Networking Basics

Internet infrastructure
Every computer that is connected to the Internet is part of a network, even the one in your home. For example, you may use a modem and dial a local number to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). At work, you may be part of a local area network (LAN), but you most likely still connect to the Internet using an ISP that your company has contracted with. When you connect to your ISP, you become part of their network. The ISP may then connect to a larger network and become part of their network. The Internet is simply a network of networks. Most large communications companies have their own dedicated backbones connecting various regions. In each region, the company has a Point of Presence (POP). The POP is a place for local users to access the company's network, often through a local phone number or dedicated line. The amazing thing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are several high-level networks connecting to each other through Network Access Points or NAPs.

When you connect to the Internet, your computer becomes part of a network.

Internet Network Example

Here's an example. Imagine that Company A is a large ISP. In each major city, Company A has a POP. The POP in each city is a rack full of modems that the ISP's customers dial into. Company A leases fiber optic lines from the phone company to connect the POPs together (see, for example, this UUNET Data Center Connectivity Map).

Imagine that Company B is a corporate ISP. Company B builds large buildings in major cities and corporations locate their Internet server machines in these buildings. Company B is such a large company that it runs its own fiber optic lines between its buildings so that they are all interconnected. In this arrangement, all of Company A's customers can talk to each other, and all of Company B's customers can talk to each other, but there is no way for Company A's customers and Company B's customers to intercommunicate. Therefore, Company A and Company B both agree to connect to NAPs in various cities, and traffic between the two companies flows between the networks at the NAPs. In the real Internet, dozens of large Internet providers interconnect at NAPs in various cities, and trillions of bytes of data flow between the individual networks at these points. The Internet is a collection of huge corporate networks that agree to all intercommunicate with each other at the NAPs. In this way, every computer on the Internet connects to every other.

The Function of an Internet Router

All of these networks rely on NAPs, backbones and routers to talk to each other. What is incredible about this process is that a message can leave one computer and travel halfway across the world through several different networks and arrive at another computer in a fraction of a second! The routers determine where to send information from one computer to another. Routers are specialized computers that send your messages and those of every other Internet user speeding to their destinations along thousands of pathways. A router has two separate, but related, jobs:

It ensures that information doesn't go where it's not needed. This is crucial for keeping large volumes of data from clogging the connections of "innocent bystanders." It makes sure that information does make it to the intended destination.

In performing these two jobs, a router is extremely useful in dealing with two separate computer networks. It joins the two networks, passing information from one to the other. It also protects the networks from one another, preventing the traffic on one from unnecessarily spilling over to the other. Regardless of how many networks are attached, the basic operation and function of the router remains the same. Since the Internet is one huge network made up of tens of thousands of smaller networks, its use of routers is an absolute necessity.

Internet Backbone
The National Science Foundation (NSF) created the first high-speed backbone in 1987. Called NSFNET, it was a T1 line that connected 170 smaller networks together and operated at 1.544 Mbps (million bits per second). IBM, MCI and Merit worked with NSF to create the backbone and developed a T3 (45 Mbps) backbone the following year. Backbones are typically fiber optic trunk lines. The trunk line has multiple fiber optic cables combined together to increase the capacity. Fiber optic cables are designated OC for optical carrier, such as OC-3, OC-12 or OC-48. An OC-3 line is capable of transmitting 155 Mbps while an OC-48 can transmit 2,488 Mbps (2.488 Gbps). Compare that to a typical 56K modem transmitting 56,000 bps and you see just how fast a modern backbone is. Today there are many companies that operate their own high-capacity backbones, and all of them interconnect at various NAPs around the world. In this way, everyone on the Internet, no matter where they are and what company they use, is able to talk to everyone else on the planet. The entire Internet is a gigantic, sprawling agreement between companies to intercommunicate freely.

Internet Protocol: IP Addresses

Every machine on the Internet has a unique identifying number, called an IP Address. The IP stands for Internet Protocol, which is the language that computers use to communicate over the Internet. A protocol is the pre-defined way that someone who wants to use a service talks with that service. The "someone" could be a person, but more often it is a computer program like a Web browser. A typical IP address looks like this: 216.27.61.137 To make it easier for us humans to remember, IP addresses are normally expressed in decimal format as a dotted decimal number like the one above. But computers communicate in binary form. Look at the same IP address in binary: 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001 The four numbers in an IP address are called octets, because they each have eight positions when viewed in binary form. If you add all the positions together, you get 32, which is why IP addresses are considered 32-bit numbers. Since each of the eight positions can have two different states (1 or zero), the total number of possible combinations per octet is 28 or 256. So each octet can contain any value between zero and 255. Combine the four octets and you get 232 or a possible 4,294,967,296 unique values!

Out of the almost 4.3 billion possible combinations, certain values are restricted from use as typical IP addresses. For example, the IP address 0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts. The octets serve a purpose other than simply separating the numbers. They are used to create classes of IP addresses that can be assigned to a particular business, government or other entity based on size and need. The octets are split into two sections: Net and Host. The Net section always contains the first octet. It is used to identify the network that a computer belongs to. Host (sometimes referred to as Node) identifies the actual computer on the network. The Host section always contains the last octet. There are five IP classes plus certain special addresses.

