Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Business Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres

Employee perceptions of information and communication technologies in

work life, perceived burnout, job satisfaction and the role of
work-family balance
Katharina Ninaus a, c, *, Sandra Diehl b, c, Ralf Terlutter a, c
a
Department for Marketing and International Management, Alpen-Adria-Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria
b
Department for Media and Communication, Alpen-Adria-Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria
c
Universitaetsstraße 65-67, 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Information and communication technologies (ICTs) evolve rapidly, and employees perceive ICTs as both re­
Information and communication technologies sources and demands. Based on the job-demands-resources model, we develop an ICT demands-resources model
ICT demands and resources to analyze how employees’ perceptions of ICTs impact burnout, work-family balance and job satisfaction. Three
Burnout
surveys of employees were conducted: two before and one during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results show that
Work-family balance
Job satisfaction
employees perceive ICTs more strongly as resources than as demands. However, while ICT demands have a
COVID-19 strong negative impact, ICT resources have no (before COVID-19) or only a weak (during COVID-19) positive
impact on burnout and work-family balance. Mediation analyses indicate that work-family balance mitigates the
negative effects of ICT demands on burnout. Higher burnout levels reduce job satisfaction. Qualitative survey
responses allow for additional implications regarding how to improve work-related ICT use. Overall, findings
imply that companies and employees need to focus more on ICT demands than on ICT resource management.

1. Introduction
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) penetrate all
areas of life and have become an essential part of both private and
working time (Diaz, Chiaburu, Zimmerman, & Boswell, 2012). With the
onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, ICTs became even more important, as
many employees were required to work from home (Wang, Liu, Qian, &
Parker, 2021; Carnevale & Hatak, 2020), enabled by technology. Most
personal encounters were moved to the virtual sphere, and it was
through the use of ICTs that employees and firms were able to stay
connected (Kniffin et al., 2021). On one hand, ICTs provide considerable
resources, offering anywhere and anytime availability (Day, Paquet,
Scott, & Hambley, 2012) and can improve workplace flexibility, pro­
ductivity and efficiency (Cousins & Robey, 2015; Ninaus, Diehl, Ter­
lutter, Chan, & Huang, 2015; ter Hoeven & van Zoonen, 2015), positive
effects that were also observed during the pandemic (Belzunegui-Eraso
& Erro-Garces, 2020; Nagel, 2020). On the other hand, ICTs are
demanding, as they create pressure on individuals to be constantly
accessible and responsive, for instance, to workplace e-mails, calls and
text messages (Barber & Santuzzi, 2015), and they foster an always-on
mentality (Atanasoff & Venable, 2017). Such negative effects were
also markedly present during the pandemic (Belzunegui-Eraso & Erro-
Garces, 2020). The ubiquity of ICTs has caused the boundaries be­
tween work and personal life increasingly to blur, making reconciliation
between work and home, the work-family balance (Clark, 2001), a great
challenge for individuals and organizations (McCloskey, 2018).
ICTs are considered one of the main influencing factors of employee
health and work stress (Berg-Beckhoff, Nielsen, & Larsen, 2017; Burman
& Goswami, 2018). Chronic work stress that is not successfully managed
can cause burnout (WHO, 2019), a syndrome that has become a major
challenge to employees’ health and the performance of their organiza­
tions, representing economic, social, and psychological costs to workers,
employers and society (Shirom, 2011; EU-OSHA, 2014). Burnout can be
defined as physical, emotional and mental exhaustion that is perceived
by a person in relation to his/her work (Kristensen, Borritz, Villadsen, &
Christensen, 2005; Koeske & Koeske, 1993). It is a negative reaction to
prolonged work situations that are emotionally demanding (Pines &
Aronson, 1988; Schaufeli & Greenglass, 2001) and is accompanied by

