196 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide of strategies for the rehabilitation of existing flexible, rigid, and composite pavements. Figure 12-1 shows che steps suggested for use when decermining a preferred rehabilitarion strategy. STEP 1, Determine existing pavement condition; refer to Chapter 9 STEP 2, Determine cause and mochanism of clstrass I ‘STEP 3, Define problems and inadequacies of exiting pavement; in-place or damages ‘modulus of bound layers I ‘STEP 4, oantty possible constraints ot rehabilitation STEP 8, Execute AASHTOWaro PMED 10 predict distresses and IRI STEP ©, Develop preliminary dsign of ach feasible strategy that meets the oerformance or STEP 5. Select feasible strategies for {tal rehabilitation design; Subsections 13.2 and 13.3 STEP 6, Select proper pre-overlay treatments {or existing pavements (NHI, 16869, 2001) I STEP 7. Determine trial overlay thickness ‘and matorial proportiog (Chapeer 11) esign entra STEP 10. Perform life cycle cost analysis; external to AASHTOWare PMED STEP 11, Determine elovant non-monetary ‘actors that infivence rensblitation; extemal to ‘AASHTOWare PMED STEP 12. Determine most feasible or preferred rehabilitation strategy Figure 12-1. Steps for Determining a Preferred Rehabilitation StretegyChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 177 12.2 Rehabilitation Design with AC Overlays 12.2.1 Overview “The MEPDG includes specific details for selecting and designing AC overlays to improve surface condition or to increase the structural capacity of the following pavements (refer to Figure 3-2 under Subsection 3.3): + AC overlays of existing AC surfaced pavements; both flexible and semi-rigid + AC overlays of existing PCC pavements that have received fractured slab eceatments; exack and seat, break and seat, and rubblization + AC overlays of existing intact PCC pavements (JPCP and CRCP), including composite pavements or second overlays of original PCC pavements With the reflection cracking enhancement added to the software, two additional pavement types were added to the rehabilitation strategies, which include: + AC overlays with seal coats over existing AC-surfaced pavernents + AC overlays with interlayers over existing AC-surface pavements nts, with the AASHTO Ware PMED software representing typical values of the seal coat’s properties. Properties of the interlayer “The seal coat is placed directly over che existing AC-surfaced pave: represent those of a leveling course typically used when a geo-grid or geo-textile is used t0 mitigate ied to globally calibrate the reflee- sion cracking transfer function did nor exhibit any consistent difference between the use of seal reflection eracks. [fis important to note that the test sections coats or interlays, milling and overlay, or just a simple overlay of an existing AC-surfaced pavement. Some agencies have reported an extended service life when using seal coats and interlayers. Local calibration is recommended for those agencies that have observed increases in service life or re- duced reflection cracking when using these mitigation techniques. Figure 12-2 presents a generalized low chace for pavement rehabilitation with AC overlays of AC. surfaced flexible, semi-rigid, or composite pavements, fractured PCC pavements, and intact PCC pavements, 12.2.2 AC Overlay Analyses and Trial Rebobilitation Design ‘The MEPDG has the capability of analyzing existing PCC pavements by either an AC over PCC or an AC over fractured slab analysis, depending on whether or not crack and scat, break and scat, or rubblization techniques will be applied to the existing PCC pavement. Existing composite pave- ments can be analyzed in the AASHTOWare PMED software by conducting an AC over PCC. analysis or an AC over fractured concrete slab analysis, depending on whether or not the existing AC surface is removed and the underlying PCC pavement is fractured, In the AASHTO Ware PMED software, the AC over PCC analysis considers continued dam- age of the PCC slab under the AC overlay using the rigid pavement performance models presented (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at178 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Compesite PCC Flexible or Somi- EXISTING Rigid PAVEMENT ¥ ¥ Mill AG, Crack & Seat Mill AC Surface >| Break & Seat Surface Rubolize In-Place PRE-OVERLAY Recycle ‘TREATMENTS _~—__¥ __. —— a Full Depth Partial o Full Repair Slade [>] Depth Repair Replacernent a ae) to el fe = - AC Over L,] Acoverac OVERLAY POC Overlay a | Overlay ANALYSIS AG Over Fractured Slab Overlay Figure 12-2. Flow Chart of Rehabilitation Design Options Using AC Overlays in Chapter 5 and Subsection 12.2.8. The three overlay analyses in the software also provide the capability to address reflection cracking of joints and cracks in PCC pavements and thermal and load associated cracking in AC surfaced pavements, Finally, the predicted distresses are linked to estimates of IRI to form a functional performance crit jon thar may be considered along with the specific distresses in the desiga-analysis process. “The maximum number of overlay layers that may be specified is four. This includes up to three AC layers, and one unbound or chemically stabilized layer. The total number of layers of the exist- ing pavement and the overlay is limited to 14. For the initial design, however, itis suggested that the coral number of layers be limited to no more than eight co reduce the number of required inpues and run time. 12.2.3 Determine Condition of Existing Pavement Ao zation of the existing pavement, including determination of the damaged modulus of the existing al element for determining the AC overlay design features and thickness is the charact bound layers. General recommendations for evaluating the existing pavement for rehabilitation were ineluded in Chapter 9. As for new pavement designs, all properties of the existing and new (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 179 pavement layers need to be representative of the conditions expected right after rehabilitation — when the roadway is opened eo traffic. ‘Table 9-1 in Chapter 9 provided general recommendations for assessing the current condition of flexible, semi-rigid, composite, and AC overlaid pavements, while Table 9-2 provided the pave- ment evaluation activities for the different input levels. For input Level 3,a generalized rating for the existing pavement is an input to the AASHTOWare PMED software. The designer has five options to select from: Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor, and Very Poor. Table 12-1 provides a definition of the surface condition and summa s the rehabiliration oprions suggested for each of these general ratings. For input Level 1, cores and erenches ate used to determine the amount of rutting within each paving layer and whether any cracks that have occurred initiated at the surface or bottom of the AC layers. For input Level 2, cores are used to estimate che amount of rutting within cach layer and determine where any load related cracks initiaced. 12.2.4 Decide on Pre-Overlay Treat Various pre-overlay trearments and repairs need to be considered to address deterioration of the nt existing pavement, improve surface smoothness, and provide uniform support conditions for the AC overlay. For existing flexible or semi-rigid pavements, the pre-overlay treatments may include doing nothing, placing a leveling course, or a combination of milling, full or parvial depth repairs, oF in-place recycling, For existing rigid pavements, the pre-overlay repair may include doing nothing, diamond grinding, fall or partial depth slab repair of JPCP and JRCP and punchours of CRCP. and/or mud-jacking the slabs to fill any voids and re-level the slabs. Crack sealing is not a recom- mended pre-overlay treatment prior to overlay placement because the AC overlay, when placed ar clevaced temperatures, may cause the sealant material co expand, creating a bump in the overlay and significantly reducing the smoothness of the final surface. However, that may not be true if WMA overlay is placed instead of AC Determining how much of the distress or damage could be cepaired before the AC overlay is placed requires a careful mix of experience and engincering judgment: Table 12-2 lists some of the candidare repair or pre-overlay treatments for all types of pavements, while Table 12-3 lists the major rehabilitation treatments of existing AC and AC over PCC pavements. Deciding which pre-overlay treatment to use could be based mote on experience and historical dara, rather than on the distresses and IRI predicted with the AASHTOWare PMED software. If the distress in the existing pavement is likely to affect overlay performance within a few years, it could be repaired prior to overlay placement. Premacure distress in the overlay is often the result of deterioration in the existing pavement that was nor properly repaired before overlay placemenc (4.5). For AC surfaced pavements, cold milling and in-place recycling have become common pre-overlay treatments. Cold milling equipment can easily remove as much as 3-4 in, of AC in a single pass. Removal of a portion of the existing cracked and hardened AC surface by cold milling frequently improves the performance of an AC overlay because it provides good interface friction and removes surface defects. Cold milling also increases the smoochness of che existing pave- ment by removing rutting and other surface discortions. ‘The depth of milling is an input to the (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at180 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-1. Definitions of Surface Condition for Input Level 3 Pavement Condition Ratings and Suggested Rehabilitation Options Overall Rehabilitation Options to Consider Condition | General Pavement Condition | (with or without pre-overlay treatments; (Table 9-1) Rating (Input Level 3) Subsection 12.2.4) ‘Adequate [Excellent |No cracking, minor |» Surface repairs wichour (has life rutting, and/or minor overlays (not analyzed with remaining) mixture related dstresses | ASHTOWare PMED software) (exgs raveling);littleto | pavement preventive maintenance no surface distortions or roughness seraregy + Non-seructural overlay + Overlay designed for future truck traffic levels Good Limited load and/or + Pavement preventive maintenance nnon-load related cracking, seraregy minor to moderate + Overlays designed for future truck rorting and/or moderate "a posit nds on withone mixture related discresses; i" ie - aaa eee disressesilling and surface repairs and roughness Marginal Fair Moderate load and/or __ Pre-overlay treatments are recommended. (may ot may non-load related cracking, | Seruccural overlay, with or without area modencerutings selling and anbtac cepa remainin moderate amounts o * gofctuce elated dlzeaiss,|* Pemoreand replace sorta ayer and/or some roughness |__ Prior to overlay (IRI> 120 ina/mni) + In-place recycling prior to overlay Tnadequate Poor Extensivenon-load | Pre-overlay treatment is recommended if (no life related cracking, not reconstructed. remaining) moderateload related | Serucrural overlay, with milling or cracking high rutting, leveling course and surface repairs extensive mixrare eee + Remove and replace existing layers and/or