline ranges from 100LL was taken
for to
$4.25 calculations.
$12.5/gallon, Inwith
North America,ofthe
an average price of (approximately
$6.9/gallon Avgas 100LL aviation
$2.4/kg)gasoline ranges
with a stand-
from
ard $4.25 toof$12.5/gallon,
deviation 1 and dispersionwithofan1.2
average of $6.9/gallon
[30]. Costs in Australia(approximately $2.4/kg) with
are based on information
onaanstandard deviation
airport website ofand
[31] 1 and dispersion
in South Korea,ofon1.2 [30]. import
Indian Costs data
in Australia
[32]. are based on
information on an airport website [31] and in South Korea, on Indian import data [32].
3.3. The State of the World’s Piston Aviation Fleet
3.3. The State of the World’s Piston Aviation Fleet
The development of the global aviation gasoline market primarily depends on the
prospectsTheofdevelopment of the
piston aviation. global13aviation
Figure shows thegasoline market primarily
FAA forecast depends onof
for the development the
prospects of piston aviation. Figure 13 shows the FAA forecast for the development of
general aviation [56]. According to the FAA, the general aviation fleet will increase annu-
general aviation [56]. According to the FAA, the general aviation fleet will increase annually
ally until 2043 by an average of 0.2%; thus, the number of aircraft will grow from 209,140
until 2043 by an average of 0.2%; thus, the number of aircraft will grow from 209,140 in
in 2022 to 216,395 in 2043. However, piston aviation represents only 71.2% of the general
2022 to 216,395 in 2043. However, piston aviation represents only 71.2% of the general
aviation fleet. The number of piston aircraft is expected to decline from 140,485 in 2022 to
aviation fleet. The number of piston aircraft is expected to decline from 140,485 in 2022
122,350 in 2043; thus, the average annual decline of piston aircraft will be about 0.6%. The
to 122,350 in 2043; thus, the average annual decline of piston aircraft will be about 0.6%.
reason for this is the overall growing cost of aircraft ownership and the availability of
The reason for this is the overall growing cost of aircraft ownership and the availability of
cheaper alternatives.
cheaper alternatives.
Figure 13. The forecast of the development of general aviation and piston aviation.
Figure 13. The forecast of the development of general aviation and piston aviation.
In order to assess the prospects for unleaded aviation gasoline production, it is neces-
In order to assess the prospects for unleaded aviation gasoline production, it is nec-
sary to estimate the amount of piston aircraft and approved fuel produced over the last
essary to estimate the amount of piston aircraft and approved fuel produced over the last
decades. The analysis of the global production of piston aircraft in the period 2006–2019
decades. The analysis of the global production of piston aircraft in the period 2006–2019
and their fuel requirements according to GAMA (The General Aviation Manufacturers
and their fuel requirements according to GAMA (The General Aviation Manufacturers
Association) is presented in Table 4 [65].
Association) is presented
According in Tabledata,
to the analyzed 4 [65].100LL covers 100% of the modern aircraft fleet, while
UL91 unleaded gasoline can be used on 46% of new aircraft. The scope of UL94 unleaded
Table 4. The structure of the world fleet of aircraft manufactured in 2006–2019 by fuel consumption.
gasoline is slightly higher—51% due to the availability of Continental Motors TSIO-550-K
engine approval. A new grade of unleaded
Indicator UL91 aviation gasoline, G100UL,
UL94 100LL has been approved
Total
for use Airplanes,
in all engine types,
pcs. which also means
8149 full fleet
9533 coverage [18].
19,511 As the total number
19,511
of small aircraft fleets decreases, demand for aviation gasoline is expected to decrease
by 10–15%.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 15 of 24
Table 4. The structure of the world fleet of aircraft manufactured in 2006–2019 by fuel consumption.
Indicator UL91 UL94 100LL Total

Airplanes, pcs. 8149 9533 19,511 19,511
Helicopters, pcs. 3383 3383 5688 5688
Total, pcs. 11,532 12,916 25,199 25,199
Scope among airplanes % 41.8 48.9 100.0 100.0
Scope among helicopters % 59.5 59.5 100.0 100.0
Scope among all aircraft, % 45.8 51.3 100.0 100.0
Airplanes, pcs. 8149 9533 19,511 19,511
3.4. An Overview of Components Used in the Production of Aviation Gasoline