* Corresponding author at: Department for Marketing and International Management, Alpen-Adria-Universitaet Klagenfurt, Universitaetsstraße 65-67, 9020
Klagenfurt, Austria.
E-mail addresses: katharina.ninaus@aau.at (K. Ninaus), sandra.diehl@aau.at (S. Diehl), ralf.terlutter@aau.at (R. Terlutter).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.08.007
Received 10 August 2020; Received in revised form 29 July 2021; Accepted 2 August 2021
Available online 14 August 2021
0148-2963/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Ninaus et al.
physical fatigue, cognitive weariness (Kristensen et al., 2005; Shirom,
2011), cynicism and reduced professional efficacy (Maslach, Schaufeli,
& Leiter, 2001), leading to an increase in absences from work and even
early retirement due to mental illness. Recent research indicates that
burnout prevalence has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic
(Meseguer de Pedro, Fernández-Valera, García-Izquierdo, Soler-
Sánchez, 2021).
Based on the job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti,
Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001), this current research in­
vestigates how employees’ perceptions of ICTs as both resources and
demands impact employees’ perceived level of burnout. We further
analyze the role of work-family balance and how job satisfaction is
affected. We report results from three studies of employees from Austria.
Two data sets were collected prior to the COVID-19 outbreak among
employees from a university (n = 230) and a media company operating
nationwide (n = 200). The third data set was collected at the time of the
COVID-19 pandemic and among a more general sample of the working
population (n = 201). As with most countries in Europe and globally,
Austria is struggling with an increase in stress-related mental health
issues such as burnout in its working population. For instance, the
number of sick days per employee due to mental strain has tripled in
Austria since the mid-1990s (Leoni, 2019). Similar developments are
observed in most European countries (European Commission, 2018).
During the pandemic, most Austrian employees experienced the same
sudden mandatory switch to working from home in response to COVID-
19 as experienced by workers from many other countries. According to a
Deloitte survey, 60% of Austrian companies had nearly all employees
working from home during the early stages of the pandemic (Kellner,
Korunka, Kubicek, & Wolfsberger, 2020).
The present study aims to contribute to an understanding of occu­
pational stress associated with work-related ICT use. The systematic
review by Berg-Beckhoff et al. (2017) revealed that studies on the
relationship between ICTs and stress have primarily focused on stress-
creating aspects and often neglect the beneficial, stress-reducing as­
pects of ICT. Our research attempts to fill this research gap and examines
both perceived ICT demands and perceived ICT resources in the occu­
pational setting and how they impact burnout, job satisfaction and
work-family balance, thus providing a comprehensive view of how ICT
demands and resources impact important work and health outcomes.
This is a response to calls to shed more light on how technology impacts
employees’ psychological health and well-being (Derks, van Mierlo, &
Schmitz, 2014). In addition, it advances the understanding of the role of
work-family balance in association with work-related ICT use, which is
important, as evolving technologies make the reconciliation between
family and working life even more challenging (McCloskey, 2018). The
model that we develop is tested in three independent data sets, lending
external validity to our results and contributing to research on the effects
of ICT across industries (Atanasoff & Venable, 2017). Finally, our study
contributes to our understanding of how the role of perceived ICT re­
sources versus ICT demands may have changed during the COVID-19
pandemic.
2. Theoretical background and hypotheses
2.1. The job demands-resources model
The job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti et al., 2001) is
a work stress model that describes how various aspects of the job
environment can have positive and negative outcomes for health and
work performance and constitutes an overarching model that may be
applied to various occupational settings (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).
The central premise of the model is that all occupations can be catego­
rized into job demands and job resources. As ICTs can be categorized
into demands and resources (Day et al., 2012), the model allows the
integration of both advantages and disadvantages of ICTs in work life
and is thus a useful framework for this research. While ICT demands can
653
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
be defined generally as any ICT factor at work that has the potential to
be perceived as stressful by workers and may be related to certain
physiological and/or psychological costs, ICT resources refer to
perceived ICT-related benefits in the work life that have the potential to
assist employees in completing their work and to promote personal
growth, learning, and development (Day, Scott, & Kelloway, 2010).
2.2. ICT and burnout
According to the JD-R model, chronic job demands exhaust em­
ployees’ mental and physical resources and lead to health impairments
(Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). For instance, higher quantitative job de­
mands (Armstrong, Brooks, & Riemenschneider, 2015) and higher
emotional job demands (Demerouti, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2005; Hu,
Schaufeli, & Taris, 2011) have been shown to increase burnout and
exhaustion. Prolonged and repeated experiences of stress and
demanding working conditions lead to exhaustion and health impair­
ments, including burnout (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Ebbing­
haus, 2002; Shirom, 2011; Burman & Goswami, 2018). Regarding ICT
use in the occupational setting, Barber and Santuzzi (2015), for instance,
observed that workplace telepressure, a construct they defined as the
extent to which employees feel to be occupied by electronic messages
from clients, colleagues or supervisors, and the degree to which they feel
urged to respond quickly, was associated with increased physical and
cognitive burnout. Other studies have demonstrated that ICT-related
stress, referred to as technostress, is associated with increased work
strain (Ayyagari, Grover, & Purvis, 2011), lower work performance
(Tarafdar, Tu, & Ragu-Nathan, 2010; Tarafdar, Pullins, & Ragu-Nathan,
2015; Sumiyana & Sriwidharmanely, 2020), negative psychological
responses (Califf, Sarker, & Sarker, 2020) and mental health impair­
ments (Day et al., 2012; Khedhaouria & Cucchi, 2019). ICTs are an
essential part of work today (Diaz et al., 2012), making it difficult for
employees to refrain from ICT-related demands. While demanding sit­
uations may elicit short-term strain reactions such as stress sensations or
satiation (Demerouti et al., 2002), this research focuses on long-term
perceptions and consequences of ICTs. Hence, if individuals are not
able to manage demands stemming from ICTs over a longer period, they
are likely to experience prolonged stress, and burnout may then develop
as an affective response to such ongoing detrimental conditions (Shirom,
2011). Therefore, we predict:
H1: Perceived ICT demands increase burnout.
The JD-R model suggests a process of a motivational nature and
proposes that job resources lead to positive outcomes or support em­
ployees in reducing unfavorable effects associated with job demands
(Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Various job resources – e.g., job control,
social support, and fairness – have been found to be negatively related to
burnout (Hu et al., 2011) and exhaustion (Armstrong et al., 2015). In the
technology context, providing IT support in an occupational setting was
found to decrease strain outcomes (Day et al., 2012). In addition, ICTs
offer resources that employees can benefit from. For instance, ICTs
enable remote access to information (Ninaus et al., 2015) or opportu­
nities to perform work tasks in nonwork spaces (Cousins & Robey,
2015), all of which can enhance individuals’ flexibility in terms of when
and where to work (ter Hoeven & van Zoonen, 2015). This flexibility
was found to increase individuals’ well-being defined as feeling physi­
cally and mentally healthy (Ray & Pana-Cryan, 2021). ICT resources
have been particularly useful in reducing psychological distress in
COVID-19 times, as ICTs enable employees to continue working from
home and remain productive for the company (Wang et al., 2021).
Therefore, we argue that ICT resources may have the ability to coun­
teract challenges and disadvantages related to ICTs in work life and may
result in favorable outcomes for employees’ health. We hypothesize:
H2: Perceived ICT resources reduce burnout.
K. Ninaus et al.
2.3. The mediating role of work-family balance in the ICT-burnout link
Work-family balance can be defined “as satisfaction and good func­
tioning at work and at home with a minimum amount of role conflict” (Clark,
2001, p.349). Considering that reconciling work and family demands
has become essential for both individuals and organizations (Karkou­
lian, Srour, & Sinan, 2016) and that work-family balance has been
identified as an important antecedent of employee well-being (Alegre,
Mas-Machuca, & Berbegal-Mirabent, 2016), research reflects an
increasing interest in the relationship of job demands and job resources
to work-family balance. Evolving technologies have made the challenge
of balancing work and family demands even more crucial (McCloskey,
2018). Valcour (2007) found that job demands (e.g., work hours) were
negatively related to work-family balance. Previous research has shown
that work-related technology use outside of working hours is associated
with more situations of conflict between the work and family domains
(Schieman & Young, 2013; van Zoonen, Verhoeven, & Vliegenthart,
2016; McCloskey, 2018). We predict:
H3a: ICT demands reduce work-family balance.
At the same time, findings indicate that job resources (e.g., control
over work time) contribute to a better work-family balance (Valcour
2007). Previous studies particularly underline the increased flexibility
granted by technological devices (Demerouti, Derks, ten Brummelhuis,
& Bakker, 2014; Day et al., 2012; Diaz et al., 2012). Qualitative studies
found that ICTs increase individuals’ flexibility for managing their work
and home roles, contributing to a more satisfactory work-family balance
(Cousins & Robey, 2015; Ninaus et al., 2015). Specifically, ICTs enable
employees to coordinate their work-life boundaries in a way that
matches their specific situations (Cousins & Robey, 2015) and to orga­
nize work more flexibly to meet both work and family demands (Ninaus
et al., 2015). Similarly, a study by Derks, Bakker, Peters, and van
Wingerden (2016) concluded that employees who manage to profit from
the increased flexibility offered by ICTs experience fewer conflicting
situations between their work and home domains. This may be partic­
ularly pronounced in COVID-19 times since ICT-enabled remote work at
home allows many employees to spend more time with their families.
We predict:
H3b: ICT resources increase work-family balance.
Improved work-family balance with fewer conflicting situations be­
tween work and family is likely to have positive effects on individuals’
health. Satisfaction with work-family balance has been found to posi­
tively affect well-being (ter Hoeven & van Zoonen, 2015); hence, it is
likely that work-family balance will have a favorable effect on the
perceived level of burnout.
H3c: Work-family balance reduces burnout.
Previous research indicates that work-family balance is likely to
mediate the impact of ICT demands and ICT resources on burnout. For
example, ICT-induced flexibility was positively related to well-being
through an increased work-family balance (ter Hoeven & van Zoonen,
2015), while ICT-induced conflict between work and family was found
to increase strain and exhaustion (Ayyagari et al., 2011). Hence, we
assume that employees’ perceived satisfaction with work-family balance
may intervene in the effects of ICT demands and ICT resources on
burnout and formally state the following:
H3d: Work-family balance mediates the relationships of ICT
demands and ICT resources to burnout.
654
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
2.4. Burnout and job satisfaction
Job satisfaction refers to a positive emotional state stemming from
the assessment of one’s job or job experience and is a crucial factor in an
employee’s life (Alegre et al., 2016). Previous research has reported that
exhaustion may not only lead to detrimental health outcomes, but can
also lead to higher turnover intentions, lower organizational commit­
ment, or lower overall satisfaction (Demerouti et al., 2005; Hu et al.,
2011). The relationship between burnout and job satisfaction has been
well established (Khamisa, Oldenburg, Peltzer, & Ilic, 2015). Koeske and
Koeske (1993) demonstrated that burnout (measured as emotional
exhaustion) resulted in an overall dissatisfaction with the job even when
individuals reported receiving high social support and a sense of
accomplishment in the workplace. Hence, burnout likely reduces job
satisfaction. We hypothesize:
H4: Burnout reduces job satisfaction.
Fig. 1 illustrates the study’s ICT demands-resources model.
3. Method
3.1. Data collection and participants
We conducted three cross-sectional studies with three independent
data sets: one from employees of a public university in Austria (Study 1,
n = 230), one from a private media company in Austria operating
nationwide in the field of print and online journalism (Study 2, n = 200)
and one from a more general online panel sample (Study 3, n = 201).
While the data for studies 1 and 2 were collected prior to the COVID-19
outbreak, Study 3 was conducted at the time of the crisis, allowing the
current COVID-19 pandemic to be taken into consideration. The higher
education sector (Study 1) and media/journalism sector (Study 2) are
deemed particularly suitable because in both industries employees rely
heavily on technology, have been found to experience technology-
induced stress (Wang & Li, 2019), and are at risk of burnout (Barkhui­
zen, Rothmann, & van de Vijver, 2014; MacDonald, Saliba, Hodgins, &
Ovington, 2016). All data were collected among employees working in
Austria. Workplace health promotion has become a particularly urgent
topic on the Austrian political agenda, as since the amendment of the
Austrian Occupational Health and Safety Act in 2013 (Ministry for So­
cial Affairs – Labor Inspection, 2013), Austrian employers are legally
obligated to evaluate mental strains in the workplace and to protect
their employees’ mental health.
In all studies, a standardized online survey was conducted. The
questionnaire included closed-ended and open-ended questions and
collected both quantitative and qualitative data (Meixner & Hathcoat,
2019). The quantitative survey portion consisted of closed responses
measuring all constructs of interest, while the qualitative survey portion
allowed participants to voice additional aspects they find important
related to use of ICTs in their work life and to make suggestions for
improvements. Qualitative survey responses can complement the
quantitative data, as they provide more in-depth insights (Braun &
Clarke, 2013). In Study 1 (university) and Study 2 (media company), the
link to the survey was sent out to all employees via internal mailing lists
(response rate university: 16.0%; media company: 29.9%). In Study 3,
the survey was made accessible via the online panel Clickworker.
Table 1 describes the study samples.
3.2. Measures
ICT demands and ICT resources: Based on existing ICT literature, items
were generated to capture various facets composing an overall assess­
ment of perceived ICT demands and perceived ICT resources. Six ICT
demand items (Tarafdar et al., 2010; Ayyagari et al., 2011; Day et al.,
2012; Day et al., 2012; ter Hoeven & van Zoonen, 2015) and six ICT
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Fig. 1. Conceptual ICT demands-resources model.

Table 1
Sample description.
University sample Media company sample General sample
(n = 230) (n = 200) (n = 201)

Gender Female 144 (62.6%) 133 (66.5%) 109 (54.2%

Male 86 (37.4%) 67 (33.5%) 92 (45.8%)
Age Mean 41.81 (10.48) 36.19 (10.94) 34.85 (9.57)
(SD) 21–73 19–64 20–64
Range
Field of activity within the institution (university sample Scientific personnel: 112 (48.7%) Editorial personnel: 101 Software and IT: 22 (10.9%)
and media company sample) Industry (general sample) Administrative personnel: 118 (50.5%) Health Care and Social Affairs: 22 (10.9%)
(51.3%) Non-editorial personnel: 99 Education: 22 (10.9%)
(49.5%) Manufacturing: 19 (9.5%)
Public Administration: 16 (8.0%)
Office Administration: 16 (8.0%)
Media: 15 (7.5%)
Retail/Wholesale Trade: 12 (6.0%)
Tourism and Gastronomy: 8 (4.0%)
Automotive: 6 (3.0%)
Consulting: 6 (3.0%)
Transportation and Logistics: 5 (2.5%)
Banking: 5 (2.5%)
Craft sector: 4 (2.0%)
Translation: 4 (2.0%)
Arts and Culture: 3 (1.5%)
Other: 16 (8.0%)
Employee responsibility yes 66 (28.7%) 58 (29.0%) 63 (31.3%)
no 164 (71.3%) 142 (71.0) 138 (68.7%)
General possibility to work from home yes 118 (51.3%) 95 (47.5%) 166 (82.6%)
no 112 (48.7%) 105 (52.5%) 35 (17.4%)
Mandatory work from home during the yes n.a. n.a. 142 (70.6%)
COVID-19 crisis no 59 (29.4%)
The extent of work from home in response to the COVID-19 n.a. n.a. Overall average: 47.18%
crisis (0–100%) Less than 25% of the work time: 71 respondents
(35.3%)
At least 75% of the work time: 66 respondents
(33%)

Note: n.a. = not applicable.

resource items (Day et al., 2010; Tarafdar et al., 2010; Ayyagari et al.,
2011; Day et al., 2012; Diaz et al. 2012) represent essential ICT-related
stressors and benefits in work life.
Burnout was measured with an abbreviated exhaustion subscale from
the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (Schaufeli, Leiter, Mas­
lach, & Jackson, 1996). Job satisfaction was measured with an abbrevi­
ated subscale of the job diagnostic scale (Hackman & Oldham, 1975) to
assess general satisfaction at work. Satisfaction with work-family balance
was measured based on the work-family balance scale by Valcour
(2007). All items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = totally
disagree, 7 = totally agree). All measures and individual item reliabilities
are listed in Table 2.
3.3. Control variables
We took several control variables into account. We controlled for
gender (0 = male; 1 = female), age (continuous variable), employee
responsibility (0 = no; 1 = yes), and possession of the opportunity to
work from home (0 = no; 1 = yes). In Study 3, we additionally controlled
for the extent to which participants reported having worked from home
in response to the COVID-19 crisis (measured on an interactive slider
from 0 to 100%).
3.4. Thematic analysis
The qualitative data were analyzed by applying reflexive thematic
analysis (Braun, Clarke, Hayfield, & Terry, 2019). Thematic analysis is a
robust, systematic framework for coding qualitative data to identify
patterns of meaning across the data relevant to the research question
(Braun & Clarke, 2013). These patterns are identified through a rigorous
process of data familiarization, data coding, theme development, and
revision (Braun et al., 2019). First, the compiled data were read and