elevated Prior co overlay Teves of roughness + Ineplace recycling prior to overlay (IRI>170 in./mi) + Reconstruction Very | Extensive load related | Pre-overlay treatment is recommended if Poor cracking and/or not reconseructed. very rough surfaces (IRI>220 in./mi) + Seructural overlay with milling and surface repairs + Remove and replace existing layers prior to overlay + In-place recycling prior to overlay + Reconstruction190 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-5. _ Recommendations for Performance Criteria for AC Overlays of JPCP and CRCP Distress Type Recommended Modifications to Design. Rutting in AC | Criteria for rutting should be selected similarly to new or reconstructed pavement design. This rutting is only in the AC overlay “Transverse ‘Normally, the placement of an AC overlay will significantly reduce the cracking in JPCP | amount of futute fatigue transverse cracking in the JPCP slab. Exceeding existing slab | a rypical limit of 10 percene (meclium to high severity) indicares char the overlaid JPCP is experiencing significant load farigue damage and a structural improvement, such as full-depth repair, is needed. Punchours in | Norrnally, che placement of an AC overlay will significantly reduce the CRCP existing _| amount of future punchout development in CRCP. Exceeding the typical slab limit of 5~10 punchouts per mile (medium and high severity) indicates that the overlaid CRCP is experiencing significant load fatigue damage and a structural improvement, such as fulldepth repair, is needed. Reflection The extent of reflection eracking is dependent on any special reflection cracking from | cracking treatments thar the designer may have specified. Thus, this criterion existing JPCP or | may be ignored if the designer feels chat this treatment will reduce ot CRP slab climinate reflection cracking from the existing slab. The MEPDG predicted reflection cracking is from transverse joints and transverse eracks in JPCP, but is converted into a percent area of trafic lane. A maximum recommended value of 1 percent area is recommended for reflection cracking of all severities (Note: this represents 100 transverse cracks per mile, or one crack every 53 fe, which creates significant roughness). Smoothness |The limiting IRI should be set similar ro thar of new or reconstrucced pavements. The only exception to this would be when the existing pavement exhibits a large amount of settlements or heaves that would make it difficult to level out. If this is the case, a level up layer should be placed first wieh the designed overlay placed uniformly on top. 12.2.9 AC Overlay of Fractured PCC Pavements ‘The objective of rubblizing PCC slabs is to eliminate reflection cracking in an AC overlay by destroying the integrity of the existing slab. This is achieved by fracturing the PCC slab in place into 3-8 in. fragments or less while retaining good interlock between the fractured particles. The cubblized layer acts as an interlocked unbound layer, reducing the existing PCC to a material com- parable to a high-quality aggregate base course (36). “The rubblization process is applicable to JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP. Reinforcing steel in JRCP and CRCP must become debonded from the concrete to be sucvessfal and meet performance expectations. “The purpose of this subsection is to provide guidance on the use of rubblization of PCC pavements to maximize the performance of this rehabilitation option. Teshould be noted that a designer may or may not get the desired effects listed in the table above, depending on the structural profile and location of the pavement. ‘The relationships re- ported in the cable may not be effective for every type of pavement and depend on project-specific (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 191 Table 12-6. Recommendations for Modifying Trial Design to Reduce Distress/Smoothness for AC Overlays of JPCP and CRCP Distress Type Recommended Modifications to Design Ratting in AC ‘Modify mixture properties. See recommendations under Subsection 13.2. Transverse cracking | Repair more of the existing slabs that were cracked prior to overlay in JPCP existing slab | placement and increase AC overlay thickness. Crack width CRCP | Itis desirable to have a crack width < 0,02 in. over the design period. However, there is not much the designer ean do to control this parameter. Crack LTE CRCP _ | Itis desirable to have crack load transfer efficiency (LTE) greater than 95 percent over the design period. This will prevent any reflection cracking or punchouts from occurring. The only design feature that will affect chis paramerer is overlay thickness. Punchouts in CRCP | Repair all existing punchouts prior to overlay placement and increase AC existing slab overlay thickness. Reflection cracking | Apply an effective reflection crack control treatment, such as saw and from existing JPCP | sealing the AC overlay over transverse joints or CRCP slab Smoothness Initially build smoother pavements through more stringent specifications and reduce predicted slab cracking and punchouts. Project Selection Criteria for Rubblization Rubblization is an effective reconstruction technique in many sieuations, but inadequate project scoping may lead to construceability and performance problems. Proper project scoping should follow che following steps, which are illustrated in flow chart form in Figures 12-3 through 12-6. 1. [densify roadway site features and conditions that may have a detrimental effect on conseruc- «ability and performance of rubblized PCC pavements (Figure 12-3). In general, cubblizing PCC pavements may be considered a viable option when there is no rigid layer within 3 ft, xno warer table within 5 fe, and no old utility lines within 5 f& of the PCC layer. When these conditions exist, other rehabilitation strategies may be mote appropriate. Rubblization may still be considered for use even under these conditions, but may require more detailed inves- tigations regarding che uniformity of the rubblized PCC slabs. 2. Detecmine the condition and distresses of the existing PCC pavement (Figures 12-4 and 12.5). Rubblization is considered a viable option when the PCC pavement has no remaining life (ne., when there is extensive structural distress along the project). IF horizontal cracks or delamination between different PCC layers has occurred along the project site, however, other rehabilitacion options may be more cost-effective and should be considered. 3. Decermine the foundation support conditions and strength (Figure 12-6). A foundation investigation may be performed using the FWD and DCP tests. ‘The FWD deflection basin and DCP dara are used ro determine the elastic modulus of the foundarion layers. The frequency of these tests needs to be determined to identify any weak areas along the project. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at192 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide ‘The project engineer may identify areas where the support modulus for the PCC slabs is less than 5,000 psi (34 MPa), based on laboratory measured resilient modulus. A backeal- culated modulus value from deflection basin data of 10,000 psi beneath a PCC pavement corresponds to a laboratory measured resilient modulus value of approximately 5,000 psi. Foundation modulus values, backcalculaced from deflection basins, of less than 10,000 psi ‘may have a detrimental effect on the rubblization process. Rubblization of PCC slabs that are resting directly on a fine-grained soil subgrade have experienced significant problems with the ig head settling into the fraccured slab and into che subgrade, Design Features for Rubblization PCC Pavements Installation of Edge Drains Rubblizing the PCC slabs results in a layer with significant permeability. Any water infileeating the rubblized layer should be quickly removed through edge drains, especially for pavements supported by fine-grained soils with low permeability. Edge drains are not required in areas with coarse-grained soils that have high permeability. Edge drains may be used in all rubblized projects to drain any saturated foundation layer. ‘These drains may be placed continuously or intermittently along the project. Their use and location for removing water from the pavement structure could be based on engineering judgment. When used, edge drains need to be installed prior to the rubblization process to ensure sufficient time for the subbase and subgrade to drain and dry out (usually 2 weeks before rubblization starts). Leveling Courses A leveling course is needed to restore the grade and make profile corrections to the surface of the rubblized PCC hyer. Leveling course material may consist of crushed aggregate, milled or recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), or a fine-geaded AC mixture that is workable. A 2-4 in. leveling course should be included in the design to fil in depressions or low spots along the rubblized surface. This leveling course also acts as a cushion layer for che AC overlay. Ifa workable, fine-graded AC mixture (an AC mixture with higher asphale content) is used, the designer could verify that there is sufficient cover so that rutting does not become a problem within that workable layer. In many cases, crushed aggregate base materials cannot be used as the leveling course because of clearance or height restrictions at bridges and other overhead structures. AC leveling courses with specific fracture resiscant properties are more beneficial to long term pavement performance ‘These mixtures could be compacted to in-place air voids less than 7 percent. In either ease, eveling, courses could be accounted for in the structural design, but not for the sole purpose of reducing the AC overlay thickness. When AC leveling courses are used, sufficient AC overlay thickness needs co be placed to ensure that the heavier trucks will not cause rutting ot any lateral distortions in che leveling course. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 193 |—Identify condition he project site features and related to rubblization, ‘A curb and ter or guard rail exists along 2 substantial portion of the project and eannot be No replaced or elevated, Numerous overpasses exist along. the project, limiting inereases in the surface elevation of the No final IMAC surface. Oldibriule underground uiiites, gas Tines, of water lines, etc, are within 5 ft ofthe rubblized layer, A rigid layer is within 3 fi of the rubblized layer, ‘A water table is within 5 ft ofthe rubblized layer. 