In order to determine the components applicable for use in the composition of un-
leaded aviation gasoline, first of all, it is necessary to consider the requirements of regulatory
documentation to their physical and chemical characteristics. Requirements for the physical
and chemical characteristics of UL91 and UL94 grades of aviation gasoline are established
by ASTM D7547 [66]. Requirements for UL91 grade are also included in the DEF STAN
91-090 standard [67]. For high-octane aviation gasolines with a MON over 100, there are
currently no unified requirements. There are UL100 and UL102 test grades. Research
on their development is carried out by several foreign companies. Currently, they are
undergoing a set of bench tests. The requirements for the characteristics have not been
completely formulated. Specifications for test gasoline grades are set in ASTM D7960 [68],
ASTM D7719 [69], and ASTM WK69284 standards [70].
Table 5 shows a comparison of requirements for these grades, as well as mandatory
requirements for aviation gasoline sold in the territory of the Customs Union, established
by TR TS 013/2011 [71].
Based on the data given in Table 5, it follows that the requirements for UL91 and UL94
grades fully correspond to the requirements for Avgas 100LL, except for the indicators
characterizing antiknock properties (MON, performance number), as well as color. Conse-
quently, the production technologies of UL91 and UL94 aviation gasoline should be close
to the production technologies of Avgas 100LL. Based on literature data [28], the average
component composition of Avgas 100LL is shown in Table 6.
It is known that the exceptionally high anti-detonation properties of Avgas 100LL
are provided as a result of the use of tetraethyl lead (TEL), which is added in an amount
not exceeding 0.56 g/L (in conversion to lead) to the base carbon–hydrogen blend. The
required color of commercial gasoline is provided by introducing dyes.
The basic component of aviation gasoline is alkylate [72]. The main compounds
included in alkylate are C8 isoparaffins, which have the highest specific mass heat of
combustion and a high-octane number. Characteristics that delineate the limits of alkylate
involvement in Avgas 100LL are high temperatures of 10% and 50% evaporated volumes,
the final boiling point, as well as low vapor pressure.
According to data in the literature, Avgas 100LL is traditionally produced using the
so-called light alkylate as the main component, since the broad fraction alkylate used for
the production of mogas has FBP values that are too high, which limits its application
without the separation of the light fraction [72].
Other high-octane components of aviation gasolines are aromatic hydrocarbons, pri-
marily toluene. They are characterized by high temperatures of 10% and 50% evaporated
volumes, low vapor pressure, and a low value of the specific mass heat of combustion,
which indirectly limits their share in the composition. Traditionally, the concentration of
the aromatic component in the composition of aviation gasoline is kept close to the upper
limit, limited by the above-mentioned characteristics. Since UL91 and UL94 performance
requirements (except for knock resistance) are similar to Avgas 100LL, the presence of the
aromatic component is also necessary for meeting regulatory requirements.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 16 of 24
Table 5. Requirements for the different grades of aviation gasoline.
UL91
100VLL UL91 UL94 UL102 UL102 100M
TR TS DEF
Property Limit ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
013/2011 STAN
D910 D7547 D7547 D7719 D7960 D8434
91-090
Motor Octane Number Min. 91.0 99.6 91.0 91.0 94.0 102.2 102.5 99.6
Rated Octane Number - - - 95.0 - - - -
Performance number Min. 115 1 130 - - - - - 130
Lead content, g Pb/L Max. - 0.45 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013
Manganese content, g Mn/L Min.–Max. - - - - - - - 0.05–0.1
Density at 15 ◦ C, kg/m3 Min.–Max. - report report report report 790–825 report report
Distillation:
Initial boiling point, ◦ C Min. - report report report report report report report
10% is evaporated at temperature, ◦C Max. 82 75 75 75 75 75 75 75
40% is evaporated at temperature, ◦ C Min. - 75 75 75 75 75 75 75
50% is evaporated at temperature, ◦ C Max. 105 105 105 105 105 165 105 105
90% is evaporated at temperature, ◦C Max. 170 135 135 135 135 165 135 135
Final boiling point, ◦ C Max. - 170 170 170 170 180 210 170
Sum of 10 and 50% evaporated, ◦ C Min. - 135 135 135 135 135 135 135
Recovery, % vol. Min. - 97 97 97 97 97 97 97
Residue, % vol. Max. 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Loss, % vol. Max. 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Vapor pressure, kPa Min.–Max. 29.3–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0 38.0–49.0
Freezing point, ◦ C Max. −60 −58 −58 −58 −58 −58 report −58
Sulfur content, % by mass Max. 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Net heat of combustion, kJ/kg Min. - 43.5 43.5 43.5 43.5 41.5 42 43.5
Corrosion of copper strip, 2 h at 100 ◦ C Max. - No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No 1 No 1 No 1
Oxidation stability, potential gum mg/100 mL Max - 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
residue Max - - 3 2 3 - - -
Total gum, mg/100 mL Max. 3 - - - - - 1 -
Mechanical impurities and water content Max absence - absence - absence - - -
Water reaction, volume change, mL Max. - ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2
Electrical conductivity, pSm/m 3 Min.–Max. - 50–450 50–450 50–600 50–450 50–450 50–450 50–450
Color - Green 2 - - - - - - -
Content of aromatic hydrocarbons, % wt. Min. - - - - - 70 - -
Benzene content, % wt. Max. - - - - - 0.1 - -

1 For B-92 grade, the standard for the indicator “performance number” is not less than 100; it is determined at
the stage of production preparation and is guaranteed by the production technology. 2 Aviation gasoline with a
MON of at least 99.5 and a performance number of at least 130 may contain blue dye. 3 Determined only when an
antistatic additive is used.
Table 6. The average component composition of aviation gasoline AVGAS 100LL.
Component Concentration, % wt.

Alkylate up to 70
Isomerate and isopentane fraction 10–20
Toluene 10–25
Isooctane up to 90
TEL up to 0.19
Antioxidant, mg/kg, max. 16
Dye, mg/kg, max 2.7
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 17 of 24
To ensure optimal vaporizability, aviation gasolines contain light components—isopentane