Internet Protocol: Domain Name System

When the Internet was in its infancy, it consisted of a small number of computers hooked together with modems and telephone lines. You could only make connections by providing the IP address of the computer you wanted to establish a link with. For example, a typical IP address might be 216.27.22.162. This was fine when there were only a few hosts out there, but it became unwieldy as more and more systems came online. The first solution to the problem was a simple text file maintained by the Network Information Center that mapped names to IP addresses. Soon this text file became so large it was too cumbersome to manage. In 1983, the University of Wisconsin created the Domain Name System (DNS), which maps text names to IP addresses automatically. This way you only need to remember www.howstuffworks.com, for example, instead of HowStuffWorks.com's IP address.

URL: Uniform Resource Locator

When you use the Web or send an e-mail message, you use a domain name to do it. For example, the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) "http://www.howstuffworks.com" contains the domain name howstuffworks.com. So does this e-mail address: example@howstuffworks.com. Every time you use a domain name, you use the Internet's DNS servers to translate the human-readable domain name into the machine-readable IP address. Check out How Domain Name Servers Work for more in-depth information on DNS. Top-level domain names, also called first-level domain names, include .COM, .ORG, .NET, .EDU and .GOV. Within every top-level domain there is a huge list of secondlevel domains. For example, in the .COM first-level domain there is:

HowStuffWorks Yahoo Microsoft

Every name in the .COM top-level domain must be unique. The left-most word, like www, is the host name. It specifies the name of a specific machine (with a specific IP address) in a domain. A given domain can, potentially, contain millions of host names as long as they are all unique within that domain. DNS servers accept requests from programs and other name servers to convert domain names into IP addresses. When a request comes in, the DNS server can do one of four things with it: 1. It can answer the request with an IP address because it already knows the IP address for the requested domain. 2. It can contact another DNS server and try to find the IP address for the name requested. It may have to do this multiple times. 3. It can say, "I don't know the IP address for the domain you requested, but here's the IP address for a DNS server that knows more than I do." 4. It can return an error message because the requested domain name is invalid or does not exist.

A DNS Example
Let's say that you type the URL www.howstuffworks.com into your browser. The browser contacts a DNS server to get the IP address. A DNS server would start its search for an IP address by contacting one of the root DNS servers. The root servers know the IP addresses for all of the DNS servers that handle the top-level domains (.COM, .NET, .ORG, etc.). Your DNS server would ask the root for www.howstuffworks.com, and the root would say, "I don't know the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com, but here's the IP address for the .COM DNS server." Your name server then sends a query to the .COM DNS server asking it if it knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. The DNS server for the COM domain knows the IP addresses for the name servers handling the www.howstuffworks.com domain, so it returns those. Your name server then contacts the DNS server for www.howstuffworks.com and asks if it knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. It actually does, so it returns the IP address to your DNS server, which returns it to the browser, which can then contact the server for www.howstuffworks.com to get a Web page. One of the keys to making this work is redundancy. There are multiple DNS servers at every level, so that if one fails, there are others to handle the requests. The other key is caching. Once a DNS server resolves a request, it caches the IP address it receives. Once it has made a request to a root DNS server for any .COM domain, it knows the IP address for a DNS server handling the .COM domain, so it doesn't have to bug the root DNS servers again for that information. DNS servers can do this for every request, and this caching helps to keep things from bogging down.

Even though it is totally invisible, DNS servers handle billions of requests every day and they are essential to the Internet's smooth functioning. The fact that this distributed database works so well and so invisibly day in and day out is a testimony to the design.

Internet Servers and Clients

Internet servers make the Internet possible. All of the machines on the Internet are either servers or clients. The machines that provide services to other machines are servers. And the machines that are used to connect to those services are clients. There are Web servers, e-mail servers, FTP servers and so on serving the needs of Internet users all over the world. When you connect to www.howstuffworks.com to read a page, you are a user sitting at a client's machine. You are accessing the HowStuffWorks Web server. The server machine finds the page you requested and sends it to you. Clients that come to a server machine do so with a specific intent, so clients direct their requests to a specific software server running on the server machine. For example, if you are running a Web browser on your machine, it will want to talk to the Web server on the server machine, not the e-mail server. A server has a static IP address that does not change very often. A home machine that is dialing up through a modem, on the other hand, typically has an IP address assigned by the ISP every time you dial in. That IP address is unique for your session -- it may be different the next time you dial in. This way, an ISP only needs one IP address for each modem it supports, rather than one for each customer.

Ports and HTTP

Any server machine makes its services available using numbered ports -- one for each service that is available on the server. For example, if a server machine is running a Web server and a file transfer protocol (FTP) server, the Web server would typically be available on port 80, and the FTP server would be available on port 21. Clients connect to a service at a specific IP address and on a specific port number. Once a client has connected to a service on a particular port, it accesses the service using a specific protocol. Protocols are often text and simply describe how the client and server will have their conversation. Every Web server on the Internet conforms to the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). You can learn more about Internet servers, ports and protocols by reading How Web Servers Work. Networks, routers, NAPs, ISPs, DNS and powerful servers all make the Internet possible. It is truly amazing when you realize that all this information is sent around the world in a matter of milliseconds! The components are extremely important in modern life -without them, there would be no Internet. And without the Internet, life would be very different indeed for many of us.