9999 Y Place drainage layer to allow increased depth to the water table prior to rubblization, Figure 12-3. Other rehabilitation options ‘may be more appropriate or cost effective Site Features Conducive to the Selection of the Rubblization Process for Rehabilitating PCC Pavements (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, Allis reserved. Duplication violation of applica law194 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide 2.A—Conduct a detailed inves n of the PCC pavement to estimate remaining Ite ofthe pavement. Extract/racover performance data from the pavernent ‘management database to conduct analyses of remaining r] lifo and plan the detailed pavement investigation. Perform detection basin and Pao dies cance Toad Warsfer test along te identity the type, amount, i ject length and severity ofeach distress, | Lo{ 8 (Figure 12-8) a 1 e— ‘Analyze and evaluate pavement response Subaivide the project into paramoters from deflection basin toss design segments with Determine joint load transfer different distresses and # «Forward calculate the elastic modulus pavement response {ortho underlying layors and charactoritcs. found: Identify segments for destructive sampling and testing forthe field investigations. Conduct field investigations: ‘= Rocover cores tor measuring layor thickness = Perform Dynamic Cone Penetrometer tests ‘= Drill borings to identify subsurface materials and conditions ‘© Measurafestimate depth to water table Calculate the layer modulus from OCP test resulls and combine with the layer modulus calculated from tho deflection basin tests. I Identify the areas and percentage of the project with 1355 than 10,000 psi. -——» | Figure 12-4. Recommendations for a Detailed Investigation of the PCC Pavement to Estimate Remaining Life and identify Site Features and Conditions Conducive to the Rubblization Process (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, Allis reserved. Duplication violation of applica lawChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 195, each design segment of the projec 2.B—Results from distress surveys within B (Figure 12-4) Delamination or horizontal cracks exist between the PCC layers, if multiple layers exist. Rubblizing the PCC pavement below the y <> There is extensive distress and it horizontal eracks may be a xtbleats Orisidar structurally inadequate, Yes different rehabilitation ‘options S Percent of joints in need of repair 20 percent. Yes Percent of slabs or PCC surface that have been patched > 20 percent. <= Percent of projeets with longitudinal joint distress more than 4 in. wide or severe long joint deterioration > 20 percent Percent of slabs or PCC surface that hhave structural racks or slab breakup > 20 percent Yes Pavement probally has Rubblization is 2 viable remaining lifes other option because pavement has no remaining life D (Figure 12-6) rehabilitation options may be more cost effective Figure 12-5. Evaluate Surface Condition and Distress Severities on Selection of Rubblization Option (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, Allis reserved. Duplication violation of applica law196 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Pavement has no remaining life, so rubblization is considered a viable rchabilitation option. 3Evaluate foundation support modulus and conditions. There are areas with foundation There are areas with foundation ‘modulus values less than 10,000 psi. modulus values grester than 10,000 psi ¥ Is the weak foundation or soft spots resulting from saturated soils? Will a drainage layer remove the free water and inerease the a foundation modulus to a value ‘greater than 10,000 psi? Rubblication is not recommended Rubblization is a viable rehabilitation process because for these areas along the projec. foundation has adequate strength, Complete a life cycle cost analy of cach option. Figure 12-6. Foundation Support Conditions Related to the Selection of the Rubblization Process Each design situation and material needs to be evaluated to determine the rehabilitation option chat will provide the best long-cerm performance and meet project requirements. An AC leveling, course could be considered for use on projects where the rubblized pavement must carry traffic cemporarily until addicional AC lifts are placed. The thickness of the leveling course and its proper- cies need to be determined to carry the expected traffic during construction, Minimum AC Overlay Thickness Above Rubblized PCC Slabs ‘The minimum AC overlay thickness placed over rubblized PCC layers from a conseructability scandpoint is 4 in, This minimum thickness excludes any AC leveling course mixture chat is placed to correct surface profiles. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 197 “The performance of a pavement structure is dependent upon the interaction between pavement response and serength of the different layers. Wheel loads induce stresses and strains in each layer, which may result in deformation and cracking of the AC layer: The rehabilitation design proce- dure has to determine the AC overlay thickness that satisfies both consteuctability and structural requirements of the rubblized pavement. ME-based design procedures are being used by many agencies, primarily for forensic studies and post-construction evaluation of the pavement structure. ‘The AC overlay fatigue considerations control the overlay thickness requirements for rubblized pavement using the ME-based procedures. Table 10-5 in Chapter 10 provided a range of equivalent elastic modulus values that may be used. The equivalent modulus of the rubblized layer is dependent on the agency's specifications for thar layer. An elastic modulus value of 65,000 psi (450 MPa) for the rubblized layer is recom- mended for use in AC overlay design, This value is less than the value recommended in the NAPA Information Series 132 (35), but is based on backcalculation of layer modulus from deflection basin data and performance analyses of rubblized pavements built in and around the US. For JRCP and thick JPCP exceeding 10 in., a large modulus gradient between the surface and bottom of the rubblized layer typically exists because the fractured particle size varies from top vo bottoms. The designer can subdivide the rubblized layer into an upper and lower portion of the JPCB, or above and below the reinforcement of JRCP, of just use an average value chroughout the fractured slab. Without deflection basin data, it is suggested that an average or equivalent value of £65,000 psi be used for the rubblized layer. 12.3 Rehabilitation Design with PCC Overlays This sec g flexible, rigid, and composite pavements with PCC. Lane additions and the widening of narrow lanes are also consid- ered, Many aspects of rehabilitation design are similar to new design; thus, che designer should be- come familiar with the design of new and reconstructed PCC pavements described in Chapter L1. 11 describes the ME design procedures for rehabilitation of exis 12.3.1 Overview PCC overlays and restoration may be used to remedy functional or structural deficiencies of all, types of existing pavements. Its importane for the designer to consider several aspects of the pave- ‘ment, including the type of deterioration present, before determining the appropriate rebabilicarion strategy to adopt. Several different rehabilitation strategies using PCC may be applied co existing pavements to extend their useful service life. These are summarized in Table 12-7. ‘The design of rehabilitated pavements requires an iterative, hands-on approach by che designer. ‘The designer needs to select a proposed trial rehabilitation design and then analyze it in detail to determine whether it meets the applicable performance criteria established by the designer (ie, Joint faulting and slab cracking for JPCP, punchouts for CRCP, and smoothness for both JPCP and CRCP). Ifa particular crial rehabilitation design does not meet the performance criteria, the design is modified and reanalyzed until it meets the criteria. The designs that meet the applicable perfor- mance further considered for other evaluations, such as life-cycle cost analysis (Lé ia are then considered feasible from a structural and functional viewpoint and may be CA). (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at198 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-7. PCC Rehabilitation Options—strategies to Correct Surface and Structural Deficiencies of All Types of Existing Pavement ‘Type of PCC Existing Separation Layer and Surface Overlay Pavement Rehab of Existing Pavement Preparation Unbonded | JPCP and Repair by slab replacement or | Place AC layer for level up and. yJecp— /cRcP with fall-deprh re separation, Do nor diminish bonding Overlay beeween PCC overlay and AC. Fractured | Fracture and seat existing | Place AC layer for level up and JPCP and —pavementif concerns over __| separation. Do not diminish bonding ‘CROP rocking slabs exists. between PCC overlay and AC. ‘Composite Mill off portions or all (if | Place AC layer for level up and Pavement stripping exists) of the existing | separation, Do not diminish bonding (AC/PCC) | AC for level up, FDR existing | between PCC overlay and AC. PCC pavement, or fracture and seat existing pavement. Unbonded |JPCP and Repair by FDR, or fracture | Place AC layer for level up and cRCP | CRCP and seat existing pavement if | separation. Increase thickness if Overlay concerns over poor transverse | poor joint and crack LTE. Maximize joint load transfer or rocking | bonding between CRCP overlay and slabs exists. AC layers. Fractured | Fracture existing pavement if | Place AC layer for evel up and JPCP and concerns over rocking slabs or | separation, Maximize bonding cReP reflection cracking exists (poor | between CRCP overlay and AC exiscing joint LTE) layers. Bonded |JPCP or | FDR deteriorated joints and _ | Preparation of existing surface to PCC CREP, in cracks. maximize bond with PCC overlay. Overlay | fair or better condition onl JPCP and | Existing | Mill portion of existing AC | Place AC layer for level up and CRCP | flexible ‘material for level up and separation, Maximize bonding Overlays | paverenr | removal of deterioration, eeween PCC overlay and AC layers Patch as needed. Ir should be noted that a designer may or may not get the desired effects listed in the table above, depending on the structural profile and location of the pavement. The relationships re- ported in the table may not be effective for every type of pavement and depends on project-specific conditions. “The design procedures described in this chapter ean utilize recycled materials. The use of recycled materials in rehabilitation is acceptable so far as the material properties may be character- ized by the parameters used in design and the recycled material meets durability requirements. The PCC rehabilicacion design process requires nine steps, which are lsced next. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 199 + Steps 1-4: Evaluation of the existing pavement (see Chapter 9) 1. Determine existing pavement condition 2. Determine causes and mechanism of distress. 3. Define problems and inadequacies of the exi \g pavement. 4, Identify possible constraints. + Step 5: Rehabilitation strategy selection (see Subsection 12.3) + Step 6: Rehabilitation design (see Chapter 12) + Step 7: Perform life-cycle cost analysis (as desired) + Step 8: Derermine non-monetary factors that influence rebabilicarion (as desired) + Step 9: Determine proferved rehabilitation strategy (as desired) Figure 12-7 presents the design process for major PCC rebabilication strategies included in the MEPDG. | é j IPCPICACP Overlay Desian/Anelysis PCP Restoration Design Analysis Hiaac er HACER PCP or CAGE (Pom -vitngteveling “Load vanster restoration (LTA]|_[-Diamond ginding and a cembinalion of: Patching *Eukdepth reper “Fulkdept repair “Shoe rpatireplacamert| | Paral depth ena “Transverse joint LTE restoration (LTR) -Subdainageimorovement_ |-Siebvepacemen ‘ShouterrpaF replacement ‘Raval ed PCC stouder ‘Subd-anageimproverert CC Overay sCraceng Fauting *Punchouts ‘sioathiness| nays PreorttayTreatents Figure 12-7. Overall Design Process for Major PCC Rehabilitation Strategies of All Pavement Types. 