fraction or isomerate. These components have a high vapor pressure value, low temperatures
of 40% evaporated volume and the sum of 10 and 50% evaporated volumes, as well as high
losses. Their use in the composition of aviation gasolines makes it possible to adjust the value
of vapor pressure in wide ranges.
Lower requirements for the detonation resistance of aviation gasoline grades UL91
and UL94 allow us to make the following assumption: in order to ensure the required
quality indicators for these grades, it is advisable to use base hydrocarbon blends for Avgas
100LL without adding TEL.
According to earlier studies [73], it is not possible to meet all the requirements for
Avgas 100LL aviation gasoline without using TEL. In order to obtain formulations with
MON values above 100, it is necessary to use other high-octane components and additives
that will affect the other parameters. Therefore, for such compositions, it is necessary to
establish new standards for distillation points, first of all.
Some modifications to the requirements for the universal grade Avgas 100LL ASTM
D910 open up prospects for the use of a number of high-octane components and additives
to produce an alternative lead-free aviation gasoline grade. Scientific, technical, and patent
literature discusses the use of the following products:
(1) oxygen-containing compounds (oxygenates);
(2) aromatic amines;
(3) manganese antiknock agents;
(4) individual aromatic hydrocarbons (other than toluene);
(5) combinations of the compounds above.
An example of the use of aromatic hydrocarbons is the development of UL102 fuel by
Swift Fuels, of which mesitylene (1,3,5-trimethylbenzene) is used in its composition [74].
The performance standards for this grade are set by the ASTM D7719 specification. This
standard specifies that UL102 gasoline is a binary fuel composition consisting of 79–84% wt.
mesitylene (1,3,5-trimethylbenzene) and 16–21% wt. isopentane (2-methylbutane). Swift
Fuels envisions producing such fuels from renewable plant feedstocks. However, their
low mass heat of combustion, high boiling point, as well as an increased tendency to form
deposits in the combustion chamber can be noted among the disadvantages of aromatic
hydrocarbons. On the other hand, as they have high density, aromatized fuels have a high
volumetric heat of combustion. For this reason, ASTM D7719 standardizes the density
of gasoline.
Manganese antiknock agents have found wide application as additives to mogas as
a result of the ban on the production of leaded gasoline. Among many different com-
pounds, cyclopentadienyltricarbonyl manganese and methylcyclopentadienyltricarbonyl
manganese (MMT) have been widely used in practice. Currently, the use of manganese
additives in mogas is prohibited in Russia [71]. The advantages of manganese antiknock
agents are their high antiknock efficiency at low concentrations. However, there is also a
disadvantage, which is the increased tendency of manganese-containing gasoline to form
deposits in the combustion chamber of engines. Thus, manganese antiknock agents can the-
oretically serve as a substitute for TEL to increase the octane number for aviation gasoline.
The use of manganese antiknock additives for aviation gasoline in concentrations from 0.01
to 0.5 g per liter of fuel is described in the patents of Afton Chemical Corporation [75] and
Calumet Specialty Products Partners [76].
In 2015, Afton Chemical Corporation in cooperation with Phillips 66, submitted a draft
standard to the ASTM committee that establishes standards for UL100 unleaded gasoline
containing a manganese antiknock agent. The explanatory note to the draft standard
specifies a formulation of UL100 unleaded gasoline that includes 5–15% isopentane and/or
butane, 50–85% alkylate, 5–20% aromatics, and a <1% AvGuard UL proprietary additive
package [70]. The standards set for the UL100 performance number are identical to those
for Avgas 100LL bulk leaded aviation gasoline except for the lead content. The standard
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 18 of 24
sets the norm for manganese content from 0.05 to 0.1 g. Mn/L. The fuel has passed a set of
laboratory and bench tests.
When using gasoline with manganese-containing additives, there is a problem of the
accumulation of manganese oxides in the combustion chamber. Therefore, manganese
antiknock agents, like MMT, require a carrier of their combustion products from the
engine cylinders. Afton Chemical Company’s patent [77] describes a combustion chamber
manganese scavenger composition based on organophosphorus compounds selected from
the groups of tritolyl phosphate, triphenyl phosphate, triisopropyl phosphate, dimethyl
methyl phosphonate, triphenyl phosphine oxide, and triisopropyl phosphate. The patent
also describes manganese scavenger from the groups of dibromopropane, dibromotoluene,
and dibromomethylaniline.
Aromatic amines have been used as antiknock additives for aviation gasoline since
the 1920s. In the USSR, extraline (technical purity N-methylaniline) was used for this
purpose, and in the USA and England, xylidine was used [78]. Currently, the possibility of
using aromatic amines for the production of unleaded alternative aviation gasoline with a
MON over 100 is being considered in the USA [78]. Meta-toluidine (3-methylaniline) at
concentrations ranging from 3 to 12% wt. is considered the most promising compound [68].
The patent also offers technical solutions for the use of various aromatic amines as high-
octane additives to unleaded gasoline. Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. offers a composition of
unleaded gasoline containing a mixture of toluidine isomers from 2 to 10% vol. [79].
ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Co. (Irving, TX, USA) proposes the use of various
aromatic amines of the general formula NH2-Ar-(R1)n, where R1 is a C1-10 alkyl substituent
located in the meta and para positions in the aromatic ring; Ar is a phenyl aromatic group;
n is an integer from 0 to 3 [51]. In general, it should be noted that the use of aromatic
amines can be a very promising direction for Russia, taking into account the experience
accumulated in our country by using N-methylaniline as an additive to automobile and
aviation gasoline. However, it is necessary to take into account the potential disadvantages
of this approach, which are associated with the increased formation of deposits on valves
when fuel containsa high concentration of aromatic amines in fuel. The standards for
unleaded aviation gasoline in which amines are allowed are set forth in the ASTM D7960
specification for test grade UL102. The appendix to the standard describes an average fuel
composition containing amines from 1 to 10% in the composition.
The use of oxygen-containing compounds (oxygenates) is one of the most promising
directions for the development of unleaded aviation gasoline. Among various oxygenates
the following deserve the most attention: ethanol, ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) and methyl
tert-butyl ether (MTBE).
There are various technical solutions for the use of ethanol (or bioethanol), both as a
component of gasoline in a low concentration of up to 5% vol. [80] and as a base component
of alternative aviation fuel. South Dakota State University (USA) conducted extensive
research and tests of aviation fuel E85 (Aviation Grade E85-AGE85), consisting of 80–90%
vol. of ethanol and hydrocarbon fraction C5 (mainly isopentane) with a small addition of
fatty acid methyl esters as an anticorrosion additive [81]. The disadvantages of such fuel
are its much lower heat of combustion, high latent heat of vaporization, high corrosion
aggressiveness, and incompatibility with some elastomers. In addition, the use of AGE85
fuel requires modifications to the aircraft fuel system to adapt its operation at higher
fuel/air ratios. However, despite the research conducted, AGE85 ethanol aviation fuel has
not yet found commercial application as an alternative to aviation gasoline [82].
Dialkyl ethers (ETBE and MTBE) have a higher heat of combustion than ethanol,
are nearly insoluble in water, and are less aggressive towards elastomers; as a result, the
prospects for their application are evaluated more highly than ethanol. The Swedish com-
pany Hjelmco Oil, which has achieved the greatest practical success in the production
of unleaded aviation gasoline grades 80/87 and UL91, is currently developing unleaded
aviation gasoline UL100, which contains a significant amount of ETBE [83]. Texaco Devel-
opment Corp. (Beaumont, TX, USA) in its patent [84] proposes a composition of unleaded
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 19 of 24
aviation gasoline containing up to 40% dialkyl ethers (ETBE or MTBE) combined with
aromatic amines and a manganese antiknock additive. It should be noted that in the USA,
as a result of comprehensive studies on the development of a fuel composition of unleaded
gasoline [73], a fundamental possibility of using ETBE at a concentration of up to 30% was
established. In addition, the U.S. has developed an ASTM standard for ETBE for its use
as a component of aviation fuel [85]. In Russia, studies were also conducted to involve
MTBE in the composition of aviation gasoline B-91/115. Its high antiknock properties were
established [86]. The use of oxygenates in unleaded aviation gasoline is also assumed in the
ASTM D7960 specification for UL102 test grade. The appendix to the standard describes an
averaged top-liquid composition, containing up to 10% heteroatom compounds (including
oxygenates) in a composition.
In the United States, the development of unleaded aviation gasoline fuel compositions
has been conducted since the late 1990s under the direction of the Coordinating Research
Council, Inc. (CRC) (Alpharetta, GA, USA). In 2010, the CRC released a final report pre-
senting the results of four phases of research on the development and testing of the fuel
compositions of unleaded aviation gasoline alternative 100LL [73]. In the course of the
work, 279 different fuel compositions were tested, of which 10 types of components and
additives were used—the main ones being alkylate, aviation alkylate, technical purity
isooctane, toluene, ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), ethanol, metha-toluidine, and methylcy-
clopentadienyltricarbonyl manganese (MMT). The main conclusion of the CRC report is
that it is impossible to obtain unleaded aviation gasoline that fully meets the requirements
of ASTM D910 for 100LL grade. Table 7 summarizes the most successful fuel compositions
and their test results from the CRC report. In addition, Table 7 shows the test results and
compositions of unleaded gasoline compositions with a MON above 100, developed by
leading companies in this field and published in the relevant patents.
As can be seen from the CRC results, the achievement of the MON value corresponding
to the standard for 100LL gasoline—at least 99.6—as well as performance number—at least
13—is possible only if the gasoline simultaneously contains at least 1% vol. m-toluidine,
29.9% vol. ETBE, and 25% vol. toluene. However, the heat of the combustion of such a
composition due to the high proportion of toluene and ETBE is 40.78 MJ/kg, which is much
lower than the value established in ASTM D910—43.5 MJ/kg. In addition, this composition
does not meet the specifications for freezing point, vapor pressure, and some points of
distillation. A much higher concentration of m-toluidine, up to 10% vol, is required to
obtain more acceptable values of the heat of combustion with a reduced fraction of toluene
and ETBE. It should also be noted that in all compositions that met the requirements of
ASTM D910 for knock resistance, technical purity isooctane was used as one of the base
components.
CRC’s research was the basis for ASTM D7960. The development of compositions
according to this document was actively carried out by Shell. According to patent data, it is
possible to produce unleaded UL102 grade meeting the requirements of ASTM D7960 on
the basis of alkylate (15–30% vol.), toluene (35–55% vol.), and isopentane (from 8% vol.)
with the addition of a 2 to 10% vol. of aniline and 4 to 10% vol. of C4–C5 alcohols [87].
The production of an unleaded aviation gasoline of UL100 grade corresponding to
the requirements of the new WK69284 under development and according to the patents
of Afton Chemical Corp (Richmond, VA, USA) [75,88] is possible when using a base
component of aromatic compounds from 1 to 50% (vol.) and aviation alkylate from 20%
(vol.) with the addition of a manganese-containing organic compound, ensuring the
concentration of manganese in the fuel composition is not more than 125 mg/L. The
averaged component compositions of unleaded aviation gasolines with a MON not less
than 100 are given in Table 8.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 20 of 24
Table 7. The compositions and test results of unleaded aviation gasoline with a MON above 100.
CRC CRC CRC D7960 D7960 D7719 D7719 WK69284 WK69284