Difference between Hub,Switch and Router

What's the difference between a Hub, a Switch and a Router? In a word: intelligence. Hubs, switches, and routers are all devices that let you connect one or more computers to other computers, networked devices, or to other networks. Each has two or more connectors called ports into which you plug in the cables to make the connection. Varying degrees of magic happen inside the device, and therein lies the difference. I often see the terms misused so let's clarify what each one really means. A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least complicated of the three. Its job is very simple: anything that comes in one port is sent out to the others. That's it. Every computer connected to the hub "sees" everything that every other computer on the hub sees. The hub itself is blissfully ignorant of the data being transmitted. For years, simple hubs have been quick and easy ways to connect computers in small networks. A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently. By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can "learn" where particular addresses are. For example, if it sees traffic from machine A coming in on port 2, it now knows that machine A is connected to that port and that traffic to machine A needs to only be sent to that port and not any of the others. The net result of using a switch over a hub is that most of the network traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every port. On busy networks this can make the network significantly faster A router is the smartest and most complicated of the bunch. Routers come in all shapes and sizes from the small four-port broadband routers that are very popular right now to the large industrial strength devices that drive the internet itself. A simple way to think of a router is as a computer that can be programmed to understand, possibly manipulate, and route the data its being asked to handle. For example, broadband routers include the ability to "hide" computers behind a type of firewall which involves slightly modifying the packets of network traffic as they traverse the device. All routers include some kind of user interface for configuring how the router will treat traffic. The really large routers include the equivalent of a full-blown programming language to describe how they should operate as well as the ability to communicate with other routers to describe or determine the best way to get network traffic from point A to point B. A quick note on one other thing that you'll often see mentioned with these devices and that's network speed. Most devices now are capable of both 10mps (10 mega-bits, or million bits, per second) as well as 100mbs and will automatically detect the speed. If the device is labeled with only one speed then it will only be able to communicate with 8

devices that also support that speed. 1000mbs or "gigabit" devices are starting to slowly become more common as well. Similarly many devices now also include 802.11b or 802.11g wireless transmitters that simply act like additional ports to the device NAP(Network Access Point) Short for network access point, a public network exchange facility where Internet Service Providers (ISPs) can connect with one another in peering arrangements. The NAPs are a key component of the Internet backbone because the connections within them determine how traffic is routed. They are also the points of most Internet congestion. Explain Transmission Control Protocol, TCP TCP ensures reliable and end to end delivery of segments of information. Segments are acknowledged to the source when received by the destination. Data is broken up into segments and sequenced properly before transmission. This arrangement of segments allows destination to trace lost data in transmission. What is TCP protocol? Transmission control Protocol is used to establish communication between nodes or networks and exchange data packets. It guarantees delivery of data packets in the order they were sent. Hence it is most commonly used in all applications that require guaranteed delivery of data. It can handle both timeouts (if packets were delayed) and retransmission (if packets were lost). The stream of data is transmitted in segments. The segment header is 32 bit. it is a connectionless communication protocol at the third level (network) of the OSI model. TCP vs. UDP. TCP guarantees the delivery of data. UDP on the other hand, does not guarantee delivery of data. TCP delivers messages in the order they were sent. UDP has no ordering mechanisms. In TCP data is sent as a stream while UDP sends data as individual packets. UDP is faster than TCP. TCP is a connection oriented protocol while UDP is connectionless. What is TCP windowing concept? TCP windowing concept is primarily used to avoid congestion in the traffic. It controls the amount of unacknowledged data a sender can send before it gets an acknowledgement back from the receiver that it has received it. What is Trusted and Untrusted Networks? Trusted networks: Such Networks allow data to be transferred transparently. The machines using a trusted network are usually administered by an Administrator to ensure

that private and secured data is not leaked. Access to this network is limited. Computers using trusted networks are more secured and confidential because of strong firewalls. Untrusted networks: Such networks are usually administered by the owners. They can allow improper access to sensitive or personal data. These machines are usually separate. Such machines could me more prone to attacks. Network load balancing Network Load Balancing (NLB) is a clustering technology offered by Microsoft as part of all Windows 2000 Server and Windows Server 2003 family operating systems. NLB uses a distributed algorithm to load balance network traffic across a number of hosts, helping to enhance the scalability and availability of mission critical, IP-based services, such as Web, Virtual Private Networking, streaming media, terminal services, proxy and so on. It also provides high availability by detecting host failures and automatically redistributing traffic to operational hosts. Default Gateway In a network using subnets, the router that forwards traffic to a destination outside of the subnet of the transmitting device. Subnet mask It is used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to. An IP address has two components, the network address and the host address. For example, consider the IP address 150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first two numbers (150.215) represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (017.009) identify a particular host on this network. What are the different types of VPN?

Remote Access VPN:- Also called as Virtual Private dial-up network (VPDN) is mainly used in scenarios where remote access to a network becomes essential. Remote access VPN allows data to be accessed between a companys private network and remote users through a third party service provider; Enterprise service provider. E.g Sales team is usually present over the globe. Using Remote access VPN, the sales updates can be made. Site to Site VPN Intranet based: This type of VPN can be used when multiple Remote locations are present and can be made to join to a single network. Machines present on these remote locations work as if they are working on a single network. Site to Site VPN Extranet based: This type of VPN can be used when several different companies need to work in a shared environment. E.g. Distributors and service companies. This network is more manageable and reliable.