655
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 2
Measures and individual item reliability.
Variables Items University sample Media company sample General sample
(n = 230) (n = 200) (n = 201)

Mean Factor Mean Factor Mean Factor

(SD) Loading (SD) Loading (SD) Loading

ICT demands I frequently feel great time pressure because of the use of ICTs. 4.57 0.842*** 3.46 0.800*** 3.75 0.799***
(1.95) (1.83) (1.67)
I am stressed by the possibility of constant accessibility granted by 4.42 0.808*** 3.74 0.742*** 3.67 0.781***
ICTs. (1.96) (1.97) (1.67)
My work processes are constantly interrupted by phone calls, text 4.40 0.749*** 3.41 0.733*** 3.93 0.614***
messages, or e-mail. (1.92) (1.77) (1.53)
Working all day with ICT is a strain for me. 3.72 0.809*** 2.76 0.755*** 3.14 0.682***
(2.11) (1.73) (1.59)
ICT creates more work for me so that I work longer hours at and 3.71 0.745*** 3.58 0.645*** 2.74 0.725***
away from the office. (1.96) (2.02) (1.64)
I find it difficult to manage the many different technologies, e.g., e- 3.53 0.781*** 2.42 0.809*** 2.60 0.670***
mail, short messages services, social media. (2.08) (1.68) (1.53)
ICT resources ICT simplifies the coordination and communication of work 5.30 0.799*** 5.70 0.792*** 5.70 0.750***
processes. (1.47) (1.10) (1.02)
Thanks to ICT I accomplish more work in a shorter period. 4.59 0.753*** 4.91 0.680*** 5.15 0.677***
(1.86) (1.62) (1.30)
ICTs improve my productive capacity at work. 5.53 0.771*** 5.87 0.686*** 5.55 0.725***
(1.54) (1.13) (1.14)
ICTs help me to find innovative ways to perform my work. 4.72 0.686*** 5.28 0.673*** 5.25 0.734***
(1.66) (1.38) (1.17)
ICTs allow me the flexibility to access information at any time. 6.11 0.774*** 6.28 0.586*** 6.22 0.746***
(1.15) (0.98) (1.02)
ICTs allow me a constant accessibility to work so that I can stay up 5.12 0.780*** 5.72 0.655*** 5.35 0.559***
to date at all times. (1.70) (1.25) (1.23)
Burnout I feel burned out from my work. 3.11 0.890*** 2.79 0.801*** 3.12 0.848***
(1.89) (1.74) (1.72)
I feel tired when I get up in the morning and have to face another day 3.88 0.891*** 3.59 0.840*** 3.85 0.855***
on the job. (2.03) (2.03) (1.76)
I feel used up at the end of a workday. 4.38 0.871*** 4.24 0.773*** 4.25 0.851***
(1.84) (1.71) (1.59)
Job satisfaction I am very satisfied with this job. 5.68 0.896*** 6.01 0.882*** 5.49 0.921***
(1.29) (1.01) (1.23)
I am satisfied with the kind of work I do in this job. 5.95 0.925*** 6.38 0.889*** 5.52 0.946***
(1.18) (0.74) (1.13)
Satisfaction with work- I am satisfied with the way I divide my time between work and 4.81 0.906*** 5.01 0.930*** 5.10 0.911***
family balance family or personal life. (1.72) (1.67) (1.53)

I am satisfied with my ability to balance the needs of my job with 4.73 0.921*** 5.22 0.935*** 5.20 0.899***
those of my personal or family life. (1.75) (1.51) (1.40)

Notes: SD = standard deviation; ***p < .001.

notes of initial observations were made. Data coding involved working
through the data systematically, interpreting the data, and developing
codes for segments of it. Themes then comprise the analytic outputs
developed through the process of coding (Braun et al., 2019).
The qualitative survey portion asked participants to name and
describe one or more measures that could help to improve ICT use in
their work life. This question was optional. The university sample yiel­
ded a total of 196 responses from 74 participants. In the media company
sample, 36 participants gave a total of 71 replies. The general sample
consisted of 123 responses from 108 participants. The qualitative data
analysis presented here is therefore based on 390 qualitative survey
responses. An inductive approach was taken, which means that themes
were derived from the data. Following the procedure suggested by Braun
et al. (2019), themes were reviewed and refined, and main themes and
subthemes were derived. For each subtheme, frequency counts were
performed based on the number of mentions per sample. The quantita­
tive conversion of qualitative data helps to facilitate pattern recognition
and drawing conclusions about the importance of themes (Sandelowski,
Voils & Knafl, 2009).
3.5. Common method bias
To avoid common method bias (CMB), several remedies were applied
(MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012). To ensure that all participants had the
necessary experience with the issues of interest, we collected real-world
data from employees in studies 1 and 2. With regard to the general
sample, we collected data only from those respondents who indicated
being employed and using ICTs in work life. Participation was voluntary
for all participants, and we assured anonymity and confidentiality. In
studies 1 and 2, we explained that only aggregated results will be
revealed to the institution and that the data would be stored on an
external server. We made clear that it is the individuals’ personal
opinions that are important and expressed our appreciation for partici­
pation as part of the cover story. Method variance was further controlled
through the design of the survey (Hulland, Baumgartner, & Smith,
2018). We pretested the questionnaire to ensure comprehensibility,
provided a concise definition of ICTs, observed predictor variables first
and randomly arranged items assessing demands and resources. In the
questionnaire used to collect data from the general sample, all response
options were labeled. We included attention checks as buffer items
(MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012) to identify less attentive survey takers,
although research has shown that online panel samples of professional
survey takers do not have a lower data quality than other samples
(Hulland et al., 2018). Through these measures we attempted to ensure
that all participants had the ability and motivation to provide accurate
answers (MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012).
We estimated common method variance (CMV) using the common
latent factor technique (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003).
The common variance was estimated as the square of the common factor
of each path before standardization (Eichhorn, 2014). The results

656
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

indicate that there is no significant common method bias in the data sets:
the calculated variance was below the threshold of 50% (Eichhorn,
2014) for all samples (university sample: 8.4%; media company sample:
9%; general sample: 3.24%). In Study 3, we directly measured social
desirability as a possible cause of method bias. Social desirability,
defined as the tendency to present oneself favorably (Crowne & Mar­
lowe, 1964) and to respond in a socially desirable manner, may bias the
answers of respondents (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The presumed cause of
CMV was measured on a Likert-type multi-item scale based on the Social
Desirability Scale by Stöber (2001). Social desirability was then modeled
as a latent construct, allowing the indicators of all constructs of interest
to load on the method factor in addition to their hypothesized constructs
(Podsakoff et al., 2003; Mishra, 2016). This technique allowed us to
estimate the potentially biasing effect of social desirability on the
measures themselves (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The method variance for
each factor was then estimated as the sum of the squared loadings for all
the indicator items of a construct loading onto the method factor social
desirability (Mishra, 2016). The calculated variances were below the
threshold of 50% for all constructs of interest (ICT demands: 5.64%, ICT
resources: 12.84%, work-family balance: 13.1%, burnout: 41.7%, job
satisfaction: 11.8%).
Given all the measures taken to avoid common method bias prior to
and during data collection and based on the results from the analytical
remedies applied, we are very confident that method bias does not affect
our results.
4. Quantitative results
To analyze the quantitative data and to test our hypotheses, struc­
tural equation modeling was conducted using IBM SPSS AMOS Version
26.
discriminant validity of all measurement models (Hair, Matthews,
Matthews, & Sarstedt, 2016). The internal consistency reliability of the
measurement model was supported by computing Cronbach’s alpha and
Dillon-Goldstein’s rho (composite reliability). Convergent validity was
assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE). All latent variables
showed AVEs above the threshold of 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981), and
only ICT resources in the media company data set and in the general
data set exhibited a minor violation. Following the recommendations of
Voorhees, Brady, Calantone, and Ramirez (2016), discriminant validity
was assessed based on two approaches, the Fornell-Larcker criterion
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981) and the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of corre­
lations (HTMT), as suggested by Henseler, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2015).
Both approaches indicate that discriminant validity is established in all
three data sets.
4.2. Mean values of ICT demands and ICT resources
Concerning perceptions of ICTs as demands and resources, the results
reveal that ICTs are perceived significantly more strongly as resources
than as demands in the university sample (Mresources=5.23;
Mdemands=4.06; t(229)=7.57, p<0.001), in the media company sample
(Mresources=5.63; Mdemands=3.23; t(199)=18.10, p<0.001) and in the
general sample (Mresources=5.54; Mdemands=3.30; t(200)=20.01,
p<0.001). Notably, burnout (university sample: M=3.79; media com­
pany sample: M=3.54; general sample: M=3.74) demonstrates rela­
tively high values with means close to the scale midpoint 4 in all
samples, underlining that burnout is a relevant topic for employees and
employers. Job satisfaction (university sample: M=5.82; media com­
pany sample: M=6.19; general sample: M=5.51) and work-family bal­
ance (university sample: M=4.77; media company sample: M=5.12;
general sample: M=5.15) both show mean values greater than midpoint
4 on a 7-point Likert scale.