Component
[73] [73] [73] [68] [68] [69] [69] [70] [70]
Alkylate - - - - - - - 74.5 77.1
Aviation Alkylate - 4.02 - 13.0 12.0 - - - -
Technical purity iso-octane 42.51 39.98 46.98 - - - - - -
Toluene 25.01 25.00 25.01 35.0 45.0 - - 11.5 8.9
ETBE 29.98 29.79 24.99 - - - - - -
Iso-octane 99% 26.0 12.0 33.0 13.0 - -
Isopentane 20.0 21.0 10.0 10.0 9.6 12.9
Butane - - 2 2 4.4 1.1
Isobutanol - 5.0 - - - -
Mesitylene - 55.0 75.0 - -
Meta-toluidine 2.50 1.03 3.02 6.0 - - - - -
Aniline 5.0 - - - -
MMT (mg Mn/L) 71.7 125
Test results
Motor Octane Number 101.0 99.8 101.2 101.0 103.7 99.8 101.3 99.8 100.2
Performance number 131.2 146.1 152.5 - - - - 133.3 131.5
Density at 15 ◦ C, kg/m3 765.1 760.2 764.0 766.0 779.0 773.1 815.4 708.1 702.6
Fraction composition: Initial boiling
81.0 79.5 82.5 - - - - 36.0 37.0
point, ◦ C
10% is evaporated at temperature, ◦ C 89.5 88.5 90.0 63.3 65.5 - - 68.0 68.5
50% is evaporated at temperature, ◦C 95.0 94.5 96.5 103.9 104.0 - - 97.0 98.0
Final boiling point, ◦ C 191.5 178.0 189.5 196.9 179.0 - - 116.5 138.0
Sum of 10 and 50% evaporated, ◦ C 184.5 183.0 186.5 167.2 169.5 - - 165.5 166.5
Recovery, % vol. 99.0 98.9 98.5 - - - - 98.5 98.5
Residue, % vol. 0.9 1.0 0.8 - - - - 0.7 0.9
Loss, % vol. 0.1 0.1 0.7 - - - - 0.8 0.6
Vapor pressure, kPa 17.4 18.7 16.6 42.5 44.1 - - 47.8 41.2
Freezing point, ◦ C <−70 −41 −47 −70 −65.5 - - <−70 <−78
Net heat of combustion, MJ/kg 40.61 40.78 40.96 42.5 42.13 42.40 41.70 43.8 44.0
Oxidation stability (5 h aging):
potential gum, mg/100 cm3 2 3 4 - - - - 2 2
residue, mg/100 cm3 <0.1 0.3 <0.1 - - - - 0.3 0
Water reaction, volume change, cm3 0 0 0 - - - - 0 0
Table 8. The average component composition of aviation gasolines UL100.
UL102 UL102 UL100