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What are the different authentication methods used in VPNs? The authentication method uses an authentication protocol. The methods are:

EAP authentication method: Extensible authentication protocol authenticates remote access connection. The authentication mechanism is decided between the remote VPN client and authenticator (ISA). The mechanism is typical in which authenticator requests for authentication information and the responses are given by the remote VPN client. MS Chap Authentication method: Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (MS-CHAP) starts with the authenticator (Remote access server) challenge. The challenge to the remote access client sends a session identifier and challenge string. The client in response sends the nonreversible encryption of the string, the identifier and password. Authenticator checks the credentials and grants access on a successful authentication. Unencrypted passwords (PAP):- Uses plain text passwords. Does not involve encryption. Used for less secure clients. Shiva Password Authentication Protocol (SPAP):- It is a password authentication protocol. It is less secure as the same user password is always sent in the same reversibly encrypted form

What is Tunneling? Tunneling is a mechanism provided to transfer data securely between two networks. The data is split into smaller packets and passed through the tunnel. The data passing through the tunnel has 3 layers of encryption. The data is encapsulated. Tunneling can be approached by Point to Point tunneling protocol.

What are voluntary and compulsory tunnels? Voluntary Tunneling Users computer is an end point of the tunnel and acts as tunnel client. Here the client or user issues a request to configure and create a voluntary tunnel. They require a dial up or LAN connection. Example of dial up connection is internet at home where a call is made to the ISP and connection is obtained. Compulsory tunneling In compulsory tunneling, instead of the user a vpn remote access server configures and creates a tunnel. Hence, the end point is the Remote sever not the user. Explain static and dynamic tunnels. Tunnels that are created manually are static tunnels. Tunnels that are auto discovered are dynamic tunnels. In dynamic tunneling, tcp connections can be checked dynamically. If

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no connections exist that are routed through the tunnel, a check for more suitable gateway can be done. Static tunneling may at times require dedicated equipments. Explain the importance of increasing and decreasing subnet bits. Adding 1s as a bit means increasing the subnets and decreasing the hosts. Removing or decreasing 1s means decreasing subnets and increasing hosts. Hence by increasing or decreasing the subnet architecture can be decided as per needs. Why do we need a subnet mask? A subnet mask allows identification of host part and network part of an IP address. Subnet mask can be used to find if an IP address is present on a subnet or not. What is RTP? Real-Time Transfer Protocol lays a standard or a way to transfer or manage real time data over a network. It does not guarantee the delivery of data or provide any quality of service. However it helps to manage the data. Which means that RTP can be used deliver the necessary data to the application to make sure it can put the received packets in the correct order Real time data examples could be audio and video. What is RTP Multiplexing? RTP multiplexing allows multiple media flows within a single RTP data payload between two points. This means that it can be used to carry multiple streams of data in one RTP packet. RTP multiplexing will reduce the bandwidth used. RTP multiplexing will also increase scalability.

Explain the use of RTP and RTCP protocols. Use of RTP and RTCP:1. RTP can be used to transfer Real time data like voice packets. 2. RTP can be used with RTCP which makes it possible to monitor data. 3. Packet loss can be detected by RTP using Sequence number RTCP provides Qos feedback :- Packets lost, round trip time. Describe the format of RTP and RTCP packets. The 32 bits of RTP packet format is as follows:- (L to R)

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Bit 0-1:- Indicates version, currently 2 Bit 2:- P- indicates padding bytes Bit 3:- X- Indicates presence of extension header Bit 4-7:- CC- Contains number of CSRC identifiers that follows the header Bit 8:- M- Current data has some special relevance (if set) Bit 9-15:- PT- Indicates format of payload Bit 16-31:- Sequence number Timestamp: - 32bits time stamp of packet SSRC- Synchronization source identifier uniquely identifies the source of a stream. CSRC -Contributing source IDs enumerate contributing sources to a stream which has been generated from multiple sources Extension header: - first 32 bit word contains profile specific identifier and length specifier The 32 bits of RTCP header format is as follows:- (L to R) Bit 0-1:- Indicates version, currently 2 Bit 2:- P- indicates padding bytes Bit 3 to 7:- Count of number of reception report blocks Bit 8 to 15:- Type: - Determined RTCP packet type. Type can take values from 0 to 255 16 to 31:- Length- Length of RTCP packet - 1 SR: - Sender Report for transmission and reception from active senders RR: - Receiver report for reception from in active senders SDES: - Source description items BYE- indicates end of participation APP: - Application specific functions Describe how the multicast protocol works. Multicast protocol or Internet protocol delivers a singles message to multiple machines. One packet from the source is replicated and sent to the destination. Every multicast message requires a multi case group. The group defines the addresses which will receive the message. The group is defined by the class D address. Different routing protocols are used to find the multicast groups and build routes for them. Distance Vector Multicast protocol is one of them. The receiver, to whom the multicast packet is sent to, needs to join the group. Joining the group is enabled and managed by IGMP. Multicast routers are used to transmit the messages from one network to another. Describe how to control the scope of multicast transmissions. Controlling the scope of multicast transmission restricts the range of group members. TTL (Time To Live) is one of the mechanisms to limit the scope. If the TTL value is small, packets would only be multicast to smaller distance destinations. More the value of TTL, more would be the scope of transmission to a larger number of machines. Administrative scoping is another mechanism. In this, transmission is restricted to a specific address space of an organization or a site.

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Explain why use Multicasting.

When the same message or packet needs to be sent to multiple destinations, multicasting is used. Within campus and offices, using multicasting file distribution can be done. System messages, news and videos can be sent at the same time. More commonly used for audio and video streaming.