12.3.2 Analysis Parameters Unique to Rebabilitation Initial Smoothness Recommendations for initial smoothness (IRI) are similar to new construction for JPCP and CREP overlays, and depend greatly on the project smoothness specifications. The estimate of ini- tial smoothness for restored JPCP depends on the diamond grinding specifications (for this design, procedure restoration needs to always include diamond grinding). The initial IRE may, however, need to be adjusted upward for a given project if a significant amount of settlements or heaves exist, as this problem cannot be easily rectified through diamond grinding alone. Local leveling, such as. slab jacking or thin localized overlays, may be needed. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at200 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide JPCP Overlay Design Features Guidelines on unique joine design and interlayer friction features of JPCP overlays are provided in ‘Table 12-8. Ie should be noted that joint mismatching is not an input provided within the software and is intended to be a guideline for construction purposes. The only input for joint spacing in the AASHTO Ware PMED software is in che JPCP layer or, in this case, che overlay layer. Characterization of Existing PCC Slab The clastic modulus of the existing slabs (including existing cracking that will nor be repaired) is a critical input for the design of an unbonded overlay. The mean modulus depends mainly upon the amount of cracking in the existing slab, Tables 12-9 and 12-10 provide general recommendations oon how to estimate this input. Dynamic Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (Dynamic k-value) The subgrade modulus may be characterized in the following ways for PCC rehabilitation 1. Provide modulus inputs of the existing unbound sublayers, including the subgeade soil similar to new design. The AASHTO Ware PMED software will backealculate an effective, single dynamic modulus of subgeade reaction (k-value) for each month of the design analysis period for these layers. The effective k-value, therefore, essentially represents the compress- ibiliey of underlying layers (ie, unbound base, subbase, and subgrade layers) upon which the upper bound layers and existing AC or PCC layer is constructed. These monthly values will bbe used in design of the rehabilicacion alternative 2, Measute the top of slab deflections with an FWD and conduct a backcalculation process to establish the mean k-value during given month. Enter this mean value and the month of resting into the AASHTO Ware PMED software. This entered k-value will remain for chac month throughout the analysis period, but the k-value for other months will vary according to moisture movement and frost depch in the pavement. 12.3.3 Estimate of Past Damage (for JPCP Subjected to CPR) For JPCP subjected to CPR, an estimate of past fatigue damage is required. An estimate of past damage is used with estimates of fucure damage to predict future cracking. Required inputs for determining past fatigue damage are as follows: 1. Before restoration, percent slabs with transverse cracks are added to percent previously repaired/replaced slabs. This represents the total percent slabs that have cracked transversely prior co any restoration work. 2. After restoration, the total percent repaired/replaced slabs (Note: the difference between (1) and (2] is the percent of slabs that are still cracked after restoration). (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 201 Table 12-8. Summary of Key Aspects of Joint Design and Interlayer Friction for JPCP Overlays overlay over existing concrete pavement (with separation layer) Rehabilitation Strategy Key Issues Description Unbonded JPCP | Joint spacing | Joine spacing of the overlay is a direct input 1o ME-based_ design and has a significant effect on transverse cracking. Unbonded JPCP overlays are subject to greater curling stresses because of the stiff support from the existing pavement, and can be determined through sensitivity analysis. For thinner overlays, a shorter joint spacing than conventional JPCP may be desirable (e.g.,a 6-in. overlay could utilize a 12-ft joint spacing). Joint ‘mismatching Load cransfer ‘The transverse joints in unbonded concrete overlays are usually mismatched with those in the underlying pavemene: A minimum offset discance of 3 fe beeween the joints in the overlay and the underlying joints or cracks is usually recomended, which provides improved load transfer in the overlay. Adequate joint load transfer can be provided by both the underlying pavement chrough mismatching che joines and by dowels for heavy truck traffic, Dowels may be needed to provide additional long-term high load transfer for pavements where significantly heavy traffic loads are expected, The need for dowels to meet the joint faulting cticeria can be determined using the program. To decrease the susceptibility of the dowels to corrosion (in regions where the use of deicing sales are common), epoxy coated, stainless steel coated, or metallic sleeved dowels are recommended, Friction JPCP and AC Layer: “The calibration of unbonded overlays utilizes the“Zero friction contact” and should be used between the JPCP slab and the AC separation layer. Bonded PCC overlay over existing JPCP ‘JPCP overlay over existing flexible pavement Joint spacing The joint system in che existing pavement dictates the [jointing system in a bonded overlay. The joint type and 1g pavement should be closely marched location in the exis in che overlay Joint width and depth Load cransfer Critical recommendation: Th e width of the joine must be wider chan that in che existing pavement and must be sawed completely through the bonded overlay, plus 0.5 in. The overlay join sawing must be completed as. soon as the concrete can be sawed to prevent debonding and erratic reflective cracking. Failure to follow the above recommendation will ead to debonding of the overlay. Load transfer devices are normally nor used in bonded overlay joints. ‘The des s for conventional concrete overlays of existing flexible pavements is similar to that for new JPCP. n of (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at202 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-9. _ Data Required for Characterizing the Existing PCC Slab Poor: 35-50% area cracked (estimated) Very Poor: > 50% area cracked (estimated) (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at Hierarchical Taput Level Inpur Data 1 2 3 Existing ‘The test static elastic modulus Ey. is Egaaneane | Baantenais PCCoslab | obeained (1) from coring the intact slab and obtained from | estimated design clastic | laboratory testing for elastie modulus or (2) by coring and | from modulus | backcaleulation (using FWD deflection daca esting for__—_| historical (applicable | from intact slab and layer thicknesses) and compressive | agency dara insituations | multiplying by 0.8 to convert from dynamic to strength. The _| and local where the | static modulus. The design existing PCC slab compressive | experience existing intact | static elastic modulus is adjusted for unrepaired | strength value | for the PCC slab is | cracking: is converted —_| existing considered into elastic | project the base) Egasepesan = Cap'Erest modulus under where Ezy is the static elastic modulus defined. j* a design. above. The Cy, is a reduction factor based on Ch: 2 ‘Th. Shapeer 2. The the overall PCC condition as follows: design east Cy, = 0.42-0.75 for existing pavement in over- | modulus is all'good"” struceural condition, obcained as 0.22-0.42 for existing pavement in“mod- described for crate” condition. Level 1 (0,042-0.22 for existing pavement in “severe” condition ‘Pavement condition is defined in Table 12-10. £3 million psi is joints, even if few cracks exist. Rubblized |N/A N/A Baa cc ypically ranges from 50,000— 150,000 psi. Table 12-10. Description of Existing Pavement Condition Existing Pavement Structural Condition ‘Type Good Moderate Severe Rubblized JPCP (percent <10 10-50 | > 5orerackand| Use Rubblized slabs cracked) seat Elastic Modulus CRCP (Number of <3 3-10 >10 ‘Use Rubblized Punchouts) Elastie Modulus Flexible pavement Excellent: < 5% area cracked (estimated) (overall estimate of Good: 5-15% area cracked (estimated) surface cracking) Fair: 15~35% area cracked (estimated)Chapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 203, [Note that the types of transverse cracking referred to are only those due to fatigue damage. Also, repairs and replacement refers co full-depch repair and slab replacement of slabs wich rransverse cracks only: The percentage of previously repaired and replaced slabs is used to account for past slab repairs/replacements when predicting Future cracking. Use the fatigue damage/cracking relation- ships developed and calibrated nationally for che AASHTOWare PMED software. (Please refer to the example shown below.) Example: A survey of the existing pavement shows that 6 percent of the slabs have cransverse cracks and 4 percent of the slabs have been replaced. It is assumed that all replaced slabs had transverse cracks. During pre-restoration repait, 5 percent of the transversely cracked slabs were replaced, leaving 1 percenc scil cracked. Inputs eo the AASHTO Ware PMED software are as follows: + Six percent slabs with ecansverse eracks + 4 percent previously replaced slabs = 10 P + After pre-overlay repair, the total percent replaced slabs equals 9 percent: Note that the percent of slabs stil cracked, prior to restorarion, is therefore 10% ~ 9% = 1%. “The estimated total fatigue damage is used internally in the design software to estimate the propor- rion of toral farigue damage due to borcom-up and cop-down cracking as follows: 1. Determine future fatigue damage estimates (total damage from percent slabs cracked, rop-down damage, and botcom-up damage). 2. Compute the percentage of total fatigue damage due co top-down and bottom-up damage mechanism (e.g,, 45 percent top-down and 55 percent bottom-up fatigue damage). 3. Use the computed percentage to divide pase total fatigue damage into the amounts due to top-down and bottom-up mechanism. The effect of existing PCC pavement past damage on bonded PCC over existing JPCP/CRCP is negligible and therefore not considered in design. For unbonded JPCP or CRCP overlays over existing rigid pavement, PCC damage in the existing slab is considered chrough a reduction in its elastic modulus as previously outlined, while for JPCP or CRCP overlays over existing flexible pavement, AC damage is considered as outlined in Subsection 12.2. 