4.1. Measurement model 4.3. Structural model

Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were carried out to assess the Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the
measurement models. The results in Table 3 report a good model fit in all model. Separate models were calculated for the three samples. All
data sets. models show acceptable model fit (Table 3). Direct and indirect effects
Table 4 presents the means, standard deviations, and information were evaluated using bootstrapping with bias-corrected 95% confidence
about internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and intervals based on 10,000 samples (Hayes, 2018; Kline, 2016). The
confidence intervals of all estimated effects are reported in Table 5. The
Table 3 R2 values of the endogenous variables are shown in Table 5 and Fig. 2.
Measures of global fit for the measurement model (CFA) and the structural
model. 4.3.1. Study 1: University sample
χ2 df χ2/df RMSEA SRMR CFI H1 predicted that higher levels of perceived ICT demands lead to
University sample (n = 230) greater levels of burnout. The path coefficient was significant and pos­
CFA model 184.338 129 1.429 0.043 0.048 0.976 itive (β=0.594, p<0.01), supporting H1. H2 proposed that higher levels
Hypothesized model 234.997 133 1.767 0.058 0.072 0.956 of perceived ICT resources lead to lower levels of burnout. The path
without controls coefficient was not significant (β=0.079, p=0.290), thus H2 was rejec­
Hypothesized model 316.069 189 1.672 0.054 0.065 0.948
ted. The results indicate that higher perceived ICT resources do not
with controls
reduce burnout. Considering work-family balance as the outcome vari­
Media company sample (n = 200)
able, the results show that while higher levels of ICT demands led to
CFA model 186.183 127 1.466 0.048 0.056 0.962
Hypothesized model 200.811 133 1.510 0.051 0.063 0.956
reduced work-family balance (a1=− 0.474, p≤0.001), supporting H3a,
without controls higher levels of ICT resources did not lead to improved work-family
Hypothesized model 332.311 189 1.758 0.062 0.067 0.917 balance (a2=− 0.074, p=0.464), rejecting H3b. A better work-family
with controls balance was found to reduce burnout (b=− 0.329, p<0.01), confirming
General sample (n = 201) H3c. H3d predicted that work-family balance would act as an inter­
CFA model 163.084 132 1.235 0.034 0.051 0.981 vening variable, mediating the ICT perceptions (ICT resources and ICT
CFA model with social 202.608 192 1.149 0.027 0.047 0.983 demands) → burnout relationships. The total (indirect plus direct) effect
desirability
Hypothesized model 183.610 135 1.360 0.042 0.067 0.970
of ICT demands on burnout was positive and significant (c=0.750,
without controls p<0.01). The results indicate that work-family balance partially medi­
Hypothesized model 317.450 205 1.549 0.052 0.062 0.937 ates the influence of ICT demands on burnout. The indirect effect of ICT
with controls demands on burnout via work-family balance was significant
Notes: CFA = confirmatory factor analysis; RMSEA = root mean squared error of (a1b=0.156, p≤0.001), indicating a mediation effect. As the direct effect
approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CFI = was also significant (c′ =0.594, p<0.01), the results show partial medi­
comparative fit index. ation. Satisfaction with work-family balance accounts for a significant

657
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 4
Descriptive statistics, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity estimates among study variables.
Construct Mean SD AVE CR α 1 2 3 4 5

University sample (n = 230)

1. ICT demands 4.06 1.58 0.624 0.908 0.88 0.790 0.484 0.675 0.385 0.505
2. ICT resources 5.23 1.19 0.580 0.891 0.85 − 0.581 0.762 0.264 0.468 0.194
3. Burnout 3.79 1.73 0.781 0.915 0.88 0.678 − 0.306 0.884 0.533 0.575
4. JS 5.82 1.15 0.830 0.907 0.85 − 0.407 0.448 − 0.574 0.911 0.423
5. WFB 4.77 1.61 0.835 0.910 0.84 − 0.479 0.257 − 0.581 0.411 0.914

Media company sample (n = 200)

1. ICT demands 3.23 1.39 0.561 0.884 0.85 0.749 0.441 0.639 0.262 0.449
2. ICT resources 5.63 0.85 0.464 0.838 0.76 − 0.481 0.681 0.305 0.340 0.257
3. Burnout 3.54 1.57 0.648 0.846 0.82 0.692 − 0.312 0.805 0.503 0.561
4. JS 6.19 0.79 0.785 0.880 0.74 − 0.332 0.303 − 0.528 0.886 0.429
5. WFB 5.12 1.53 0.870 0.930 0.91 − 0.499 0.259 − 0.539 0.433 0.932

General sample (n = 201)

1. ICT demands 3.30 1.15 0.511 0.861 0.81 0.715 0.362 0.608 0.373 0.503
2. ICT resources 5.54 0.80 0.493 0.852 0.79 − 0.408 0.702 0.386 0.474 0.359
3. Burnout 3.74 1.49 0.725 0.888 0.85 0.607 − 0.390 0.851 0.427 0.569
4. JS 5.51 1.12 0.872 0.931 0.89 − 0.375 0.441 − 0.481 0.934 0.423
5. WFB 5.15 1.39 0.819 0.901 0.89 − 0.519 0.371 − 0.552 0.426 0.905

Notes: JS = job satisfaction; WFB = work-family balance; SD = standard deviation; AVE = average variance extracted; CR = composite reliability.
Internal consistency reliability established if α > 0.7 and CR > 0.7.
Convergent validity established if AVE > 0.5.
Discriminant validity established if square root of AVE of construct (bold numbers in the diagonal) > all correlations of construct with other constructs (below the
diagonal) and Heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) < 0.85 (above the diagonal in italics)

portion (21%) of the total effect of ICT demands on burnout. The total
effect of ICT resources on burnout was not significant (c=0.103,
p=0.246), and there was no significant mediating, indirect effect of ICT
resources on burnout through work-family balance (a2b=0.024,
p=0.380). The mediation hypothesis H3d is confirmed for ICT demands
and rejected for ICT resources. H4 predicted that burnout leads to
reduced job satisfaction; this was confirmed (β=− 0.595, p<0.01). We
further analyzed how job satisfaction is indirectly affected by ICT de­
mands and ICT resources. The results reveal that ICT demands had a
negative, indirect effect on job satisfaction (β=− 0.446, p<0.01), while
the indirect effect of ICT resources on job satisfaction was not significant
(β=− 0.061, p=0.265).
4.3.2. Study 2: Media company sample
The analysis of media company employees led to very similar results
to the university employee data set. Supporting H1, the path coefficient
of the effect of ICT demands on burnout was significant and positive
(β=0.613, p≤0.001). H2 predicted that higher levels of ICT resources
lead to lower levels of burnout. As in the first study, there was no sig­
nificant effect (β=0.056, p=0.515), and H2 was rejected. Confirming
H3a, higher levels of ICT demands led to reduced work-family balance
(a1=− 0.502, p<0.01), whereas higher levels of ICT resources did not
lead to enhanced work-family balance (a2=− 0.034, p=0.721), rejecting
H3b. Again, better work-family balance was found to decrease burnout
(b=− 0.251, p<0.01), supporting H3c. Regarding mediation hypothesis
H3d, the bootstrapped indirect effect of ICT demands on burnout via
work-family balance was significant (a1b=0.126, p<0.01), indicating
mediation. The total effect of ICT demands on burnout was positive and
significant (c=0.739, p<0.01), yet the direct effect, as shown above, was
also significant (c’=0.613, p≤0.001), showing partial mediation. The
indirect effect through work-family balance accounts for approximately
17% of the total effect of ICT demands on burnout. The total effect of ICT
resources on burnout was again not significant (c=0.065, p=0.517), and
there was no indirect effect of ICT resources on burnout through work-
family balance (a2b=0.009, p=0.662), yielding the same results for H3d
as in the university sample. Work-family balance mediated the influence
of ICT demands on burnout, while it did not mediate the ICT resources
→ burnout relationship. The mediation hypothesis H3d is again
confirmed for ICT demands and rejected for ICT resources. H4 proposed
that burnout leads to reduced job satisfaction; this relation was again
confirmed for Study 2 (β=− 0.530, p≤0.001). Further analyses showed
that ICT demands had a negative, indirect effect on job satisfaction
(β=− 0.392, p≤0.001), while ICT resources did not indirectly affect job
satisfaction (β=− 0.034, p=0.463).
4.3.3. Study 3: General sample
Study 3, with a general sample of employees during COVID-19 times,
confirmed the main findings of studies 1 and 2 with some differences
occurring in relation to ICT resources.
Confirming H1 and as in studies 1 and 2, the path coefficient of the
effect of ICT demands on burnout was significant and positive (β=0.426,
p<0.01). H2 predicted that higher levels of ICT resources lead to lower
levels of burnout, but similar to the first two studies no significant effect
was found (β=− 0.155, p=0.113), and H2 was rejected. Again, higher
levels of ICT demands led to reduced work-family balance (a1=− 0.488,
p<0.01), confirming H3a, as in studies 1 and 2. However, in Study 3,
higher levels of ICT resources led to enhanced work-family balance
(a2=0.193, p<0.05). Contrary to studies 1 and 2, H3b is supported in the
general sample. High satisfaction with work-family balance was found
to decrease burnout (b=− 0.299, p<0.01), confirming H3c. The boot­
strapped indirect effect of ICT demands on burnout via work-family
balance was significant (a1b=0.146, p<0.01). The total effect of ICT
demands on burnout was positive and significant (c=0.572, p<0.01), yet
the direct effect, as shown above, was also significant (c′ =0.426,
p<0.01), showing partial mediation. The indirect effect through work-
family balance accounts for 25.5% of the total effect of ICT demands
on burnout. As opposed to studies 1 and 2, the indirect effect of ICT
resources on burnout via work-family balance was significant
(a2b=− 0.058, p<0.05), indicating a mediating effect. The total effect of
ICT resources on burnout was negative and significant (c=− 0.213,
p<0.05), while the direct effect, as shown above, was not significant
(c′ =− 0.155, p=0.113). The indirect effect through work-family balance
accounts for approximately 27% of the total effect of ICT resources on
burnout. In contrast to the first two studies, in Study 3, work-family
balance was found to mediate the ICT perceptions → burnout relation­
ships. H3d received support.
Supporting H4, the predicted relationship between burnout and job
satisfaction was confirmed (β=− 0.516, p<0.01). In addition, the results
show that ICT demands had a negative, indirect effect on job satisfaction
(β=− 0.295, p<0.01), while ICT resources had a positive, indirect effect

658
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 5
Results of structural equation model testing.
Bootstrapping BC 95% CI

Estimate SE Lower Upper p

University sample (n¼230)