What is a socket? A socket is used to connect an application to a network protocol. A socket enables communication between a client and a server. The communication is started when the client is assigned a local port number, and binds a socket to it. The client writes on the socket and gets information from server by reading it. What are Sockets? How do Sockets Work? A socket is used to connect an application to a network protocol. A socket enables communication between a client and a server. The communication is started when the client is assigned a local port number, and binds a socket to it. The client writes on the socket and gets information from server by reading it. The Socket class is used to communicate. It provides rich set of methods for both asynchronous and synchronous data transfer. ConnectAsynch is used to start an asynchronous connection. SendAsynch and ReceiveAsynch are used to send and receive data. Shutdown and close methods are used to shutdown and close the sockets. Datagram vs. stream. Stream can be considered as a pipe that allows full duplex connection. A datagram or a packet on the other hand, has a source and a destination. There is no connection. Stream is like a communication channel while datagram is completely self contained. Streams provide a reliable and sequenced communication. Datagrams on the other hand are unreliable and no sequence maintained. What is a stream socket? A stream socket provides two way communications between a client and server. This communication is reliable and sequenced. Stream sockets are above TCP to run across any networks. They provide unduplicated flow of data and have well established mechanism for creating and destroying connections and for detecting errors. What is SSL? SSL is Secured Socket Layer. SSL is used to establish a secured and an encrypted connection between a server and the browser. SSL is most commonly seen in payment and banking web sites. To create a SSL connection, a SSL certificate needs to be created.

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If the website has a SSL certificate installed, a small icon is displayed in the tool bar to make customers confident that the site is secured. What are the two important TCP Socket classes? Explain them The two most important socket Classes are:

Socket Class: The Socket class provides enriched methods and properties for network communications. It allows both synchronous and asynchronous data transfer. Shutdown method should be used to end the Socket once the data transfer is complete. Using SetSocketOption the socket can be configured. Declaration: Public Class Socket _ Implements IDisposable Server Socket Class: The server Socket class is used to implement server sockets. Server sockets are used to respond to requests received over the network.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Java Sockets? Advantages:

Flexible and powerful. Cause low network traffic if efficiently used. Only updated information can be sent.

Disadvantages:

The Java applets can establish communication only with the machine requested and not with any other machine on the network. Sockets allow only raw data to be sent. This means that both client and server need to have mechanisms to interpret the data.

What is a Network? A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. The two basic types of networks include:

Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

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You may also see references to a Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a Wireless LAN (WLAN), or a Wireless WAN (WWAN).

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart. In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On many LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer; other LANs may be wireless. See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of this tutorial for more information on the configuration of a LAN.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network. Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN.

What is Network Address Translation?

Network Address Translation (NAT) is the process where a network device, usually a firewall, assigns a public address to a computer (or group of computers) inside a private network. The main use of NAT is to limit the number of public IP addresses an organization or company must use, for both economy and security purposes. The most common form of network translation involves a large private network using addresses in a private range (10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255, 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255, or 192.168.0 0 to 192.168.255.255). The private addressing scheme works well for computers that only have to access resources inside the network, like workstations needing access to file servers and printers. Routers inside the private network can route traffic between private addresses with no trouble. However, to access resources outside the network, like the Internet, these computers have to have a public address in order for responses to their requests to return to them. This is where NAT comes into play.

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Internet requests that require Network Address Translation (NAT) are quite complex but happen so rapidly that the end user rarely knows it has occurred. A workstation inside a network makes a request to a computer on the Internet. Routers within the network recognize that the request is not for a resource inside the network, so they send the request to the firewall. The firewall sees the request from the computer with the internal IP. It then makes the same request to the Internet using its own public address, and returns the response from the Internet resource to the computer inside the private network. From the perspective of the resource on the Internet, it is sending information to the address of the firewall. From the perspective of the workstation, it appears that communication is directly with the site on the Internet. When NAT is used in this way, all users inside the private network access the Internet have the same public IP address when they use the Internet. That means only one public addresses is needed for hundreds or even thousands of users. Most modern firewalls are stateful - that is, they are able to set up the connection between the internal workstation and the Internet resource. They can keep track of the details of the connection, like ports, packet order, and the IP addresses involved. This is called keeping track of the state of the connection. In this way, they are able to keep track of the session composed of communication between the workstation and the firewall, and the firewall with the Internet. When the session ends, the firewall discards all of the information about the connection. There are other uses for Network Address Translation (NAT) beyond simply allowing workstations with internal IP addresses to access the Internet. In large networks, some servers may act as Web servers and require access from the Internet. These servers are assigned public IP addresses on the firewall, allowing the public to access the servers only through that IP address. However, as an additional layer of security, the firewall acts as the intermediary between the outside world and the protected internal network. Additional rules can be added, including which ports can be accessed at that IP address. Using NAT in this way allows network engineers to more efficiently route internal network traffic to the same resources, and allow access to more ports, while restricting access at the firewall. It also allows detailed logging of communications between the network and the outside world. Additionally, NAT can be used to allow selective access to the outside of the network, too. Workstations or other computers requiring special access outside the network can be assigned specific external IPs using NAT, allowing them to communicate with computers and applications that require a unique public IP address. Again, the firewall acts as the intermediary, and can control the session in both directions, restricting port access and protocols. NAT is a very important aspect of firewall security. It conserves the number of public addresses used within an organization, and it allows for stricter control of access to resources on both sides of the firewall.