12.34 JPCP Rebabilitation Design Brief descriptions of the following JPCP rehabilitation design options are provided. + CPR: For the AASHTO Ware PMED software, CPR is defined as diamond grinding and any combination of the following repair treatments: = Joint load transfer restoration ~ Retrofie edge drains = Full-depth patching (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at204 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide ~ Shab replacement = Shoulder replacement Properly designed and constructed CPR needs to reduce pavement deterioration and prolong pavement life. However, CPR performance also depends on the combination of CPR treatments applied. Bach distress could be repaired with an appropriate CPR treatment and one or more preventive treatments could be applied to providea cost-effective rehabilitation strategy, + Unbonded JPCP overlay of existing rigid pavement: Unbonded JPCP overlay (2 6 in. thick) placed on an existing rigid pavement, composite pavement, or fractured PCC pavement (with an appropriate separation layer). Unbonded averlays (over intact PCC slab) do not cequire much pre-overlay repair because of a separator layer placed between the overlay and existing pavement. The separator layer is usually a thin, AC layer, 1-2 in. thick ora geocextile. The purpose of the separator layer is to separate the movements in the existing and overlay concrete layers and to prevent distresses in the existing pavement from reflecting through the overlay: Full contact friction between the JPCP and the AC separator layer needs to be assumed over the design life, which was used in che global calibration effort to match PCC slab eracking in the field. + Bonded PCC overlay of existing JPCP: Bonded PCC overlays (3~5 in. thick) over existing JPCP involve the placement of a thin, concrete layer on top of the prepared existing JPCP to form a permanent monolithic JPCP section. Achieving a long-term bond is essential for good performance. Thus, the existing JPCP slab needs to be in sound condition to help ensure good bonding and litde reflection cracking. The ‘monolithic section increases load carrying capacity and provides a new surface for improved rideability and friction resiseance + JPCP overlay of existing flexible pavement: Conventional JPCP overlays (> 6 in. thick) of existing flexible pavements can be handled in AASHTOWare PMED. When subjected to axle loads, che JPCP overlaid flexible pavement behaves similarly to a new JPCP with an AC base course and other underlying layers. For this design, the contact friction between the JPCP and the existing surface of the AC could be full friction throughout the design life. Efforts during construction, such as milling che rop surface, will enhance the contact friction between the JPCP and AC surface. + SJPCP, short jointed bonded concrete overlay of existing asphalt pavement: Short jointed plain concrete pavement (SJPCP, 4-8 in. thick) over existing flexible pavements can be considered in the MEPDG, When subjected to axle loads, the SJPCP-overlaid. flexible pavement behaves very differently than a conventional JPCP over an AC base course and other underlying layers. The allowable longitudinal and transverse joine spacings are greatly reduced (5-8 ft), which dramatically reduces the curling stresses. For this design, the contact friction between the PCC slab and the existing AC surface is extremely important throughout the design life. Full contact friction and bonding is, absolutely critical to good performance. Efforts during construction, such as milling and (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 205, cleaning the top surface, will enhance the contact friction between the PCC and AC surface over the service life Design Considerations + Performance criteria: Performance indicators used for JPCP rehabilitation design include = Transverse joint faulting = Transverse cracking = Smoothness or IRT ‘These are used by AASHTOWare PMED to evaluate the adequacy of trial designs + Design reliability: Handled in the same way as for nevy design (see Chapter 7). + Factors that affect distress: A derailed description of the factors that affect the performance indicators noted above for JPCP rehabilitation design are presented in Table 12-11. By selecting the appropriate values of these facrors, designers may reduce specific distress and improve overall pavement performance in a cost-effective manner. Table 12-11. _ Summary of Factors that Influence Rehabilitated JPCP Distress Distress Type Transverse Transverse Parameter Joint Faulting Cracking* Comment Presence of v Restored JPCP could be retrofitted with dowels dowels and while dowels could be specified for unbonded. dowel diamever \JPCP overlays and JPCP overlays over existing flexible pavements. Overlay PCC v ¥ | Overlay slab thickness can be modified. thickness Overlay PCC Y |The flexural strengch of JPCP overlays can be flexural strength increased to reduce cracking. Increasing strength generally results in increased elastic modulus, ‘which leads co an increase in pavement stresses and partially offsets benefits of increased strength. [Joint spacing v | Joine spacing can be modified for unbonded IJPCP overlays and JPCP overlays of existing AC pavements. Use of AC v ‘AC separation layer (base) erodibility significantly separation layer influences faulting. A non-erodible AC layer chat will not serip should be specified. Continued on next page (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at206 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-11. Summary of Factors that Influence Rehabilitated JPCP Distress, continued Distress Type ‘Transverse Transverse Contact friction ¥ [Ball concace friction for unbonded JPCP overlays between JPCP of existing PCC pavements when separated wich and flexible ‘an AC layer should be input. The full contact pavement surface friction for JPCP overlays of existing flexible pavements should be fall over the entire design Placement of v Y —|Use of 12-24-in, widened slabs of tied PCC vebicle loads near shoulders provides significantly improved edge unsupported support from lateral eruck wander. pavement edges Poor slab edge v ¥ | Existing JPCP can be retrofitced with tied PCC support (eg shoulder to improve edge support, while JPCP lack of widened overlays can be constructed with tied PCC Janes or tied shoulders or widened slabs. PCC shoulders) Subsurface v Including an open-graded separator layer for deainage unbonded JPCP or retrofitting restored JPCP and bonded JPCP overlays will reduce the porential for joine faulting. Permanent cusl/ v ¥ [Permanent curl/warp of the overlay slab can be warp controlled by adopting sound mix design and construction curing practices ‘Subgrade v V |The designer has mostly no control ver these stiffness parameters for rehabilitation. Design features k-value) can be selected, however, to mitigate the negative Stabilized base v V [effects of such parameters if they pose a problem. thickness Shrinkage of slab Y__ |JPCP overlay mix design should minimize surface shrinkage. CTE (0,-.) v ¥ [Aggregate aerials should be selected to reduce CTE. This will reduce stresses induced in the PCC by temperature differences and thermal radients. *For both bottom-up and top-down cracking. Trial Rehabilitation with JPCP Designs Design Process Summary A generic overview of rehabilitation design is provided in Subsection 12.1. As with new pavement design, the firse step in rehabilication design is to select a erial design with defined layers, mate~ rial types and properties, and relevant design features based on the future level of traffic antici- pated. This is followed by the selection of che design performance criteria (used for evaluating che (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 207 adequacy of the trial design) and the desired level of reliability. Next, AASHTO Ware PMED is used to process the inpur data. Data processing includes estimating climace-related aspects, such as the pavement temperature profile for each analysis period using the EICM and computing long-term PCC flexural strength, as discussed in Subsection 5.3. Next, the processed dara is used co perform a design analysis by compucing pavement struc- tural responses (stress, deflections) required for each distress type incrementally. Computed structural responses are used in transfer functions to estimate distress and smoothness. ‘The crial rehabilitation design is chen evaluated for adequacy using prescribed performance criteria a the given reliability level, Trial designs deemed inadequate are modified and reevaluaved until a suitable design is achieved. Design modifications could range from making simple changes 0 JPCP overlay thickness, varying joint spacing, varying PCC serength, or adopring a new rehabil tation strategy altogether. ‘The design process for rehabilication design with JPCP overlays or CPR of existing JPCP is very nilar to new or reconstructed JPCP desi n. Some exceptions are noted in the sections below. Performance Prediction Models ‘The globally calibrated performance models for new pavements apply to rehabilitation design, but with one exception—the JPCP CPR faulting prediction model has slightly different coefficients than the corresponding one for new or reconstructed JPCP. Moterials Inputs In terms of materials inputs, che key difference berween new and rehabilitation design is that the latter deals with characterizing in situ macerials properties along with those for the overlay. A de- scription of the material inputs for existing pavement layers and how co estimate them is presented in Chapter 9. Selection of Design Features “The choice of design fearures is restricted to those variables being introduced 2s part of the eehabil- itation. For most rehabilitated JPCP design situations, che pavement design features are a combina tion of the existing design features and new features introduced as part of rehabilitation, Selecting the appropriace design fearures for the rehabilitared JPCP is key to achieving a successful design Guidance on how ¢o select ehe right design features is presenced in Table 12-12. Design Modifications to Reduce Distress for JUCP Rehabilitation ‘Trial designs with excessive amounts of predicted distress/smoothness need to be modified to reduce predicted distress/ smoothness to tolerable values (within the desired reliability level). Some of the most effective ways of accomplishing this are listed in Table 12-13. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at208 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-12. Guidance on How to Select the Appropriate Design Features for Rehabilitated JPCP Design Specific ‘Type of JPCP. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation ‘Treatments Recommendation on Selecting Design Feature Conerece | Diamond _| Select initial smoothness (TRI) based on agency grinding Pavement _| grinding specifications and values typically achieved on CPR projects Restoration If significant settlements/heaves exist, the initial IRI should be (cpr) set higher than new/reconstruction design Load transfer | Select load transfer mechanism based on the type of retrofit restoration _| load transfer mechanism installed (eg, L.5-in. dowels). For (LTR) situations where LTR was not applied, the existing JPCP LTE must be assessed. Existing doweled JPCP with very poor LTE may be considered undoweled. Shoulder ‘A new edge support condition reflective of the repairs, rerofi, repair, retrofit, | or replacement applied. For example, if an existing asphalt or replacement | shoulder is replaced with tied PCC shoulders, che rebabilitared design must reflec this change in edge support. Also, where no shoulder repair is carried out, the condition of the current shoulder must be considered in characterizing edge support conditions. Retrofit edge | The rehabilicared JPCP design should reflect improved deains drainage conditions by upgrading the base erodibility. Full-depch | The effeccon fulldepth repairs and/or slab replacement on sepairs or slab | existing damage and future cracking estimates must be fully replacement _| accounted for. Unbonded — | Separarion | An AC separator layer prevents reflection of underlying joints JPCP overlay | layer and cracks, provides a highly ecosion-resistant material, and provides sufficient contact friction so that joints will form in the JPCP overlay. ‘Ihe JPCP overlay behaves structurally as iis buile on a strong, non-erodible “base” course consisting. ofthe AC separation layer and che exiscing slab. The program structurally combines the ]PCP overlay and the AC separator layer into an equivalent slab. Full contact friction interface should be input over the entite design life. The AC material must be specified co be extremely resistant to stripping. Exiting PCC _ | The existing PCC overall condition must be considered in condition | selecting the appropriate layer elastic modulus. This is done by adjusting backcalculated or lab-tested estimates of elastic ‘modulus with a damage factor determined by the existing JPCP visual condition. PCP overlay | Selection of design features for the JPCP overlay (including shoulder type and slab wideh) is similar to that outlined for new design in Chapter 10 of this manual. Continued on next page. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 209 Table 12-12. Guidance on How to Select the Appropriate Design Features for Rehabilitated JPCP Design, continued Specific ‘Type ofJPCP_ Rehabilitation Rehabilication Treatments Recommendation on Selecting Design Feature Bonded JPCP | PCC overlay | Design features must reflect the condition of the existing overlay pavement, as very few pre-overlay repairs are typically done for this rehabilitation. JPCP overlay |JPCP overlay | Selection of design features for the JPCP overlay (including over existing shoulder eype and slab width) is similar to chat outlined for flexible new or reconstructed design in Chapter 10, Condition of pavement existing flexible pavement is rated as Excellent, Good, Fait, Poor, or Very Poor, as defined in Table 12-10. These ratings will result in adjustments to the dynamic modulus, FHMA, of the existing AC layer that now becomes the base course. Full friction should be input over the full design life of the concrete overlay. Bonded ‘Short jointed | The longitudinal joint spacing is a very critical input. Joint concrete bonded spacing can vary from 5-8 ft, depending on lane wideh. A. overlay of | concrete critical design principle is to not locate a longitudinal joine in asphale overlay of —_| the eruck wheel path. This design procedure does nor consider (SJPCP) asphale heavy loads traveling down the longitudinal joint chat create pavement _| corner cracks. This design procedure considers truck wheel paths thar travel between the longitudinal joints, where tensile bending stresses are calculated ar the bottom of the PCC slabs and used in che farigue damage calculation for PCC thickness design. Transverse joint load transfer efficiency (LTE) can be varied from 25-95 percent and from scason to season. An annual value of 80 percent is recommended as typical from FWD load transverse efficiency for this cype of overlay. All sections were calibrated at 80 percent LTE, Condition of existing flexible pavement is a presclecced Level 2 input at 65 percent fatigue cracking. Calibration of the longitudinal eracking model indicated thae a large proportion of che sections showed some reduction in contact friction cover service life between the PCC and AC layers. The use of 65 percent cracking was the approach selected to provide a reasonable input eo the design. Ie effectively reduced the equivalent slab thickness to calculate the appropriate bending stress in the bosrom of the PCC slab. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at210 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-13. Recommendations for Modifying Trial Design to Reduce DistresySmoothness for JPCP Rehabilitation Design Distress Type Recommended Modifications to Design Faulting Include dowels or increase diameter of dowels. This is applicable co both restored JPCP and non-doweled JPCP overlays. The use of properly sized dowels is generally the most reliable and cost-effective way to control joint fauleing, A slight increase of diameter of the dowels (i.e, 0.25 in.) will significantly reduce the mean steel-to-PCC bearing stress and thus the joine faulting. + Improve subsurface drainage. This is applicable to both restored JCP. and JPCP overlays. Subsurface drainage improvement for rehabilitated pavements basically consists of providing retrofit edge-drains and other relaced facilities. A permeable separator layer (usually asphales or chemically stabilized) can be used to improve drainage of unbonded JPCP over existing rigid pavements. Studies have shown that subsurface drainage improvement with retrofie edge-drains can reduce faulting, especially for non-doweled JPCP. This is considered in design by reducing the amount of precipitation inflating into the pavement structure. + Widen the traffic lane slab by 1-2 fit. This is applicable ro JPCP overlays. Widening the slab effectively moves the wheel load away from the slab commer, greatly reducing the deflection of the slab and the potential for and pumping. Studies have shown thac slab widening can reduce faulting by about 50 percent. + Decrease joint spacing. This is applicable to JPCP overlays over existing flexible pavements and unbonded JPCP overlays. Shorter joine spacing generally results in smaller joine openings, making aggregate interlock more effective and increasing joint LTE, + Erodibility of separator layer. This is mostly only applicable to unbonded JPCP overlays. Iz may be applicable to the leveling course placed during che construction of JPCP overlays of existing flexible pavements. Specifying a non-erodible AC material or a geocextile as he separator seduces the potential for base/undeslying layer erosion and, consequently, faulting, “Transverse ‘cracking Increase slab thickness. This is only applicable to JPCP overlays. ‘Thickening the overlay slab is an effective way to decrease critical bending stresses both from truck axle loads and from temperature differences in the slab, Field studies have shown thar thickening the slab can reduce sransverse cracking significantly. Ar some thickness, however, a point of diminishing returns is reached and fatigue cracking does not decrease significancly. Continued on next page (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 211 Table 12-13. Recommendations for Modifying Trial Design to Reduce Distress/Smaothness for JPCP Rehabilitation Design, continued ‘Distress Type Recommended Modifications to Design ‘Transverse + Decrease joint spacing. This is only applicable to JPCP overlays. A lcracking shorter joine spacing results in lower eurling stresses in the slab, This efleet (continued) is very significant, even over the normal range of joint spacing for PCP, and should be considered a critical design feature. + Increase PCC strength (and concurrent change in PCC elastic modulus and CTE). This is applicable only to JPCP overlays. By increasing the PCC strength, the modulus of elas ity also increases, thereby reducing its effect. Ihe increase in modulus of elasticity will aceually increase the critical bending stresses in the slab. There is probably an optimum PCC flexural serength for a given projece chat provides che most protection against fatigue damage. + Widen the traffic lane slab by 2 ft. This is applicable to rehabilitation with overlays. Widening the slab effectively moves the wheel load away from the longitudinal free edge of the slab and greatly reduces the critical bending stress and potential for transverse cracking, + Add a tied PCC shoulder (monolithically placed with the traffic lane). This is applicable to rehabilitation with or without overlays. The se of a monolishically placed tied-PCC shoulder ehae has the properly sized tie-bars is generally an effective way to reduce edge bending stress and reduce transverse cracking. A PCC shoulder that is placed alter the traffic lane does not generally produce high LTE and significantly reduced bending stresses over the design period. ‘Longitudinal + Increase slab thickness (8 in. maximum) \Fatigue + Increase existing AC layer thickness \Cracking + Increase PCC strength (and concurrent change in PCC elastic modulus and CTE) + Tied PCC shoulder ‘Smoothness + Build smoother pavements initially and minimize distress. The smoothness prediction model shows that smoothness loss occurs mostly from the development of distresses such as cracking, faulting, and spalling. Minimizing or eliminating such distresses by modifying trial design properties that influence the distresses would result in a smoother pavement. Hence, all of the modifications discussed in previous sections (for cracking and faulting) ace applicable to improving smoothness. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at212 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide 12.3.5 CRCP Rebabilitation Design A brief description of the CRCP rehabilitation designs options is described in this section + Unbonded CRCP overlay of existing rigid pavement: Unbonded CRCP (27 in. thick) placed on existing ineact concrete pavement (JPCP, JRCP, or CRCP), existing composite pavement, or fractured PCC pavement. Unbonded overlays must have @ separator layer similar to that described for unbonded JPCP overlays (see paragraph 12.3.3). + Bonded PCC overlay of existing CRCP: Bonded PCC overlays over existing CRCP involve the placement of a thin concrete layer atop the prepared existing CRCP to form a permanent monolithic CRC section, + CRCP overlay of existing flexible pavement: Conventional CRCP overlays (>7 in. thick) can be applied to existing flexible pavements. When subjected to axle loads, the CRCP overlaid flexible pavement behaves similarly to a new CRCP with an asphale base Design Considerations + Performance criteria: Performance indicators used for CRCP rehabilitation design are crack width, LTE, punchouts, and smoothness. + Design reliabiliey: Handled in she same manner as new designs (see Chapter 7) + Factors that affect distress: A dezailed description of the factors that affect the performance indicators to CRCP rehabilitation design are presented in Table 12-14. By selecting the appropriate values of chese factors, clesigners may reduce specific distress and improve ovcrall pavement performance. Trial Rehabilitation with CRCP Designs ‘The rehabiliarion design process described under Subsection 12.3.3 for JPCP rebabilication de- sign is valid for CRCP as well. The performance prediction models for new CRCP are also valid for CRCP overlays. Further, as with JPCP rehabilitation, selecting the appropriate design feacures for che rehabilicared CRCP is key co achieving a successful design. For mast rehabilitated CRCP de- sign situations, the pavement design features are a combination of the existing design features and new features introduced as part of rehabilitation. Guidance on how to select the appropriate design feacures is presented in Table 12-15, Design Modifications to Reduce Distress for CRCP Overlays Crack wideh, longitudinal reinforcement percentage, slab thickness, and support conditions are the primary factors affecting CRCP performance and punchout development. Hence, modifying the factors that influence them is the most effective manner of reducing punchouts and smoothness loss. Crack spacing cannot be modified for bonded PCC over existing CRCP. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 243, Table 12-14. Summary of Factors that Influence Rehabilitated CRCP Distress and Smoothness reinforcement Slab width, Parameter Comment ‘Transverse _| ‘Transverse crack width is very critical ro CRCP performance. Ir plays a dominant crack wideh | role in controlling the degree of load cransfer capacity proviced atthe transverse and spacing _ | cracks Ie is strongly influenced by the reinforcement content, PCC shrinkage, construction PCC set temperature, and PCC CTE, Smaller crack widths increase the capacity of the crack for transferring repeated shear stresses (caused by heavy axle loads) berween adjacent slab segments over the long term. Wider cracks exhibit lower LTE over time and traffic, which results in increased load-related critical tensile stresses at the top of the slab followed by increased fatigue damage and punchouts. A maximum crack width of 0.02 in, ever the design life is recommended. Transverse | The LTE of transverse cracks i a critical fictor in controlling the development crack LTE | of punchout related longitudinal cracking. Maintaining a load eransfer of 95 percent or greater (through aggregate interlock over the CRC overlay design life) will imie the development of punchout distress. This is aecomplished by limiting crack wideh over the entire year; especially the cold months. Lane to “The load transfer of the lane to shoulder joint affects the magnitude of the shoulder tensile bending stress at the top of the slab (between the wheel loads in a longitudinal | transverse direction). Ic is a critical pavement response parameter that controls [joint load the development of longitudinal cracking beeween adjacent transverse cracks transfer and, consequently, che development of punchouts, The use of design fearures that could provide and maintain adequace edge support throughout the pavement rehabilitation design life is therefore key to adequate performance. Overlay CRC | From che standpoint of slab stiffness, this is an important design feature that thickness has a very significanc influence on performance. Note that for bonded PCC over existing CRCP, the equivalent stiffness of the overlay and existing PCC layer is used in analysis. In general, as the slab thickness of a CRC overlay increases, the capacity to resist critical bending stress increases, as does the slab’s capability to transfer load across the transverse cracks. Consequently, the rate of development of punchouts decreases and smoothness loss is reduced. ‘Amount of — | Longieudinalstel reinforcement is an important design paramecer because itis used longitudinal _| to control the opening of the transverse cracks for unbonded CRCP overlays and. reinforcement | CRCP overlays over existing flexible pavement. Also, the depeh at which longitudinal and depth of | reinforcements placed below the surface greatly affects crack wich. Ic is recommended that longitudinal steel reinforcement be placed above mid-depch in che slab. For bonded PCC over existing CRCP, the amount of reinforcement entered into the models is the same as that of the existing CRCP because cracks are already formed. and no reinforcement is placed in the overlay PCC. Depth of the stel reinforcement is equal to the depch to the reinforcement in the exiscing CRCP (ignore the overlay PCC thickness because cracks are already formed through the slabs). Slab width has typically been synonymous with lane width (usually 12 ft). ‘Widened lanes are typically 13~14 ft. Field and analytical studies have shown that the wider slab keeps truck axles away from the free edge, greatly reducing tensile bending stresses (in the transverse direction) at the top slab surface and deflections at che lane-shoulder joint. This has a significant effect on reducing the occurrence of edge punchouits. This design procedure does not directly address CRCP with widened slabs bue can be approximately modeled by shifting the mean lateral load position by the width of slab widening (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at214 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Table 12-15. Guidance on How to Select the Appropriate Design Features for Rehabilitated CRCP Design, ‘Type of CRCP_ Rehabilitation Specific Rehabilitation Treatments Recommendation on Selecting Design Feature Unbonded CRCP overlay Bonded PCC overlay on CRCP Interlayer placement ‘An adequate asphale separator layer is very important for a CRCP overlay, because it ensures that no working joints or cracks in the existing pavement will eflece upward chrough the CRCP. This normally requites 1 in. of AC, but if joints with poor LTE exist, a thicker AC layer may be necessary. ‘The AC separator layer should have normal contact friction with the CRCP overlay and the existing PCC layer in order to improve the scructural capacity of the pavement. Erodibility of the separation layer is calculated based upon properties of che AC separation layer. (This utilizes percent asphalt by volume. If this separation laycr is permeable with a typically very low asphalt content, the designer must adjuse the percent asphale toa value of 11 percent.) Exiting PCC condition ‘The existing PCC overall condition must be considered when selecting the appropriate layer clastic modulus. This is done by adjusting backcalculated or lab-tested estimates of clastic ‘modulus with a damage factor determined by existing CRCP visual condition, CRCP overlay PCC bonded overlay Selection of design features for the CRCP overlay (including shoulder type and slab widch) is similar to that outlined for new/seconsevuction design in Chapter 10. ‘The existing CRCP surface must be prepared and a new PCC overlay bonded on top. The only joine thar needs sawing is the longitudinal lane-to-lane joint, which should be sawed completely through, plus 0.5 in. This bonded PCC design is unusual but bas performed well in a number of projects in Texas and elsewhere. Design input features must reflect the condition of the existing CRCP. CRCP overlay over existing flexible pavement CRCP overlay Selection of design features for the CRCP overlay (including shoulder type and slab widch) is similar to that outlined for new or reconstructed design in Chapter 10. Condition of existing flexible pavement is rated as Excellenc, Good, Fait, Poor, or Very Poor, as described in Table 12-10. These ratings will result in adjustments to the dynamic modulus, E ,., of the existing AC layer that now becomes the base course. The lower the rating the larger che downwvard adjustment of E* of the existing AC layer. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 12: Rehabilitation Design Strategies | 245 Increase overlay slab thickness. An increase in CRCP slab thickness will reduce punchoucs based on a decrease in critical tensile Fatigue scresses at che rop of the slab and an increase in crack shear capability. There is also a greater tolerance to maintain a high load transfer capability at che same crack width, allowing for recuced tensile stress at top of the slab, Increase percent longitudinal reinforcement in overlay. Even though an increase in steel content will reduce crack spacing, it has been showa to greatly reduce punchouts overall due ro navrower cracks widths. Reduce the PCC set temperature (when PCC sets) through improved curing procedure (water curing). The higher the PCC see temperacure, the wider the crack. ‘openings ac lower temperatures. Reduce the depth of reinforcement in overlay. This is applicable only to unbonded. RCP overlay and CRCP over existing flexible pavement. Placement of steel closer co the pavement surface reduces punchouts by keeping cracks tighter. (However, 0 avoid construction problems and limit infiltration of chlorides, do not place closer than 3.5 in. from the surface.) Increase PCC tensile strength. Increasing the CRCP tensile strength decreases the fatigue damage and, consequently, punchours. However, ic must be noted that chere is 2 corresponding increase in PCC elastic modulus that increases the magnitude of stresses generated within che PCC, somewhat reducing the benefit of increased tensile strength. Reduce the coefficient of thermal expansion of overlay PCC. Use of a lower thermal coefficient of expansion concrete will reduce crack width opening for the same crack spacing. Increase AC separator layer thickness. The thicker the separator layer, the less sensitive the overlay is to deterioration in the existing pavement. For badly deteriorated existing pavements, thick (2 3 in. thick) AC separator layers are recommended for CRCP overlays. Reduction in PCC shrinkage. Reducing the cement content and improved curing are ‘ovo ways £0 reduce ulsimace shrinkage. 12,3.6 Additional Considerations for Rehabilitation with PCC ‘There are several important considerations that need to be addressed as part of rehabilitation de- sign co ensure adequate performance of the rehabilitation design throughout its design li These issues include: Shoulder reconstruction Subdrainage improvement CPR/pre-overlay repairs eparacor layer design (for unbonded JPCP/CRCP over existing rigid pavements) (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at246 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Joint design (for JPCP overlays) Reflection crack conceal (for bonded PCC over existing JCPC/CRCP}) Bonding (for bonded PCC overlays over existing JPCP/CRCP) Guidelines for the addition of trafic lanes Guidelines for the widening of narrow traffic lanes (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atCHAPTER 13 Interpretation and Analysis of the Trial Design AASHTO Ware PMED predicts the performance of the erial design in terms of key distress types and smoothness at a specified reliability (refer to Chapter 5). The designer initially decides ‘on a celal design for consideration, as discussed in Chapters 11 and 12. This evial design may be obtained from the current AASHTO Design Guide, another design program, a design catalog, or a DOT design procedure. AASHTO Wate Pavement ME Design analyzes a eri design over che selected design period. ‘The program outputs che design inputs, reliability of design, materials/other properties, and predicted performance. Each of these ourputs needs to be examined by the designer to achieve a satisfactory design. An unacceptable design is revised and re-run to establish its performance until all criteria are met, This trial-and-error process allows the pavement designer to simulate building the pavement prior to letting a contract for construction, ensuring that performance expectations will be mer as economically as possible. ‘The purpose of this section is to provide some guidance on what design feacures could be re- vised for the trial design to be accepted. 