ICT demands → Burnout H1 0.594 0.093 0.414 0.784 0.002

ICT resources → Burnout H2 0.079 0.082 − 0.074 0.246 0.290
ICT demands → WFB H3a − 0.474 0.090 − 0.660 − 0.307 0.001
ICT resources → WFB H3b − 0.074 0.091 − 0.242 0.122 0.464
WFB → Burnout H3c − 0.329 0.085 − 0.494 − 0.154 0.002
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout H3d 0.156 0.050 0.078 0.294 0.001
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout H3d 0.024 0.031 − 0.030 0.103 0.380
Burnout → JS H4 − 0.595 0.066 − 0.711 − 0.456 0.004
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout → JS − 0.446 0.064 − 0.584 − 0.321 0.002
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout → JS − 0.061 0.055 − 0.179 0.041 0.265

Controls
Gender → WFB − 0.070 0.066 − 0.196 0.063 0.289
(0 = male, 1 = female) → Burnout − 0.090 0.055 − 0.206 0.016 0.076
→ JS − 0.037 0.058 − 0.155 0.074 0.480
Age → WFB 0.182 0.062 0.061 0.302 0.005
→ Burnout − 0.052 0.060 − 0.173 0.061 0.076
→ JS − 0.139 0.056 − 0.248 − 0.029 0.011
Employee responsibility → WFB − 0.060 0.078 − 0.205 0.096 0.425
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout − 0.120 0.062 − 0.241 − 0.003 0.044
→ JS 0.087 0.064 − 0.030 0.212 0.172
Working from home → WFB − 0.354 0.061 − 0.479 − 0.232 0.002
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout 0.031 0.063 − 0.099 0.151 0.634
→ JS 0.093 0.064 − 0.041 0.213 0.157
R2 for endogenous variables Burnout 0.575
WFB 0.378
JS 0.349

Media company sample (n ¼ 200)

ICT demands → Burnout H1 0.613 0.097 0.423 0.796 0.001

ICT resources → Burnout H2 0.056 0.087 − 0.115 0.230 0.515
ICT demands → WFB H3a − 0.502 0.088 − 0.656 − 0.303 0.004
ICT resources → WFB H3b − 0.034 0.098 − 0.229 0.178 0.721
WFB → Burnout H3c − 0.251 0.079 − 0.406 − 0.094 0.003
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout H3d 0.126 0.046 . 047 0.230 0.002
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout H3d 0.009 0.025 − 0.045 0.068 0.662
Burnout → JS H4 − 0.530 0.089 − 0.676 − 0.327 0.001
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout → JS − 0.392 0.075 − 0.547 − 0.250 0.001
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout → JS − 0.034 0.048 − 0.136 0.055 0.463

Controls
Gender → WFB 0.107 0.071 − 0.032 0.241 0.135
(0 = male, 1 = female) → Burnout 0.004 0.079 − 0.156 0.164 0.973
→ JS 0.092 0.093 − 0.087 0.271 0.313
Age → WFB 0.249 0.078 0.091 0.400 0.004
→ Burnout − 0.068 0.092 − 0.242 0.113 0.461
→ JS 0.109 0.083 − 0.051 0.274 0.178
Employee responsibility → WFB − 0.175 0.075 − 0.316 − 0.019 0.016
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout 0.070 0.073 − 0.073 0.210 0.306
→ JS 0.027 0.099 − 0.173 0.215 0.840
Working from home → WFB 0.070 0.078 − 0.091 0.213 0.417
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout − 0.100 0.073 − 0.250 0.041 0.142
→ JS 0.084 0.087 − 0.083 0.261 0.314
R2 for endogenous variables Burnout 0.557
WFB 0.311
JS 0.310

General sample (n ¼ 201)

ICT demands → Burnout H1 0.426 0.090 0.215 0.572 0.007

ICT resources → Burnout H2 − 0.155 0.100 − 0.378 0.038 0.113
ICT demands → WFB H3a − 0.488 0.089 − 0.661 − 0.298 0.002
ICT resources → WFB H3b 0.193 0.095 0.004 0.390 0.046
WFB → Burnout H3c − 0.299 0.100 − 0.490 0.080 0.009
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout H3d 0.146 0.057 0.052 0.302 0.005
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout H3d − 0.058 0.034 − 0.141 − 0.005 0.029
Burnout → JS H4 − 0.516 0.095 − 0.669 0.313 0.002
ICT demands → WFB → Burnout → JS − 0.295 0.062 − 0.386 − 0.139 0.002
ICT resources → WFB → Burnout → JS 0.110 0.062 0.011 0.277 0.032

Controls
→ WFB − 0.046 0.075 − 0.200 0.093 0.528
(continued on next page)

659
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 5 (continued )
Bootstrapping BC 95% CI

Estimate SE Lower Upper p

Gender → Burnout 0.008 0.063 − 0.113 0.132 0.866

(0 = male, 1 = female) → JS − 0.019 0.072 − 0.140 0.139 0.772
Age → WFB − 0.111 0.074 − 0.267 0.035 0.134
→ Burnout − 0.086 0.067 − 0.215 0.050 0.191
→ JS 0.012 0.073 − 0.119 0.165 0.904
Employee responsibility → WFB − 0.060 0.067 − 0.187 0.080 0.373
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout 0.082 0.062 − 0.045 0.196 0.199
→ JS 0.094 0.080 − 0.071 0.237 0.314
Working from home → WFB 0.003 0.089 − 0.164 0.185 0.976
(0 = no, 1 = yes) → Burnout − 0.007 0.082 − 0.156 0.159 0.969
→ JS 0.017 0.079 − 0.146 0.161 0.912
The extent of work from home in response to the COVID− 19 crisis(0–100%) → WFB − 0.037 0.082 − 0.193 0.132 0.669
→ Burnout − 0.144 0.076 − 0.297 0.015 0.078
→ JS − 0.109 0.071 − 0.249 0.025 0.128
R2 for endogenous variables Burnout 0.553
WFB 0.347
JS 0.270

Notes: BC = bias corrected; CI = confidence interval; SE = standard error; JS = job satisfaction, WFB = work-family balance.

Fig. 2. Standardized regression weights of the SEMs and squared multiple correlations.

on job satisfaction (β=0.110, p<0.05).
Table 5 and Fig. 2 summarize the results from the three data sets.
5. Qualitative results
Participants were asked to name and describe measures that could
help to improve ICT use in their work life. These qualitative responses
provide valuable insights into possibilities for improving and supporting
ICT use in work life from the employees’ perspective. In the reflexive
thematic analysis (Braun et al., 2019), three main themes emerged: (1)
communication, (2) availability and (3) infrastructure (Table 6).
Communication. As part of the communication theme, means of
communication, email communication and corporate communication values
were identified as subthemes. Respondents emphasize the necessity of
choosing the most appropriate means of communication depending on
the situation. Several respondents addressed the limits of certain means
of communication, for instance, in conflict situations, and advocated the
value of personal communication. A number of responses dealt with
email communication in particular and highlight potential stressors
related to email correspondence. Participants criticized the large num­
ber of emails and expressed the need to promote more precise email
correspondence in terms of recipients, timing, urgency and accuracy.
Respondents further voiced their desire to avoid sending emails outside
of working hours. However, respondents not only refer to how things are
communicated but also address what is being communicated and bring
up communication values on a corporate level. Participants reported
wishing for respectful, appreciative, transparent and empathetic
communication. Moreover, respondents demand refraining from build­
ing up pressure and express that it is important to recognize the neces­
sity of informal exchange from the corporate point of view.
Availability. Expectations and self-responsibility were identified as
subthemes within the theme of availability. Participants indicated the
necessity to rethink and adjust expectations regarding availability for
work in general and concerning email response times in particular.
Regarding the latter, participants pointed out that email response times
are increasingly accelerating and requested a change in attitude and
expectations. In addition, participants hoped for clear guidelines
regarding expectations of availability from the corporate side and
compliance therewith. Among the general sample, participants addi­
tionally demanded clear guidelines on availability expectations when
working from home. This issue is very likely attributable to the unique
context of the COVID-19 pandemic, with many employees experiencing
a sudden switch to working from home. In the context of expectations,
participants strongly emphasize self-responsibility. Respondents agree
that the individual also bears responsibility in terms of ICT use and its
associated consequences. In response to the demands that ICTs bring
with them, participants suggest that setting personal rules may be a
reasonable strategy to manage ICT use both at work and outside of work.
Nonetheless, respondents also see the employer as possessing a duty to
encourage and strengthen this personal responsibility. Similarly, with
regard to reconciling work and family life, participants emphasized self-
responsibility and advocated managing these domains in a way that

660
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 6
Thematic analysis of the qualitative survey responses.
Main themes Sub-themes Frequency of mentions Details Sample quotes

University Media General

company sample

Communication Means of 7 – 4 choosing the most appropriate employees should refrain from sending emails in a conflict
Communication means of communication situation but instead talk personally (male, 46, university)
to communicate personally as often as possible (female, 31,
media company)
clear agreements within the team on how different topics
are communicated and discussed, sometimes a phone call is
better than an email, and sometimes it requires a video
conference with all (male, 43, general sample)
Email 16 3 7 precise email correspondence in too many emails are sent to wrong recipients (male, 34,
Communication terms of urgency and accuracy university)
that employees themselves evaluate the urgency of sending
an email to avoid colleagues from getting spammed
(female, 43, media company)
to reduce the number of people that are put in cc (male, 38,
general sample)
avoiding sending emails outside no emails with work tasks on weekends (male, 46,
of working hours university)
no emails from supervisors on weekends or while on holiday
(female, 32, media company)
no emails after 8p.m. (male, 28, general sample)
Corporate 13 3 3 support of corporate values and appreciation and reliability (male, 47, university)
Communication the communication thereof equal conditions for everyone (female, 42, media
Values company)
managers should not forget that interpersonal contact and
informal exchange between employees are also important
for corporate success (male, 45, general sample)