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What is a Router?
Before we delve into the world of routers, you need to understand what a broadband connection is and how it works. According to Dictionary.com, broadband is "a highspeed, high-capacity transmission medium that can carry signals from multiple independent network carriers. This is done on a single coaxial or fiber-optic cable by establishing different bandwidth channels. Broadband technology can support a wide range of frequencies. It is used to transmit data, voice and video over long distances simultaneously." Routers take information that arrives through your broadband signal via a modem, decipher it, and deliver it to your computer. The router will also choose the best route for the data packet so that you receive the information quickly. Many different types of routers have been developed so that the information coming over your broadband connection can be sent to a variety of different receivers including your computer, your phone, and others.

Types of Routers
There are several types of routers that you will want to understand. You need to know the difference so that you can set up your network or at least so that you can understand what the local computer guy tells you to do.

Broadband Routers
Broadband routers can be used to do several different types of things. They can be used to connect two different computers or to connect two computers to the Internet. They can also be used to create a phone connection. If you are using Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, then you will need a broadband router to connect your Internet to your phone. These are often a special type of modem that will have both Ethernet and phone jacks. Although this may seem a little confusing, simply follow the instructions that your VoIP provider sends with your broadband router usually you must purchase the router from the company in order to obtain the service.

Wireless Routers
Wireless routers connect to your modem and create a wireless signal in your home or office. So, any computer within range can connect to your wireless router and use your broadband Internet for free. The only way to keep anyone from connecting to your system is to secure your router. A word of warning about wireless routers: Be sure your secure them, or you will be susceptible to hackers and identity thieves. In order to secure your router, you simply need to come to WhatIsMyIPAddress.com, and get your IP address. Then, you'll type that 18

into your web browser and log into your router (the user ID and password will come with your router). Remember to change the router ID and password as well or someone else might lock you out of your system. Once there, visit the wireless settings, type in a security key and you'll be about ready to go. Make sure you write down the key or save it in a Word document. When you try to log onto your Internet connection, you'll just need to enter the key. Your computer should remember the key, but write it down somewhere for safe keeping just in case

What is a Private IP Address?

When you send a letter from your house to a friend, you have to know the address to send it to so that the postman knows which street and which house to take it to. Computer networks such as the Internet are no different except instead of sending your web traffic to "1145 Main Street"; your computer's location is known as an IP Address. An IP address is your computer's equivalent of your postal address and just like the mail service, each computer has to have its own address so that it will only receive the information that is meant for it and not anything that is meant for someone else. While we are used to writing out streets and house numbers on envelopes, inside your computer IP Addresses are usually represented in what is known as dotted-decimal format such as 124.62.112.7 as this is the system that is understood by computers. As you can see, the address is split into 4 sections known as "octets" and each of the four octets can be numbered from 0-255, providing a total of 4,294,967,296 potentially unique IP Addresses. Now, while 4.2 Billion might seem like a lot, for many years large amounts of these have been allocated and used by large network such as backbone providers, ISPs and large Universities that made up the early Internet While other groups still have been reserved for special purposes and are not usable, so in practice the real amount is far less than 4.2 billion. The problem that we face today is that with many homes owning more than one computer and with cell phones, PDAs and even fridges being enabled for Internet access these days, IP Addresses are running out. When I mentioned above that some blocks of addresses had been reserved for special purposes, one of these purposes was for private networking and it is these private addresses that help to relieve the pressure on the remaining address space and make possible many of the cable and DSL routers that people have at home today to share their Internet connection amongst many PCs.

Private IP address ranges

The ranges and the amount of usable IP's are as follows: 19

10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 Addresses: 16,777,216 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 Addresses: 1,048,576 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 Addresses: 65,536

So, what are these addresses and how do they work?

For example, if I had 6 computers that I wanted to network, I might number them from 172.16.0.1 up to 172.16.0.6 and this would still leave over a million more addresses that I could use if I were to buy some more computers or if I was networking a large office and needed lots and lots of addresses. These blocks of addresses can be used by anyone, anywhere - even if your neighbor is using the exact same addresses this won't cause a problem. This is possible because these addresses are known as "non-Routable addresses" and the devices on the internet that move data from one place to another are specially programmed to recognize these addresses. These devices (known as routers) will recognize that these are private addresses belonging to your network and will never forward your traffic onto the Internet so for your connection to work; you will always require at least one real address from the general pool so that your home router can perform what is known as "Network Address Translation". NAT is a process where your router changes your private IP Address into a public one so that it can send your traffic over the Internet, keeping track of the changes in the process. When the information comes back to your router, it reverses the change back from a real IP Address into a private one and forwards the traffic back to your computer. Private addresses and NAT is what makes your home router work and by using them, anyone is able to connect as many computer's as they wish to the Internet without having to worry about running out of addresses and this gives everyone many more years until all the available addresses are used up.