Component
ASTM D7960 ASTM D7719 ASTM WK69284
Alkylate 15–30 0–5 50–85
Technical purity iso-octane 15–30 0–15 -
Isomerate C5 –C6 15–30 - -
Isopentane fraction 15–30 10–20 0–15
Aromatic hydrocarbons 35–55 58–88 0–20
Butane - 0–2 0–5
Aromatic amines 2–10 - -
Oxygenates 4–10 - -
MMT - - up to 125 mg Mn/L
TOTAL 100 100 100
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 21 of 24
4. Conclusions
The FAA forecasts that the production of aviation gasoline remains low, and there is
no tendency to increase its production; on the contrary, the number of gasoline-powered
fleets is expected to gradually decrease, with substitution towards jet-powered aircrafts.
Nevertheless, until 2043, more than 50% of general aviation will be piston-powered aircraft,
which means that aviation gasoline will need to be produced to operate aircraft for the
next 20 years at least. The objective of the work was to assess the key regions involved
in production, how imports and exports have changed over the last 10 years, and how
technology will change. The main findings of the research can be summarized as follows:
• The largest share of aviation gasoline production in a GDP is observed in developed
countries with a high GDP per capita, such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Poland,
and the Netherlands. Just 5 of these countries account for 88% of aviation gasoline
production. A total of 77% of consumption is in the USA, Canada, Brazil, France, and
Australia. In general, less than 10 market players influence its development.
• The decarbonization of civil aviation has not yet reached light aviation; there are
currently no roadmaps, except for the phase-out of leaded fuel. However, as civil
aviation decarbonizes and moves away from piston engines, the use of aviation
gasoline will gradually decline. It will be replaced with jet-powered aircraft as well as
hydrogen and electricity.
• However, before piston aircraft are phased out, the primary issue of lead in fuel needs
to be resolved, and fuel can be standardized. Today’s aircraft fleet are 100% covered
by 100LL gasoline; the recent approval of G100UL fuel for all engine types holds great
promise for the introduction of unleaded aviation gasolines. Once the leaded gasoline
ban is implemented, the market is expected to switch to 100% unleaded gasoline.
• The average composition of UL91 and UL94 unleaded grades based on alkylate,
isomerate, isopentane fraction, and an aromatic component was formulated. The main
directions for the possible development of aviation gasolines with a MON over 100
have been determined as follows: the use of aromatic amines, manganese antiknock
agents, and individual aromatic hydrocarbons in the composition of oxygenates.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.E. and K.A.O.; methodology, V.D.S.; formal analysis,
N.O.B.; investigation, D.Y.M., N.A.K. and U.A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, N.A.K., E.S.D.
and E.V.K.-O.; writing—review and editing, M.A.E., U.A.M. and D.R.A.; visualization, E.V.K.-O. and
E.V.P.; supervision, V.M.K. and A.V.K.; project administration, E.V.P. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Readers can access our data by sending an email to the corresponding
author Mikhail A. Ershov.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Sarathy, S.M.; Farooq, A.; Kalghatgi, G.T. Recent progress in gasoline surrogate fuels. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2018, 65, 67–108.
[CrossRef]
2. Thanikasalam, K.; Rahmat, M.; Fahmi, A.G.M.; Zulkifli, A.M.; Shawal, N.N.; Ilanchelvi, K.; Ananth, M.; Elayarasan, R. Piston
Aviation Fuel Initiative (PAFI)—A Review. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 370, 012010. [CrossRef]
3. Danilov, A.M. Introduction to Chemotology; Publishing House “Technique”: London, UK, 2003.
4. Lovestead, T.M.; Bruno, T.J. Application of the Advanced Distillation Curve Method to the Aviation Fuel Avgas 100LL. Energy
Fuels 2009, 23, 2176–2183. [CrossRef]
5. Hemighaus, G.; Boval, T.; Bacha, J.; Barnes, F.; Franklin, M.; Gibbs, L.; Hogue, N.; Jones, J.; Lesnini, D.; Lind, J.; et al. Aviation Fuels
Technical Review; Report of Shevron; Chevron Corporation: San Ramon, CA, USA, 2006.
6. Ershov, M.A.; Klimov, N.A.; Burov, N.O.; Abdellatief, T.M.M.; Kapustin, V.M. Creation a novel promising technique for producing
an unleaded aviation gasoline 100UL. Fuel 2021, 284, 118928. [CrossRef]
7. Zahran, S.; Iverson, T.; McElmurry, S.P.; Weiler, S. The Effect of Leaded Aviation Gasoline on Blood Lead in Children. J. Assoc.
Environ. Resour. Econ. 2017, 4, 2. [CrossRef]
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 22 of 24
8. Klemick, H.; Guignet, D.; Bui, L.T.; Shadbegian, R.; Milani, C. Cardiovascular Mortality and Leaded Aviation Fuel: Evidence from
Piston-Engine Air Traffic in North Carolina. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5941. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Pritchett, A.R.; German, B.J.; Griffith, J.D.; Kenville, K.A.; Miranda, M.L.; Mitchell, R.A.K.; Passavant, G.W.; Robertson, B.I.;
Turner, J.R.; Whiteside, A.J. Options for Reducing Lead Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft; Special Report 336; The National
Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2021.
10. Zahran, S.; Keyes, C.; Lanphear, B. Leaded aviation gasoline exposure risk and child blood lead levels. PNAS Nexus 2023, 2, 285.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Miranda, M.L.; Anthopolos, R.; Hastings, D. A Geospatial Analysis of the Effects of Aviation Gasoline on Childhood Blood Lead
Levels. Env. Health Perspect 2011, 119, 1513–1516. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Zhao, Z.; Cui, H. Numerical investigation on combustion processes of an aircraft piston engine fueled with aviation kerosene and
gasoline. Energy 2022, 239, 122264. [CrossRef]
13. Yu, L.; Wu, H.; Zhao, W.; Qian, Y.; Zhu, L.; Lu, X. Experimental study on the application of n-butanol and n-butanol/kerosene
blends as fuel for spark ignition aviation piston engine. Fuel 2021, 304, 121362. [CrossRef]
14. Chen, L.; Raza, M.; Xiao, J. Combustion Analysis of an Aviation Compression Ignition Engine Burning Pentanol–Kerosene Blends
under Different Injection Timings. Energy Fuels 2017, 31, 9429–9437. [CrossRef]
15. Wallner, T.; Miers, S.A.; McConnell, S. A comparison of ethanol and butanol as oxygenates using a direct-injection, spark-ignition
engine. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 2009, 131, 32802–32809. [CrossRef]