13.1 Summary of Inputs for the Trial De: A unique feature of AASHTO Ware Pavement ME Design is that all of the actual program inputs are included in the output file. AASHTO Ware Pavement ME Design includes both climatic data and axle configuration in the output. In addition, AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design generates a PDF file output and Excel-downloadable files. The designer can review all of these inputs to ver- ify that the data entered is complete. Given the large number of inputs, this check is, 13.2 Reliability of Trial Design Another important output is an assessment of the design celiability, which may be seen under the Summary tab, The Target and Prediction Distress @ Specified Reliability are the first left-hand columns listed, followed by Target and Achieved Reliability. If the Achieved Reliability is greater than the Target Reliability the pavement passes. Ifche reverse is erue, the pavement fails. any a7 (© 2m00ty the American Assactton OF Stake Highway nd Taesportaton Os, Allis reserved. Duplication violation of applica law218 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide key distress fails, che designer needs to alter the trial design to correct the problem. Examples for a flexible and rigid pavement (Tables 13-1 and 13-2, respectively) are shown below. For the flexible pavement example (Table 13-1), the aephal concrete (AC) surface down cracking mec the reliability criterion (99.92% > 909%), bur terminal IRI did nor (52.51% < 90%). This trial design is not aeceprable at the 90 peccent reliability level and needs to be revised. + Forthe JPCP example (Table 13-2), the transverse cracking mec the reliability criterion (98.09% > 95%), bur mean joine faulting (32.9% < 95%) and terminal IRI did not (93.98% < 95%). This erial design is not acceprable at the 95 percent reliabiliy level and. needs to be revised. Table 13-1. Reliability Summary for Flexible Pavement Trial Design Example “Terminal IRI (in./mi) Permanent deformation— total pavement (in,) ‘AC borcom-up fatigue cracking (9%) ‘AC thermal feaccure (fe/mi) 250 1 90 94.16 ‘AC top-down fatigue cracking | 2000 O71 90 1.66 Bail (fe/mi) Permanent deformation—AC | 0.25 169.3 90 59.13 Fail only (in.) Table 13-2. _ Reliability Summary for JPCP Trial Design Example ‘Terminal IRI (in./mi) Mean joint faulting (i JPCP transverse cracking (06 slabs) (© 2000 the American Assaciaon of Sate Highway and Tramportaion Ome, Allrighis reserved Dapliction isa vlan of appieteChapter 13: Interpretation and Analysis ofthe Trial Design | 219 13.3 Supplemental Information (Layer Modulus, Truck Applications, and Other Factors) Another unique feature of AASHTO Ware Pavement ME Design is that the materials properties and other factors are output on a month-by-month basis over the design period. The designer needs to examine the output materials properties and other factors to assess their reasonableness. For flexible pavements, the output provides the AC dynamic modulus (E..) and the resilient mod- ulus (M)) for unbound layers for each month over the design period. Moisture content and frost condition greatly affecrs the unbound materials M, AASHTO Ware Pavement ME Design provides a graphical output of selected modulus values for the AC layers. The dynamic modulus for the first quincile of temperatures (the lower tempera- tures) for each sublayer is plotted over the clesign life of che pavement. All HMA dynamic modulus values for each temperature quintile and sublayee are included in a tabular format. In addition, the resilient modulus for the unbound layers and foundation are also included in thar eabular format for each month over the design life of the pavement. ‘The designer should examine the monthly output materials properties, number of trucks (Class 4 and higher), and other factors to assess theit reasonableness. These are all ourpue at the end of the month. + Flexible pavement key outputs that need to be observed and evaluated include the following: — The AC Dynamic Modulus (B,.,) ofeach layer. The software divides each AC input layer into sublayers and each needs co be examined for reasonableness. Marerials properties, as well as temperature and load speed, typically have significant effects on Eye = The unbound marerial resilient modulus (M)) for unbound layers for each month over the design period can be examined. The software divides each unbound material input layer (such as a granular base course) into sublayers, and each needs to be examined for reasonableness. Moisture content and frase condition greatly affect che unbound materials, M, The number of cumulative “Heavy Trucks" (Class 4 and above) is an output shown, for the design traffic lane. The toral cumulative” Heavy Trucks’ may be examined. at the last month of the analysis period. This parameter is a good general indicator of how heavy the truck traffic (volume) is for the design (e.g, 1 million erucks, 20 million trucks, or 100 million trucks isthe cerminology recommended for design purposes). Note thar these may be converted into flexible pavement 18-kip ESALs by multiplying chem by an average truck factor, or the actual number of ESALs may be determined by examining an intermediate file by this name chat has this information, (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at220 | Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide + Rigid pavement key outputs chat need to be observed and evaluated include the following: ~The Hexural strength/ modulus of rupture of the PCC represents the bending strength of the PCC over all months of the design period. = The modulus of elasticity of che PCC represents the traditional elastic modulus of clastic of the PCC over all months of the design period, = The unbound material resilient modulus (M,) for unbound layers for each month cover the design period may be examined. See above for flexible pavements. ~The subgrade k-value is backcalculated for cach monthly condition of slab E base and subbase modulus (E,,. for AC, E for cement treared, and unbound material resilient modulus, IM), and subgrade, M. ~The number of cumulative“ Heavy Trucks” (Class 4 and above) is an output shown for the design traffic lane. The coral cumulative “Heavy Teucks" may be examined. ac the last month of the analysis period. This parameter is a good general indicator of how heavy the truck traffic (volume) is for the design (e.g. 1 million ecucks, 20 million trucks, or 100 million trucks isthe terminology recommended for design purposes). Note thar these may be converted into rigid pavement 18-kip ESALs bby multiplying them by an average truck factos, or the actual number of ESALs may be derermined by examining an intermediate file by this name char has chis, information. 13.4 Predicted Performance Values “The software outputs the key distress types and smoothness over the entite design period month-by-month. A designer can examine the outputs as a test for engineering reasonableness by checking that they meet the specified performance criteria + Flexible pavements Longitudinal fatigue cracking: Surface-initiated fatigue eracking occurs in or at the edges of the wheel paths, propagating in the direction of travel. A critical value is reached when longitudinal cracking accelerates and begins to require significant repairs and lane closures. — Alligator fatigue cracking: ‘Traditional bottom up fatigue cracking in the wheel paths. A critical value is reached when alligator cracking accelerates and begins to require significane repairs and lane closures. — Transverse cracking: Excessively low temperatures may result in fracture cracks that span across traffic lanes, pecpendicular to the direction of travel. A critical value is reached when transverse cracking results in significane roughness. ~ Rutting or permanent deformation: AC rutting is only in the asphalt bound layers and roral rurting combines all of che pavement layers and the subgrade. A critical value is reached when rutting levels are deep enough to cause safety concerns, such as hydroplaning in inclemene weather. (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc atChapter 13: Interpretation and Analysis ofthe Trial Design | 224 IRE: This index represents the profile of the pavement in the wheel paths. A critical value is reached when judged by highway users as unacceptable ride quality, [RI is a function of longitudinal cracking, transverse cracking, alligator cracking, and toral rutting, along with climate and subgrade factors. = Reflection cracking: Reflection cracking only occues when an AC overlay is placed. over an existing flexible pavement that has alligator fatigue cracking in the wheel paths, or over a jointed rigid pavement where transverse joints and cracks exist and occu A critical value is reached when reflection alligator cracking results in significant maintenance requirements, or when reflection transverse cracking results in significant maintenance requirements or roughness. Rigid pavements (JPCP) Joint faulting: The mean joint faulting at the outer slab edge of the heaviest trafficked lane is an indicator of the erosion of sublayers and effectiveness of joint LTE. A critical value is reached when joint faulting results in excess roughness, which is unacceptable to drivers and also difficule ro remove through retexcuring. — Percent slabs cracked: The mean predicted cransverse cracks (in the heaviest tralficked lane) that form as a resul of fatigue damage at both the top and bottom of the slab, The location (either top or bostom) of the most damage can be determined from ourpuc tables and graphs. Significancly higher fatigue damage at the top of the slab means it will initiace cracking from the top down. A critical value is reached. when cracking accelerates and begins co require significant repairs and lane closures. — Percent slabs longitudinally cracked (SJPCP): The mean predicted longitudinal cracks (in the heaviest trafficked lane) that form as a result of fatigue damage at the bottom of the slab. A critical value is reached when longitudinal cracking accelerates and begins ro require significant repairs and lane closures. — IRE: This index represents the profile of the pavement in the wheel paths. A critical value is reached when judged by highway users as unacceptable ride quality. IRI is a function of joint faulting and slab cracking, along with climate and subgrade factors. Rigid pavements (CRCP) = Crack spacing: Transverse shrinkage cracks occur due to the restrainc caused by the steel and drying shrinkage and cooling of the PCC slab. It is output on the crack widch graph, A value of 3-6 ft is desirable = Crack width: A very critical parameter that varies with the temperature of the P‘ at set, crack spacing, shrinkage of the PCC over time, reinforcement content, and base friction. A critical value of less than 0.02 in. is required to maintain crack LTE, at high levels. — Crack LTB: Crack deterioration or loss of load transfer ability must be carefully controlled. Crack LITE should remain above 90-95 percent throughout che design life. When erack greatly. is reduced, the potential for punchouts to develop increases (© 2m20ty the American Asacton OF Slate Highway nd Taesportaton Os, All ght reserved. Dupiation ea vcktion of apc at