How DHCP Works

As its name indicates, DHCP provides dynamic IP address assignment. What this means is that instead of having to rely on a specific IP address, a computer will be assigned one that is available from a subnet or "pool" that is assigned to the network. DHCP also extends BOOTP functionality to provide IP addresses that expire. BOOTP indirectly uses a form of leasing that never expired, but the term wasn't actually used until the introduction of DHCP. When DHCP assigns an IP address, it actually leases the identifier to the host computer for a specific amount of time. The default lease is five days, but a

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network administrator should evaluate their own particular circumstances to determine an appropriate lease. In basic terms, the DHCP lease process works as follows: 1. A network device attempts to connect to the Internet. 2. The network requests an IP address. 3. The DHCP server allocates (leases) the network device an IP address, which is forwarded to the network by a router. 4. DHCP updates the appropriate network servers with the IP address and other configuration information. 5. The network device accepts the IP address. 6. The IP address lease expires. 7. DHCP either reallocates the IP address or leases one that is available. 8. The network device is no longer connected to the Internet. 9. The IP address becomes an available address in the network pool of IP addresses. To set up DHCP, you basically need a DHCP-supported client (at least one) and router, and a DHCP server. The client is a computer or other device on a network that requires an IP address and or other network configuration information. The router functions as a forwarding (or routing) agent of IP address requests from the DHCP server. The DHCP server is key to the entire operation. It is responsible for allocating, leasing, reallocating, and renewing IP addresses. Windows and Linux both support DHCP software.

What is VOIP?
"VOIP - Short for Voice Over Internet Protocol, a category of hardware and software that enables people to use the Internet as the transmission medium for telephone calls by sending voice data in packets using IP rather than by traditional circuit transmissions..." (quoted from Webopedia Computer Dictionary).

Uses
VOIP has become a growing method of communication in the modern world, especially in sales-oriented jobs. It has been integrated mostly for business purposes to replace conventional phone calls. The methods of use can be classified into three major categories:

To interconnect VOIP phones within a single building using the building's Local Area Network (LAN) To interconnect VOIP phones between multiple locations of the same organization using a backbone network To interconnect VOIP phones to regular telephones in different organizations or for sales purposes

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Benefits
Toll-Free Calls
The main purpose of VOIP is to provide a method of cheap yet extensive communication. Regular telephone calls can become costly if used too frequently, yet with VOIP one only needs to pay for a good internet connection and subscription to a VOIP service. With these two facilities handy, VOIP becomes a capability to make limitless phone calls through the internet. Although the person at the other end may be using a regular phone, the VOIP user either uses a computer or VOIP phone to communicate. The major advantage of VOIP is that it allows the user to make as many phone calls as they like for a fixed price instead of being charged by the minute. This makes a huge cutback on costs for jobs such as telephone marketing that require making many phone calls for hours every day. VOIP can become low-cost or toll-free for people who are using only the internet to communicate. If both or all users are using the internet to communicate, VOIP becomes a way of talking or conferencing without having to pay any additional fee apart from the regular fee for internet.

Reduced Wiring Costs

Using VOIP can also minimize building wiring costs in new or renovated buildings due to reduced wire infrastructure. Instead of using many cable systems such as data networking, telephone connections, and cable distribution, VOIP makes it possible to rely on less cabling costs in terms of maintenance as well as initial installment.

Easy Relocation
Anyone who has relocated their job or home knows how difficult it is to switch local phone numbers, not only for them but even more so for others who want to call them. Cell phones have largely helped to solve this problem, but cell phones are one of the costliest methods of common communication. VOIP provides a cheaper solution, since internet is a universal medium. A VOIP instrument can be relocated without central administrative support. With the internet being a global medium, VOIP allows users to communicate from anywhere in the world at one of the lowest costs possible.

Roaming Facility
To use your regular local phone you have to access it from your regular phone line. It would not be possible for you to make a phone call using your local phone line if you are somewhere else using someone else's phone. Here is another problem that VOIP helps us overcome. With VOIP, you can use someone else's phone to use your VOIP connection. Some VOIP systems allow people to walk up to a telephone instrument in any office and dial a couple of numbers on the keypad ("log in"). That telephone then temporarily 22

assumes the configuration of the telephone line in your home office. By assuming your telephone number, your list of speed dial numbers, and your intercom settings, it becomes a temporary substitute for your VOIP phone in your office!

What is an Intranet ?
What is an intranet ?, What's the difference between intranet and internet ? A basic definition of Intranet an Intranet can be viewed as a small Internet which resides on company or private LANs or local area networks. Intranets can be designed and built to suit the needs of all companies or home users, big or small, basic or complex, as in many large corporations which are used to encompass everything from Human Resources information, to Payroll, to service desks to projects. The Internet is quite literally open to everyone with an internet connection, an Intranet usually resides on a LAN or local area network, and as such is totally separate from the Internet.

Intranets operate in a secure area and their content can only be seen by people within the this LAN or secure area. The purpose of an Intranet is to store any information which can be shared amongst. Security on the internet is primarily on the web server itself, as opposed to security on Intranets which can be both web server security or integrated into domain security. Corporate networks generally force you to use proxy servers to connect to the Internet, but not to the Intranet. Generally an Intranet will be faster than the Intranet, due to local servers and less users. Similarities Between Intranet and Internet Both the Intranet and Internet operate on the same technologies, primarily HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) and TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol). Both are there to collectively share information. If youre looking into an Intranet, contact consultants who specialize in developing and implementing Intranets, who will be able to advise you towards taking the next step, where you can learn about the benefits for your business.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in

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one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is applicationspecific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

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Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

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Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

Wi-Fi
The name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi (registered trademark) term specifically defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards. Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space. The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP). The primary job of an access point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. In order to connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be equipped with wireless network adapters (See "How

WiMAX
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a telecommunications protocol that provides fixed and mobile Internet access. The current WiMAX revision provides up to 40 Mbit/s[1][2] with the IEEE 802.16m update expected to offer up to 1 Gbit/s fixed speeds. The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. The forum describes WiMAX[3] as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".[4] 26