Availability Expectations 22 4 15 adjusting expectations regarding
email response times
adjusting expectations of
availability for work matters in
general
clear corporate guidelines on
availability and the compliance
therewith
clear corporate guidelines on
availability expectations when
working from home
Self-Responsibility 21 10 30 personal rules and guidelines
regarding ICT use at work
personal rules and guidelines
regarding ICT use outside of work
appealing to employees‘ self-
responsibility in terms of ICT use
we must drop the idea of a permanent quick response
(male, 31, university)
consensus that incoming emails do not have to be processed
within one hour (female, 38, general sample)
the image of having to be always available must be changed
(female, 37, university)
it cannot be expected that one always takes part in work-
related events in the evenings or on weekends (female, 20,
media company)
not to expect others to work on weekends (male, 32,
general sample)
to ensure that also supervisors comply with working hours
and adhere to regulations (male, 32, university sample)
rules about availability outside of working hours (female,
26, university)
general conditions on availability anchored in the corporate
mission (male, 34, media company)
clear guidelines when you have to be available and whether
this time is recognized as working time (male, 31, general
sample)
just because you work from home does not mean that you
have to be available around the clock as some think
(female, 34, general sample)
specific regulations when working from home (male, 58,
general sample)
starting to work actively on myself and to not let myself be
put under pressure just because I received an email (male,
38, university)
defining fixed times for using technical systems and
applications rather than checking your emails or social
media status updates permanently (female, 27, media
company)
to take regular screen breaks and to deactivate email pop-
ups and messengers during stressful times to ensure trouble-
free work (male, 36, general sample)
to switch off technological devices during leisure time
(female, 28, university)
to do without ICTs on non-working days (male, 42, media
company)
to carry out private and professional ICT matters on
different devices, e.g. private phone and business phone
(male, 23, general sample)
creating an awareness for a more sensible handling of
technology (male, 49, university)
encouraging employees to divide their time more
(continued on next page)

661
K. Ninaus et al. Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666

Table 6 (continued )
Main themes Sub-themes Frequency of mentions Details Sample quotes

University Media General

company sample

consciously when to work and when not to work with ICTs

appealing to employees‘ self-
responsibility in terms of
reconciling work and private life
(male, 38, general sample)
setting boundaries and sticking to them consistently
(female, 44, university)
to make sure to have the right balance between work and
leisure time (male, 65, university)
keeping work and private life separate (female, 44, media
company)
drawing a clear line between work and private life (female,
31, general sample)

Infrastructure Technical 23 17 20 hardware equipment offering business mobile phones to anyone interested rather
Equipment than having to use the private phone for work calls, business
phones can be turned off during leisure time, private ones
cannot (female, 30, university)
having a choice about the type of business phone by offering
a normal phone without an email function as an additional
option besides the iPhone (male, 37, media company)
to provide laptops that offer the latest state of technology
(female, 25, general sample)
software equipment a guarantee for data security (male, 46, university)
a simplification of technology (male, 39, university)
less technical malfunctions (female, 25, media company)
a remote connection to the work computer from home
(male, 31, media company)
a stable VPN connection (female, 32, general sample)
IT Support 20 8 13 system conversions and more careful planning prior to changing a system (female,
innovations 51, university)
not to implement system changes all the time (female, 50,
media company)
to use simpler and more structured programs (male, 28,
general sample)
trainings workshops on how to take better advantage of ICTs (male,
31, university)
trainings that help to optimize the handling of ICTs (female,
46, media company)
trainings that help to use ICTs in a more targeted way
(male, 32, general sample)
Physical Activity 8 2 5 integrating physical activity as easy access to sport activities (female, 34, university
and Well-being part of the workday sample)
gym routines on long workdays (female, 42, media
company)
taking breaks to refresh body and mind, e.g. exercising in
the fresh air during breaks (male, 45, general sample)
promoting well-being promoting healthy breaks and holding meetings outside in
the fresh air (female, 30, university)
ergonomic workplaces (female, 49, media company)
high-quality office armchair that is correctly adjusted to
one’s own body size (male, 30, general sample)

matches one’s own needs.
Infrastructure. Within the theme of infrastructure, three subthemes
emerged from the data: technical equipment, IT support and physical ac­
tivity and well-being. Participants reported several demands with regard
to hardware and software; reliability, security and variety were the key
attributes that were named most frequently. Numerous participants also
shared the desire for a greater selection of programs and devices to
choose from. A few respondents expressed their desire for remote access,
although respondents in the general sample particularly emphasized the
need for a stable connection, an issue that likely occurred more intensely
during the COVID-19 situation that forced many employees into remote
work. Participants further demanded the availability of IT support. Re­
spondents requested careful planning when implementing system con­
versions and innovation. Regarding the latter, ease of use was given
more emphasis than the degree of innovation. Participants expressed the
need for IT support in the form of providing training; training measures
that increase efficiency in the use of ICTs were most commonly
mentioned. Regarding infrastructure more generally, participants sug­
gested the implementation of measures, facilities and equipment that
help to integrate physical activity as part of the working day and pro­
mote well-being.
In summary, reflexive thematic analysis of the qualitative survey
data indicates that infrastructure was the most predominant theme
overall. Participants’ responses primarily referred to issues around the
technical equipment, but IT support also appeared to be an important
topic. Availability emerged as the second most prevalent theme; partic­
ipants mainly stressed the importance of employees’ self-responsibility
while also criticizing expectations of constant availability and
demanding a change in this regard. Communication occurred as the least
frequent theme; improvements in email correspondence and transparent
communication values at the corporate level were proposed in partic­
ular. Some aspects seem to have intensified by the COVID-19 situation,
particularly the wish for clear corporate guidelines on availability ex­
pectations when working from home and the simple need for a stable
connection. Table 6 presents an overview of the themes and subthemes,
including quotes from all samples.