16. Environmental Protection Agency—Federal Register. Available online: https://public-inspection.federalregister.gov/2022-22223
.pdf (accessed on 20 June 2023).
17. Olislagers, R. Eliminate Aviation Gasoline Lead Emissions Initiative; AirVenture: Oshkosh, WI, USA, 2022.
18. General Aviation Moves Closer to an Unleaded Future. Available online: https://www.eaa.org/eaa/news-and-publications/ea
a-news-and-aviation-news/news/moving-closer-to-unleaded (accessed on 1 June 2023).
19. Kumar, T.; Mohsin, R.; Majid, Z.A.; Ghafir, M.F.A.; Wash, A.M. Experimental optimisation comparison of detonation characteristics
between leaded aviation gasoline low lead and its possible unleaded alternatives. Fuel 2020, 281, 118726. [CrossRef]
20. Su-ungkavatin, P.; Tiruta-Barna, L.; Hamelin, L. Biofuels, electrofuels, electric or hydrogen?: A review of current and emerging
sustainable aviation systems. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2023, 96, 101073. [CrossRef]
21. Yusaf, T.; Mahamude, A.S.F.; Kadirgama, K.; Ramasamy, D.; Farhana, K.; Dhahad, H.A.; Talib, A.B.R.A. Sustainable hydrogen
energy in aviation—A narrative review. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2023. in press. [CrossRef]
22. Brisbane Airport Corporation. Hydrogen Flight Alliance launches in Brisbane. Available online: https://newsroom.bne.com.au/
hydrogen-flight-alliance-launches-in-brisbane/ (accessed on 4 September 2023).
23. NASA’s Electrified Aircraft Propulsion. Research and Development Efforts. 2023. Available online: https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/
IG-23-014.pdf (accessed on 4 September 2023).
24. Petroleum & Other Liquids. Prime Supplier Sales Volumes. Available online: https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_cons_prim_d
cu_nus_a.htm (accessed on 7 June 2023).
25. Canadian Centre for Energy Information. Available online: https://energy-information.canada.ca/en/subjects/refined-petrole
um-products (accessed on 1 June 2023).
26. Eurostat. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/NRG_CB_OIL__custom_1383955/default/tabl
e?lang=en (accessed on 1 June 2023).
27. Aviation Gasoline. Available online: http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=aviation+gasoline&d=EDATA&f=cmID%3aAV (accessed
on 1 June 2023).
28. Klimov, N.A. Development of Promising Low- and Unleaded Aviation Gasoline. Ph.D. Thesis, Gubkin Russian State University
of Oil and Gas (National Research University), Moscow, Russia, 2 April 2020.
29. Fuelprice Overview. Available online: https://www.iaopa.eu/AOPAFuelPriceServlet (accessed on 2 June 2023).
30. Fuel Price Report. Available online: https://www.airnav.com/fuel/report.html (accessed on 6 June 2023).
31. Aviation Gasoline Pricing. Available online: https://www.shellharbourairport.com.au/operational-information/aviation-fuel/
(accessed on 15 June 2023).
32. Detailed Import Data of Ll Aviation Gasoline. Available online: zauba.com/import-ll+aviation+gasoline/hs-code-27101950-hs-
code.html (accessed on 3 June 2023).
33. Gross Domestic Product 2022. Available online: https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/GDP.pdf
34. US and World Population Clock. Available online: https://www.census.gov/popclock/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
35. Canada’s Population Clock (Real-Time Model). Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x201
8005-eng.htm (accessed on 10 June 2023).
36. National Population Clock. Available online: https://www.census.gov/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
37. National Quarterly Estimate. Available online: https://www.economy.com/mexico/population/not-seasonally-adjusted
38. 2022 Census Result. Available online: https://censo2022.ibge.gov.br/panorama/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
39. Official Projection. Available online: https://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2018/proyecciones-de-poblacion/Nacional/DCD-ar
ea-proypoblacion-Nac-2020-2070.xlsx (accessed on 10 June 2023).
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 23 of 24
40. New Provisional Data from the 2022 Census: Argentina Has 46,044,703 Inhabitants. Available online: https://www.infoba
e.com/politica/2023/01/31/nuevos-datos-provisorios-del-censo-2022-argentina-tiene-46044703-habitantes/ (accessed on 10
June 2023).
41. Demography—Population at the Beginning of the Month—France (Including Mayotte from 2014). Available online: https://www.in
see.fr/fr/statistiques/serie/001641607 (accessed on 10 June 2023).
42. Estimates of the Population for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Available online: https://www.ons.gov.
uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatesforukengl
andandwalesscotlandandnorthernireland (accessed on 10 June 2023).1
43. Population by Nationality and Sex (Quarterly Figures). Available online: https://www.destatis.de/EN/Themes/Society-Enviro
nment/Population/Current-Population/Tables/liste-current-population.html (accessed on 10 June 2023).
44. Statistics Poland. Available online: https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/other-studies/informations-on-socio-economic-situation/stati
sticaEl-bulletin-no-42023,4,150.html (accessed on 10 June 2023).
45. Dashboard Population. Available online: https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/visualisaties/dashboard-bevolking (accessed on 10
June 2023).
46. Rosstat, Federal State Statistics Service, Population of the Russian Federation by Gender as of Jan 1, 2023. Available online:
https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2023_Site_.xlsx (accessed on 10 June 2023).
47. National Bureau of Statistics. Available online: https://stat.gov.kz/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
48. Uzbekistan by the Numbers. Available online: https://stat.uz/en/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
49. Population Clock. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Web+Pages/Population+Clock?opendocu
ment (accessed on 10 June 2023).
50. Estimated Population of NZ. Available online: https://www.stats.govt.nz/indicators/population-of-nz/ (accessed on 10
June 2023).
51. S. Korean Population Falls for 3rd Consecutive Year in 2022. Available online: https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20230115001800320
52. Population and Regions and Districts Report—Volume 3 Highlights. Available online: https://census2021.statsghana.gov.gh/gss