Terminology
WiMAX refers to interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.16 wireless-networks standard (ratified by the WiMAX Forum), in similarity with Wi-Fi, which refers to interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN standard (ratified by the Wi-Fi Alliance). The WiMAX Forum certification allows vendors to sell their equipment as WiMAX (Fixed or Mobile) certified, thus ensuring a level of interoperability with other certified products, as long as they fit the same profile. WiMAX is sometimes referred to as "Wi-Fi on steroids"[6] and can be used for a number of applications including broadband connections, cellular backhaul, hotspots, etc. It is similar to Wi-Fi but it can also permit usage at much greater distances. WiMax is more effective on a larger scale and it is more cost-effective because the cost of moving traditional broadband services to the next is more expensive. [1] WiMAX adopted most of its technology from WiBro. However, WiBro is no longer used for terminology since it

Uses
The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:

Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries through a variety of devices. Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for "last mile" broadband access. Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play). Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan.

Connecting to WiMAX

A WiMAX USB modem for mobile internet There are numerous devices on the market that provide connectivity to a WiMAX network. These are known as the "subscriber unit" (SU). There is an increasing focus on portable units. This includes handsets (similar to cellular smartphones); PC peripherals (PC Cards or USB dongles); and embedded devices in laptops, which are now available for Wi-Fi services. In addition, there is much emphasis by operators on consumer electronics devices such as Gaming consoles, MP3 players and 27

similar devices. It is notable that WiMAX is more similar to Wi-Fi than to 3G cellular technologies. The WiMAX Forum website provides a list of certified devices. However, this is not a complete list of devices available as certified modules are embedded into laptops, MIDs (Mobile Internet devices), and other private labeled devices.

[edit] Gateways
WiMAX gateway devices are available as both indoor and outdoor versions from several manufacturers. Many of the WiMAX gateways that are offered by manufactures such as Airspan, ZyXEL, Huawei, Motorola, and Greenpacket are stand-alone self-install indoor units. Such devices typically sit near the customer's window with the best WiMAX signal, and provide:

An integrated Wi-Fi access point to provide the WiMAX Internet connectivity to multiple devices throughout the home or business. Ethernet ports should you wish to connect directly to your computer or DVR instead. One or two PSTN telephone jacks to connect your land-line phone and take advantage of VoIP.

Indoor gateways are convenient, but radio losses mean that the subscriber may need to be significantly closer to the WiMAX base station than with professionally-installed external units. Outdoor units are roughly the size of a laptop PC, and their installation is comparable to the installation of a residential satellite dish. A higher-gain directional outdoor unit will generally result in greatly increased range and throughput but with the obvious loss of practical mobility of the unit.

Dongles
There are a variety of USB dongles on the market which provide connectivity to a WiMAX network. Generally these devices are connected to a notebook or netbook whilst on the go. Dongles typically have omnidirectional antennae which are of lower-gain compared to other devices, as such these devices are best used in areas of good coverage.

[edit] Mobile phones

HTC announced the first WiMAX enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G, on Nov 12th 2008.[13] The device was only available to certain markets in Russia on the Yota network. HTC and Sprint Nextel released the second WiMAX enabled mobile phone, the EVO 4G, March 23, 2010 at the CTIA conference in Las Vegas. The device, made available on June 4, 2010,[14] is capable of both EV-DO(3G) and WiMAX(4G) as well as simultaneous

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data & voice sessions. The device also has a front-facing camera enabling the use of video conversations.[15] A number of WiMAX Mobiles are expected to hit the US market in 2011.

Comparison with Wi-Fi

Comparisons and confusion between WiMAX and Wi-Fi are frequent because both are related to wireless connectivity and Internet access.[25]

WiMAX is a long range system, covering many kilometres, that uses licensed or unlicensed spectrum to deliver connection to a network, in most cases the Internet. Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum to provide access to a local network. Wi-Fi is more popular in end user devices. Wi-Fi runs on the Media Access Control's CSMA/CA protocol, which is connectionless and contention based, whereas WiMAX runs a connectionoriented MAC. WiMAX and Wi-Fi have quite different quality of service (QoS) mechanisms: o WiMAX uses a QoS mechanism based on connections between the base station and the user device. Each connection is based on specific scheduling algorithms. o Wi-Fi uses contention access - all subscriber stations that wish to pass data through a wireless access point (AP) are competing for the AP's attention on a random interrupt basis. This can cause subscriber stations distant from the AP to be repeatedly interrupted by closer stations, greatly reducing their throughput. Both 802.11 (which includes Wi-Fi) and 802.16 (which includes WiMAX) define Peer-to-Peer (P2P) and ad hoc networks, where an end user communicates to users or servers on another Local Area Network (LAN) using its access point or base station. However, 802.11 supports also direct ad hoc or peer to peer networking between end user devices without an access point while 802.16 end user devices must be in range of the base station.

Although Wi-Fi and WiMAX are designed for different situations, they are complementary. WiMAX network operators typically provide a WiMAX Subscriber Unit which connects to the metropolitan WiMAX network and provides Wi-Fi within the home or business for local devices (e.g., Laptops, Wi-Fi Handsets, smartphones) for connectivity. This enables the user to place the WiMAX Subscriber Unit in the best reception area (such as a window), and still be able to use the WiMAX network from any place within their residence.

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Reference:
1. www.howstuffworks.com 2. www.discussionsworld.com 3. www.google.com

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