662
K. Ninaus et al.
6. Discussion and implications
ICTs are omnipresent in both private and work life and are perceived
as simultaneously beneficial resources and stressful demands. Based on
the job demands-resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001), we devel­
oped an ICT demands-resources model explaining how employees’
perceptions of ICTs as resources and demands impact employees’
perceived level of burnout. We further analyzed the mediating role of
work-family balance and how job satisfaction is affected. Three studies
were conducted. The first two studies were carried out with employees
of a university and a media company operating nationwide, with data
collected prior to the COVID-19 outbreak. The third study was carried
out with a more general sample of the working population with data
collected during the COVID-19 pandemic.
An important finding in all three studies is that employees perceive
ICTs more intensively as resources than as demands. However, while the
studies unanimously show that employees’ perception of ICTs as de­
mands have strong negative effects – reducing the work-family balance,
increasing the level of burnout both directly and indirectly through a
diminished work-family balance, and with an adverse, indirect effect on
job satisfaction – the effects of perception of ICTs as resources are mixed
and less clear.
Studies 1 and 2 among university and media company employees
indicate that ICT resources do not have the potential to enhance work-
family balance, to reduce burnout or to improve job satisfaction.
These findings are important, as they indicate that the premise of the JD-
R model that job resources lead to positive outcomes or reduce unfa­
vorable effects of working life (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007) may not hold in the context of ICTs. Even if employees
perceive ICT as a resource, this perception does not necessarily lead to
favorable outcomes for employees’ health and work-related outcomes.
In line with the first two studies, the results of Study 3 indicate that
ICT resources have no direct impact on burnout, but in contrast to
studies 1 and 2, ICT resources were found to enhance work-family bal­
ance and to have a favorable indirect effect on burnout via improved
work-family balance. Considering that studies 1 and 2 were carried out
prior to the COVID-19 pandemic and Study 3 was conducted during the
pandemic, this finding may be a result of the context of the COVID-19
crisis. Many employees experienced a sudden mandatory switch to
working from home in response to COVID-19 (Carnevale & Hatak,
2020), and working from home may have given employees the oppor­
tunity to benefit from the possibility to continue working and to orga­
nize work in a more flexible way (Belzunegui-Eraso & Erro-Garces,
2020). Previous research has demonstrated that work flexibility in terms
of how, where and when work is done contributes to well-being (Ray &
Pana-Cryan, 2021) and that flexible work designs increase well-being
through an enhanced work-family balance (ter Hoeven & van Zoonen,
2015). Greater flexibility may also come along with greater autonomy
(Nagel, 2020), which may in turn improve well-being (Wang et al.,
2021). Although the results of Study 3 indicate that ICT resources may
have become more beneficial during the pandemic, the detrimental
impact of ICT demands is still present and much more pronounced than
the beneficial impact of ICT resources.
Thus, our results support the notion that work-related technology use
comes at the expense of employees’ well-being and can be a predictor of
health impairments (Day et al., 2012; Barber & Santuzzi, 2015; Khed­
haouria & Cucchi, 2019). The strong negative impact of ICT demands on
burnout, found in all three studies, must be stressed especially because it
shows that ICTs may play a crucial role in the development of burnout.
Given that burnout may develop as an affective response to ongoing
detrimental working conditions (Shirom, 2011), ICTs may indeed create
ongoing conditions with burnout as a potential result. The relevance of
burnout is also demonstrated by participants’ relatively high values of
burnout in all samples, with means close to the scale midpoint 4.
A further key finding of our research is that ICT demands are clearly
detrimental to individuals’ satisfaction with their work-family balance.
663
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
This finding underpins the notion that evolving technologies have made
the challenge of balancing work and home demands even more crucial
(McCloskey, 2018; Atanasoff & Venable, 2017). Extending previous
research, which has shown that work-related technology use outside of
working hours causes more conflict between the work and family do­
mains (Schieman & Young, 2013; van Zoonen et al., 2016), our findings
indicate that work-related ICT demands per se obstruct employees in
their attempt to balance their life domains. Furthermore, the results
confirm the established burnout → job satisfaction link (Koeske &
Koeske, 1993; Khamisa et al., 2015) and demonstrate that job satisfac­
tion is negatively influenced by burnout, to which the negative effects of
ICTs contribute.
The unique context of the COVID-19 pandemic may allow employees
to profit from ICTs to a greater extent, but even so, the overall study
underscores the importance of raising employees’ awareness about
possible unfavorable effects of ICTs on individuals’ health and well-
being and confirm that burnout is a topic that companies and society
need to address.
From a managerial perspective, our findings suggest that organiza­
tions may want to raise employees’ awareness about the possible
negative effects of ICTs on their health rather than communicating the
potential benefits that ICTs may bring to employees. Since the detri­
mental effects of ICT demands are rather strong while ICT resources
have ambiguous effects, it may be more promising to take measures that
help employees cope with ICT demands.
Valuable recommendations for action emerged from the qualitative
findings. Survey responses indicate that employees do not necessarily
demand permanent technological innovations but instead ask for reli­
able, secure and easy-to-use programs and devices. Similarly, partici­
pants are not in favor of constant system conversions and innovations.
Companies should implement new ICT carefully and its use should be
the object of critical reflection. Moreover, technology should not serve
as a total substitute for personal communication. Companies may want
to introduce clear guidelines relating to corporate expectations with
respect to employees’ availability. Taking a clear position on availability
expectations on the corporate side may help to reduce possible un­
certainties among employees and thus alleviate a potential cause of
work stress. Guidelines relating to corporate expectations with respect to
employees’ availability are deemed particularly important, as remote
work is likely to persist even after the COVID-19 pandemic (Kniffin
et al., 2021; Kellner et al., 2020).
The qualitative findings let us further recommend that providing IT
support, reliable technical equipment and training and workshops about
dealing with ICTs are reasonable measures that may help to reduce ICT
demands and contribute to a more favorable perception of ICTs. Giving
employees the opportunity to engage in activities that are not work-
related, for instance, access to physical activity, may also support em­
ployees in dealing with work-related demands. Activities that promote
recovery from work are essential for attaining and sustaining employee
health and performance (Barber & Santuzzi, 2015). In the context of
attaining personal satisfaction, organizations may want to evaluate how
to implement ICT-related workplace norms in a manner that promotes
work-family balance. Although individuals’ self-responsibility emerged
as a prevalent topic in the qualitative responses in regard to reconciling
work and private life, companies should nonetheless provide the space
that is essential for employees to take individual responsibility with
regard to balancing work and family issues.
7. Conclusion
This article contributes to the advancement of scientific insight into
ICT demands and resources as well as burnout research in several ways.
Applying a JD-R perspective on the use of ICTs in work life and inte­
grating both disadvantages and advantages of ICTs into our conceptual
model, this study contributes to JD-R research and advances under­
standing of both benefits and challenges associated with ICT in an
K. Ninaus et al.
occupational setting. The conceptualized ICT demands-resources model
can be used to explain the effects of stress-creating (i.e., demands) and
stress-reducing (i.e., resources) attributes of ICT use simultaneously,
often neglected in other studies (Berg-Beckhoff et al., 2017). Further­
more, we make another valuable contribution to JD-R research by
investigating the mediating role of work-family balance in the ICT →
burnout link. Promising results emerged; the presence of work-family
balance reduced the level of burnout, and satisfaction with work-
family balance diminished the adverse effect of ICT demands on
burnout in all three studies. This latter finding underpins the importance
of the work-family balance in the context of employee health and well-
being. This result ties well with previous research in a nontechnological
context that also stressed the importance of improving work-family
balance to achieve employee satisfaction and well-being (Alegre et al.,
2016), thus advancing research on the consequences of technology on
employees’ psychological health and well-being (Derks et al., 2014).
Additionally, the present study among employees from different
sectors contributes to understanding the effects of ICT across industries
(Atanasoff & Venable, 2017). Our results from three independent sam­
ples indicate that ICTs mostly have an adverse rather than a beneficial
influence on burnout, work-family balance and job satisfaction,
strengthening the necessity for companies to devote attention to their
employees’ ICT use. Providing employees with new ICT resources will
likely not contribute to burnout reduction and improvements in work-
family balance. Instead, it is all the more important that organizations
raise awareness among their employees that ICTs bring additional
challenges and to introduce possible ways of dealing with them. Pro­
moting a sensible and careful handling of ICTs in the occupational
setting is deemed particularly useful with measures that support em­
ployees in developing an ICT use in which ICTs are not perceived as a
stressful demand.
8. Limitations and directions for future research
Although we apply the suggested ICT demands-resources model with
the mediating role of work-family balance to employees from the higher
education sector, the media industry and to a more general sample,
future research may want to extend the model to other specific in­
dustries. Our three studies collected cross-sectional data. Future
research may conduct longitudinal research to further substantiate the
causal relationships between ICT perception and work-family balance,
burnout and job satisfaction. In future studies, it would also be inter­
esting to compare the short- and long-term effects of ICT demands and
resources.
We used self-reporting measures and collected data through
surveying, methods that bear a risk of common method bias. For this
reason, as outlined in the method section, we paid particular attention to
the avoidance of CMB. Even though we took steps to this end, and
though the analytical results serve to indicate that CMB does not affect
our results, future studies may apply the CFA marker technique (Wil­
liams, Hartman, & Cavazotte, 2010) in addition to the CLF techniques
(Podsakoff et al., 2003) used in this study. Other methodological ap­
proaches (secondary data sources and qualitative methods) could also
help to further substantiate our current findings. Future studies could try
to collect data on ICT resources and demands and the dependent vari­
ables from different sources.
It would also be interesting to explore potential coping mechanisms
in more detail. The transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984) could serve as a potential theoretical foundation for the
analysis of coping mechanisms. According to this model, an individual
evaluates the degree of threat that a potentially stressful event poses to
his or her well-being as well as the coping resources and abilities
available to manage the threat.
In this work, correlations between ICT demands and burnout ranged
between 0.61 and 0.69 across the three studies. Although there was a
clear indication of the discriminant validity of the two constructs, both
664
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
through the Fornell-Larcker criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) and the
HTMT method with the stricter ratio cutoff value (Henseler et al., 2015;
Voorhees et al., 2016), the correlation between ICT demands and
burnout warrants further research.
Future research could also examine the role of sociodemographic
factors such as gender, age or education. Cultural factors may also
provide valuable insights in terms of country-related differences in ICT
perceptions. As our study results strengthen the importance of work-
family balance in the context of employee health and well-being,
research on possible ICT-related workplace norms that help attain
work-family balance may provide valuable insights. The overall topic
also deserves attention from the perspective of health communication. It
could be revealing to test health messages that aim to encourage em­
ployees to use ICTs in a manner that helps to foster work-family balance,
for instance, by encouraging employees to use ICTs more consciously
and to engage in recovery processes regularly.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
References
Alegre, I., Mas-Machuca, M., & Berbegal-Mirabent, J. (2016). Antecedents of employee
job satisfaction: Do they matter? Journal of Business Research, 69(4), 1390–1395.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.113.
Armstrong, D. J., Brooks, N. G., & Riemenschneider, C. K. (2015). Exhaustion from
Information System Career Experience: Implications for Turn-Away Intention. MIS
Quarterly, 39(3), 713–727.
Atanasoff, L., & Venable, M. A. (2017). Technostress: Implications for Adults in the
Workforce. The Career Development Quarterly, 65(4), 326–338. https://doi.org/
10.1002/cdq.2017.65.issue-410.1002/cdq.12111.
Ayyagari, R., Grover, V., & Purvis, R. (2011). Technostress: Technological Antecedents
and Implications. MIS Quarterly, 35(4), 831–858.
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the
art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/
02683940710733115.
Barber, L. K., & Santuzzi, A. M. (2015). Please respond ASAP: Workplace telepressure and
employee recovery. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(2), 172–189.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038278.
Barkhuizen, N., Rothmann, S., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2014). Burnout and work
engagement of academics in higher education institutions: Effects of dispositional
optimism. Stress and Health, 30(4), 322–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.
v30.410.1002/smi.2520.
Belzunegui-Eraso, A., & Erro-Garces, A. (2020). Teleworking in the Context of the Covid-
19 Crisis. Sustainability, 12, 3662. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093662.
Berg-Beckhoff, G., Nielsen, G., & Larsen, E. L. (2017). Use of information communication
technology and stress, burnout, and mental health in older, middle-aged, and
younger workers – results from a systematic review. International Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Health, 23(2), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10773525.2018.1436015.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for
beginners. London: Sage.
Braun, V., Clarke, V., Hayfield, N., & Terry, G. (2019). Thematic Analysis. In