main/fileUpload/reportthemelist/Volume%203%20Highlights.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2023).
53. Projection of the Population 2019–2025. Available online: https://web.archive.org/web/20210429022734/https://www.statgabo
n.ga/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rapport-Projection_Final.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2023).
54. National Institute of Statistics. Available online: http://www.stat-guinee.org/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
55. World Population Prospects 2022. Available online: https://population.un.org/wpp/ (accessed on 10 June 2023).
56. FAA. Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2023–2043. Available online: https://www.faa.gov/dataresearch/aviation/aerospaceforecasts
/faa-aerospace-forecast-fy-2023-2043 (accessed on 21 June 2023).
57. Australian Government. Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources. Available online: https://www.energy.gov.a
u/sites/default/files/Australian%20Petroleum%20Statistics%20-%20Issue%20281%20December%202019.xlsx (accessed on 17
June 2023).
58. Brazil’s Aviation Gasoline Market Disrupted Amid Quality Concerns. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pet
robras-jetfuel-idUSKCN24E1OZ (accessed on 14 June 2023).
59. Aircraft Blood—Aviation Gasoline. Available online: http://news.carnoc.com/list/316/316850.html (accessed on 12 June 2023).
60. Three New Aviation Gasoline with Low Lead Content and Unleaded Gasoline “Guanghan Made” Received Airworthiness
Approval. Available online: http://www.sc.xinhuanet.com/content/2019-09/03/c_1124956451.htm (accessed on 10 June 2023).
61. India Launches Special Grade Aviation Gasoline Production to Cut Imports from Europe. Available online: https://sputnikglobe
.com/20220926/india-launches-special-grade-aviation-fuel-production-to-cut-imports-from-europe-1101233376.html (accessed
on 21 June 2023).
62. India’s Petronet Eyes Lower Prices under Renewed Long-Term Deal with Qatar. Available online: https://economictimes.indiat
imes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/indias-petronet-eyes-lower-prices-under-renewed-long-term-deal-with-qatar/articlesh
ow/102284831.cms (accessed on 21 June 2023).
63. The Ferghana Refinery Has Developed an Improved Type of Aviation Gasoline B-92. Available online: https://nuz.uz/n
auka-i-tehnika/1196806-na-ferganskom-npz-razrabotali-uluchshennyj-vid-aviaczionnogo-benzina-b-92.html (accessed on 1
August 2023).
64. Turkmenbashi Refinery Plans to Start Production of Aviation Gasoline for Airplanes. Available online: https://www.trend.az/b
usiness/3479106.html (accessed on 21 June 2023).
65. 2019 General Aviation Statistical Databook. Available online: https://gama.aero/wp-content/uploads/GAMA_2019Databook_F
inal-2020-03-20.pdf (accessed on 23 June 2023).
66. ASTM D7547-11; Standard Specification for Unleaded Aviation Gasoline. ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2013.
67. DEF STAN 91-090-2015; Gasoline Aviation: Grades UL91, 100/130 and 100/130LL. Ministry of Defence: Bristol, UK, 2015.
68. ASTM D7960-21; Standard Specification for Unleaded Aviation Gasoline Test Fuel Containing Non-hydrocarbon Components.
ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2022.
69. ASTM D 7719-12; Standard Specification for High Octane Unleaded Test Fuel. ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2014.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 24 of 24
70. ASTM WK69284; New Specification for Unleaded Aviation Gasoline Test Fuel Containing Organo-Metallic Additive. ASTM: West
Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2018.
71. Global Expert Group. Customs Union Technical Regulations on Requirements to Automobile and Aviation Gasoline, Diesel and Marine
Fuel, Jet Fuel and Heating Oil; CU TR 013/2011; Global Expert Group: Saint Petersburg, Russia, 2011.
72. Creek, R.J. Manufacturing Aviation Gasoline, Future Fuels for General Aviation, ASTM STP 1048; Strauss, K.H., Gonzalez, C., Eds.;
American Society for Testing and Materials: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1989; pp. 5–16.
73. CRC. Research Results Unleaded High Octane Aviation Gasoline; Final Report CRC Project No. AV-7-07; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL,
USA, 2010.
74. D’Acosta, C.; Albuzat, T. High-Octane Unleaded Aviation Gasoline. U.S. Patent 2,018,016,509 A1, 18 January 2018.
75. Mcafee, Z.J.; Calderon, J.A., III. Aviation Gasoline Containing Branched Aromatic Compounds with a Manganese Additive That
Increases the Octane Number. RU Patent 2017141731 A3, 31 May 2019.
76. Goldsmith, A.B.; Juno, E.; Burger, J.C.; Mathur, I. Aviation Gasoline Compositions. U.S. Patent 10,883,061 B2, 5 January 2021.
77. Mcafee, Z.J.; Calderon, J.A., III. Aviation Gasoline Additive Scavenger. U.S. Patent US2,017,283,728 A1, 5 October 2017.
78. Danilov, A.M. Application of Additives in Fuels: Handbook; HIMIZDAT: St. Petersburg, Russia, 2010; 368p.
79. De Oliveira, E.J.; Rocha, M.I. Aviation Gasoline Formulation. EP Patent 1650289 B1, 26 April 2006.
80. Grant, G.R. Unleaded Aviation Gasoline. U.S. Patent 2,010,263,262 A1, 21 October 2010.
81. Helder, D.; Behnken, J.; Aulich, T. Design of Ethanol Based Fuels for Aviation. SAE Trans. 2000, 109, 243–256.
82. Ziulkowski, J.D. Collective Knowledge on Aviation Gasolines. Master’s Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 7
October 2011.
83. Hjelmberg, L. Aviation Gasoline Composition, Its Preparation and Use. U.S. Patent 2,017,204,345 A1, 20 July 2017.
84. Studzinski, W.M.; Valentine, J.N.; Dorn, P.; Campbell, T.G.; Liiva, P.M. High Octane Unleaded Aviation Gasolines. U.S. Patent
2,002,005,008 A1, 17 January 2002.
85. ASTM D7618-13(Reapproved 2021); Standard Specification for Ethyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether (ETBE) for Blending with Aviation
Spark-Ignition Engine Fuel. ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2021.
86. Emelyanov, V.E.; Deineko, P.S.; Nikitina, E.A.; Grebenshchikov, V.P. Methyl-tert-butyl ether as a component of aviation gasoline.
Chem. Technol. Fuels Oils 1991, 27, 484–486. [CrossRef]
87. Michael, S.T.; Clifford, M.M.; Belmokaddem, B.H. High Octane Unleaded Aviation Gasoline. U.S. Patent 2,015,113,865 A1, 30
April 2015.
88. Mcafee, Z.J.; Calderon, J.A., III. Aviation Gasoline Containing Branched Aromatics with a Manganese Octane Enhancer. U.S. Patent
2,018,155,648 A1, 7 June 2018.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