P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in health and social sciences (pp.
843–860). Singapore: Springer.
Burman, R., & Goswami, T. G. (2018). A Systematic Literature Review of Work Stress.
International Journal of Management Studies, V(3(9)), 112. https://doi.org/10.18843/
ijms/v5i3(9)/15.
Califf, C. B., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2020). The bright and dark sides of technostress: A
mixed-methods study involving healthcare IT. MIS Quarterly, 44(2), 809–856.
Carnevale, J. B., & Hatak, I. (2020). Employee adjustment and well-being in the era of
COVID-19: Implications for human resource management. Journal of Business
Research, 116, 183–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.037.
Clark, S. C. (2001). Work Cultures and Work/Family Balance. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 58(3), 348–365. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2000.1759.
Cousins, K., & Robey, D. (2015). Managing work-life boundaries with mobile
technologies. Information Technology & People, 28(1), 34–71. https://doi.org/
10.1108/ITP-08-2013-0155.
K. Ninaus et al.
Crowne, D., & Marlowe, D. (1964). The approval motive: Studies in evaluative dependence.
New York: Wiley.
Day, A., Scott, N., & Kelloway, E. K. (2010). Information and communication technology:
Implications for job stress and employee well-being. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster
(Eds.), Research in Occupational Stress and Well Being: Volume 8. New
Developments in theoretical and conceptual approaches to job stress (pp. 317–350).
Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Day, A., Paquet, S., Scott, N., & Hambley, L. (2012). Perceived information and
communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating
effect of organizational ICT support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(4),
473–491. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029837.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-
resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://
doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Ebbinghaus, M. (2002). From mental
strain to burnout. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11(4),
423–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320244000274.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2005). Spillover and crossover of
exhaustion and life satisfaction among dual-earner parents. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 67(2), 266–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2004.07.001.
Demerouti, E., Derks, D., ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2014). New ways of
working: Impact on working conditions, work–family balance, and well-being. In
C. Korunka, & P. Hoonakker (Eds.), The impact of ICT on quality of working life (pp.
123–141). Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8854-0_8.
Derks, D., van Mierlo, H., & Schmitz, E. B. (2014). A diary study on work-related
smartphone use, psychological detachment and exhaustion: Examining the role of
the perceived segmentation norm. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(1),
74–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035076.
Derks, D., Bakker, A. B., Peters, P., & van Wingerden, P. (2016). Work-related
smartphone use, work–family conflict and family role performance: The role of
segmentation preference. Human Relations, 69(5), 1045–1068. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0018726715601890.
Diaz, I., Chiaburu, D. S., Zimmerman, R. D., & Boswell, W. R. (2012). Communication
technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 80(2), 500–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.08.007.
Eichhorn, B. R. (2014). Common method variance techniques. USA: Cleveland State
University, SAS Institute Inc.
EU-OSHA (2014). Calculating the cost of work-related stress and psychosocial risks.
Retrieved from https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/literature_reviews/calcula
ting-the-cost-of-work-related-stress-and-psychosocial-risks. Accessed 13 April 2020.
European Commission (2018). Mental health in the workplace. Retrieved from http
s://cordis.europa.eu/programme/id/H2020_SC1-BHC-22-2019. Accessed 25 May
2020.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable
variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing
Research, 18(3), 382–388.
Hackman, R. J., & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159–170.
Hair, J. F., Jr., Matthews, L. M., Matthews, R. L., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). PLS-SEM or CB-
SEM: Update guidelines on which method to use. International Journal of Multivariate
Data Analysis, 1(2), 107–123.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis:
A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). New York, London: The Guilford Press.
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing
discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-
014-0403-8.
Hu, Q., Schaufeli, W. B., & Taris, T. W. (2011). The Job Demands-Resources model: An
analysis of additive and joint effects of demands and resources. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 79(1), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.009.
Hulland, J., Baumgartner, H., & Smith, K. M. (2018). Marketing survey research best
practices: Evidence and recommendations from a review of JAMS article. Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 46, 92–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-017-
0532-y.
Karkoulian, S., Srour, J., & Sinan, T. (2016). A gender perspective on work-life balance,
perceived stress, and locus of control. Journal of Business Research, 69(11),
4918–4923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.04.053.
Kellner, B., Korunka, C., Kubicek, B., & Wolfsberger, J. (2020). How COVID-19 has
changed the workplace in Austria. Retrieved from https://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/at/Documents/presse/Deloitte-Flexible-Working-Studie
-2020.pdf. Accessed 20 April 2021.
Khamisa, N., Oldenburg, B., Peltzer, K., & Ilic, D. (2015). Work related stress, burnout,
job satisfaction and general health of nurses. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 12, 652–666. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120100652.
Khedhaouria, A., & Cucchi, A. (2019). Technostress creators, personality traits, and job
burnout: A fuzzy-set configurational analysis. Journal of Business Research, 101,
349–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.04.029.
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New
York: The Guilford Press.
Kniffin, K. M., Narayanan, J., Anseel, F., Antonakis, J., Ashford, S. P., Bakker, A. B., …
Vugt, M. V. (2021). COVID-19 and the Workplace: Implications, Issues, and Insights
for Future Research and Action. American Psychologist, 76(1), 63–77. https://doi.
org/10.1037/amp0000716.
Koeske, G. F., & Koeske, R. D. (1993). A preliminary test of a stress-strain-outcome model
for reconceptualizing the burnout phenomenon. Journal of Social Service Research, 17
(3-4), 107–135.
665
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
Kristensen, T. S., Borritz, M., Villadsen, E., & Christensen, K. B. (2005). The Copenhagen
Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout. Work & Stress, 19(3),
192–207.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Leoni, T. (2019). Absence from Work Report 2019. Absences due to Sickness and
Accidents in Austria – Working Time and Health. Austrian Institute of Economic
Research. Retrieved from https://www.wifo.ac.at/publikationen/publikationssuch
e?detail-view=yes&publikation_id=62103. Accessed 13 April 2020.
MacDonald, J. B., Saliba, A. J., Hodgins, G., & Ovington, L. A. (2016). Burnout in
journalists: A systematic literature review. Burnout Research, 3(2), 34–44. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2016.03.001.
MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2012). Common method bias in marketing: Causes,
mechanisms, and procedural remedies. Journal of Retailing, 88(4), 542–555. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2012.08.001.
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job Burnout. Annual Review of
Psychology, 52(1), 397–422.
McCloskey, D. W. (2018). An examination of the boundary between work and home for
knowledge workers. International Journal of Human Capital and Information
Technology Professionals, 9(3), 25–41. https://doi.org/10.4018/
IJHCITP.2018070102.
Meixner, C., & Hathcoat, J. D. (2019). The nature of mixed methods research. In
P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in health social sciences (pp.
51–70). Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5251-4_76.
Meseguer de Pedro, M., Fernández-Valera, M. M., García-Izquierdo, M., & Soler-
Sánchez, M. I. (2021). Burnout, psychological capital and health during COVID-19
social isolation: A longitudinal analysis. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health, 18, 1064. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031064.
Ministry for Social Affairs – Labour Inspection (2013). New regulations regarding
psychological strain and occupational psychologists. Retrieved from https://www.
arbeitsinspektion.gv.at/Gesundheit_im_Betrieb/psychische_Belastungen/Arbeitspla
tzevaluierung_psychischer_Belastungen.html. Accessed 13 April 2020.
Mishra, M. (2016). Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) as an analytical technique to
assess measurement error in survey research: A review. Paradigm, 20(2), 97–112.
https://doi.org/10.1177/097189071667293.
Nagel, L. (2020). The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the digital transformation
of work. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(9/10), 861–875.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-07-2020-0323.
Ninaus, K., Diehl, S., Terlutter, R., Chan, K., & Huang, A. (2015). Benefits and stressors -
Perceived effects of ICT use on employee health and work stress: An exploratory
study from Austria and Hong Kong. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on
Health and Well-Being, 10(1), 28838. https://doi.org/10.3402/qhw.v10.28838.
Pines, A., & Aronson, E. (1988). Career burnout: Causes and cures. New York: The Free
Press.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method
biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended
remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/
0021-9010.88.5.879.
Ray, T. K., & Pana-Cryan, R. (2021). Work flexibility and work-related well-being.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 3254.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063254.
Sandelowski, M., Voils, C. I., & Knafl, G. (2009). On quantitizing. Journal of Mixed
Methods Research, 3(3), 208–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689809334210.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Greenglass, E. R. (2001). Introduction to special issue on burnout and
health. Psychology and Health, 16(5), 501–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/
08870440108405523.
Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1996). The MBI-general
survey. In C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson, & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Maslach burnout inventory
manual (pp. 19–26). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Schieman, S., & Young, M. C. (2013). Are communications about work outside regular
working hours associated with work-to-family conflict, psychological distress and
sleep problems? Work & Stress, 27(3), 244–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02678373.2013.817090.
Shirom, A. (2011). Job-related burnout: A review of major research foci and challenges.
In J. C. Quick, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd
ed., pp. 223–241). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Stöber, J. (2001). The Social Desirability Scale-17 (SDS-17). Convergent validity,
discriminant validity, and relationship with age. European Journal of Psychological
Assessment, 17(3), 222–232. https://doi.org/10.1027//1015-5759.17.3.222.
Sumiyana, S., & Sriwidharmanely, S. (2020). Mitigating the harmful effects of
technostress: Inducing chaos theory in an experimental setting. Behaviour &
Information Technology, 39(10), 1079–1093. https://doi.org/10.1080/
0144929X.2019.1641229.
Tarafdar, M., Tu, Q., & Ragu-Nathan, T. S. (2010). Impact of technostress on end-user
satisfaction and performance. Journal of Management Information Systems, 27(3),
303–334. https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222270311.
Tarafdar, M., Pullins, E. B., & Ragu-Nathan, T. S. (2015). Technostress: Negative effect on
performance and possible mitigations. Information Systems Journal, 25(2), 103–132.
https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.v25.210.1111/isj.12042.
Hoeven, C. L., & Zoonen, W. (2015). Flexible work designs and employee wellbeing:
Examining the effects of resources and demands. New Technology, Work and
Employment, 30(3), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12052.
Valcour, M. (2007). Work-based resources as moderators of the relationship between
work hours and satisfaction with work-family balance. The Journal of Applied
Psychology, 92(6), 1512–1523. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1512.
K. Ninaus et al.
van Zoonen, W., Verhoeven, J. W., & Vliegenthart, R. (2016). Social media’s dark side:
Inducing boundary conflicts. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(8), 1297–1311.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2015-0388.
Voorhees, C. M., Brady, M. K., Calantone, R., & Ramirez, E. (2016). Discriminant validity
testing in marketing: An analysis, causes for concern, and proposed remedies.
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44, 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11747-015-0455-4.
Wang, X., & Li, B. (2019). Technostress among university teachers in higher education: A
study using multidimensional person-environment misfit theory. Frontiers in
Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01791.
Wang, B., Liu, Y., Qian, J., & Parker, S. K. (2021). Achieving effective remote working
during the COVID-19 pandemic: A work design perspective. Applied Psychology, 70
(1), 16–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12290.
WHO (2019). Burn-out an “occupational phenomenon”: International Classification of
Diseases. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/bur
n-out/en/. Accessed 25 May 2020.
Williams, L. J., Hartman, N., & Cavazotte, F. (2010). Method variance and marker
variables: A review and comprehensive CFA marker technique. Organizational
Research Methods, 13(3), 477–514. https://doi.org/10.1177%
2F1094428110366036.
666
Journal of Business Research 136 (2021) 652–666
Katharina Ninaus is a research and teaching assistant at the Department for Marketing
and International Management at the Faculty of Management and Economics of the Alpen-
Adria-Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria. With an academic background in the field of media
and communication studies, her research interests include use of technology, the recon­
ciliation between work and family life as well as social marketing and health
communication.
Sandra Diehl is Associate Professor of Media and Communication at the Faculty of Hu­
manities at the Alpen-Adria Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria. She holds a Ph.D. in Business
Economics from Saarland University, Germany. Her research interests include Advertising,
Corporate Social Responsibility, Health Communication, Intercultural Communication as
well as Media and Communication.
Ralf Terlutter is Professor of Marketing and International Management at the Faculty of
Management and Economics of the Alpen-Adria Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria. He holds
a Ph.D. in Business Economics from Saarland University, Germany. His research interests
include Consumer Behavior, Corporate Social Responsibility, Intercultural Communica­
tion, Health Marketing as well as New Media and Communication.