An Overview of The Global Market, Fleet, and Components in The Field of Aviation Gasoline

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Overview of The Global Market, Fleet, and Components in The Field of Aviation Gasoline

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

aerospace

1 Department of Oil Refining Technology, Faculty of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,

Aerospace 2023, 10, 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25

3.1.2. The European Aviation Gasoline Market

Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25

3.1.3. The North American Aviation Gasoline Market

faster than production.

Aerospace 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25

Aerospace 2023, 10, 863 10 of 24

3.1.7. The Aviation Gasoline Market of CIS Countries

3.1.7. The Aviation Gasoline Market of CIS Countries

3.2. Production and Economic Performance Relations

Consumption, Population, Consumption GDP, Production, GDP per Share in

Indicator UL91 UL94 100LL Total

3.4. An Overview of Components Used in the Production of Aviation Gasoline

Table 5. Requirements for the different grades of aviation gasoline.

Rated Octane Number - - - 95.0 - - - -

Performance number Min. 115 1 130 - - - - - 130

Manganese content, g Mn/L Min.–Max. - - - - - - - 0.05–0.1

10% is evaporated at temperature, ◦C Max. 82 75 75 75 75 75 75 75

40% is evaporated at temperature, ◦ C Min. - 75 75 75 75 75 75 75

Recovery, % vol. Min. - 97 97 97 97 97 97 97

Corrosion of copper strip, 2 h at 100 ◦ C Max. - No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No 1 No 1 No 1

Oxidation stability, potential gum mg/100 mL Max - 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Total gum, mg/100 mL Max. 3 - - - - - 1 -

Mechanical impurities and water content Max absence - absence - absence - - -

Water reaction, volume change, mL Max. - ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2 ±2

Content of aromatic hydrocarbons, % wt. Min. - - - - - 70 - -

Benzene content, % wt. Max. - - - - - 0.1 - -

Table 6. The average component composition of aviation gasoline AVGAS 100LL.

Component Concentration, % wt.

To ensure optimal vaporizability, aviation gasolines contain light components—isopentane

CRC CRC CRC D7960 D7960 D7719 D7719 WK69284 WK69284

Table 8. The average component composition of aviation gasolines UL100.

UL102 UL102 UL100

You might also like