Eet121 Note 1 3 Module

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA,
MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA
FUTMINNA e-LEARNING
COURSE TITLE
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
COURSE CODE:
EET 121
COURSE UNIT: 1
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Solomon Musa DAUDA (Ph.D.)
Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering
Federal University of Technology, Minna
Niger State, Nigeria
Course Development Team
EET 121: History and Philosophy of Science
Subject Matter Experts Prof N. A. Egharevba

Dr. I. M. Animashaun
Dr. I. A. Kuti
.
Course Coordinator Prof. Nosa Anthony Egharevba

Department of Agricultural and Bioresources
Engineering, FUT Minna, Nigeria.
Instructional System Designers Dr. Murtala Iyanda Animashaun

Dr. Ibrahim Abayomi KUTI
Department of Agricultural and Bioresources
Engineering, FUT Minna, Nigeria.
ODL Experts Prof. Amosa Isiaka Gambari
Language Editors (Names of Editors)
Centre Director Prof. Zinash Delebo OSUNDE

School of Infrastructure, Process Engineering
and Technology, FUT Minna, Nigeria.
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EET 121 Study Guide
Introduction
Welcome to EET 121, History and Philosophy of Science, a foundational course designed for
engineering students at the 100 level. This course is a prerequisite for obtaining your B. Eng
degree and will provide you with a comprehensive overview of the history and philosophy of
science. Throughout the semester, we will cover eighteen units, each of which will be enriched
with practical examples from the local Nigerian environment to help you better understand the
material. There are no compulsory prerequisites for this course, so regardless of your
academic background, you will be able to engage with and benefit from the course material.
The course guide will provide you with an overview of what the course is about and the
materials you will be using. It will also give you some guidance on how to successfully complete
each unit of the course within a recommended timeframe. Additionally, you will find details on
your tutor-marked assignments in a separate 'Assignment File'. Regular tutorials will be held
throughout the course, and we highly recommend that you attend these sessions. Dates and
locations of tutorials are included in the 'Assignment File'.
We are excited to embark on this journey of scientific exploration and discovery with you. By
the end of the semester, you will have gained a deeper understanding of the history and
philosophy of science and how it has shaped our world. So, let's get started and begin our
journey of discovery together
Recommended Study Time
This is a one-credit unit course with 23 study units, and students are advised to spend at least
one hour studying the content of each unit.
What You Are About to Learn in This Course

EET 121, History and Philosophy of Science, aims:
(i) to stimulate students' interest in science by encouraging critical thinking and
(ii) to help students develop a personal philosophy of life to guide their actions.
The course covers the origins and contributions of science, including ancient African
contributions, and explores the impact of scientific knowledge on our lives. The study of the
history and philosophy of science is important to appreciate the advancements made and to
understand how science has evolved. The course culminates in an exploration of the
contributions of Nigerian scientists to motivate students to make their own contributions to
society in their chosen fields.
Course Aims
The course discussed in the previous section has a multifaceted goal that aims to:
(i) broaden your understanding of various disciplines and their interrelationships.
(ii) explore the extent of ancient African contributions to modern technology and
(iii) gain a deeper appreciation for the services of science to humankind and society as
a whole.
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(iv) introduce you to the two schools of thought on the origin of man
(v) help you understand the nature of man, the components of the universe in which
he lives, and how he obtains energy for his activities.
(vi) awaken in you a sense of being a Nigerian, inspiring, and motivating you to think
scientifically and approach challenges with a critical and innovative mindset.
(vii) awaken in you a sense of waste management and environmental sanitation
(viii) equip you with a unique perspective that integrates knowledge from multiple
disciplines and provides a strong foundation for your personal and professional
growth.
Course Objectives
To ensure that the course achieves its overarching goals, specific objectives have been set for
each unit. These objectives will be clearly outlined at the beginning of each unit, and it is
essential to read and understand them before starting your work on the unit. Throughout your
study of each unit, it is necessary to refer to the objectives regularly to check your progress
and ensure that you are on track to meet the goals set out for that unit.
Upon completing each unit, take a moment to glance through the objectives again. This will
allow you to confirm that you have met all the requirements for that unit and have gained the
necessary knowledge and skills. By following this approach, you will have a clear
understanding of what is expected of you at each stage of the course and will be better
equipped to achieve your overall learning objectives. The wider objectives of the course are
provided below, and meeting them will result in achieving the course's aims as a whole.
Successfully completing the course should enable you to:
 state the nature of science
 describe the scientific research process
 Describe the laws of nature and relate them to everyday life
 Discuss well-known scientific theories and the origin of science in ancient times
 Evaluate the state of science during the Middle Ages and events that led to modern
science
 Identify significant scientific advances made in the twentieth century and lost sciences
of Africa
 Recognize the relationship between science and technology and their various uses
 Discuss the positive and negative effects of technological development on society
 Identify fundamental principles and methods of science and discuss different
viewpoints on the origin of man
 Explain the nature of man and identify the various components of the universe
connected with human life and survival
 Outline and evaluate natural resources available to man
 Recognize the contributions of great Nigerian scientists to societal welfare.
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 identify the relationship between science and technology, as well as their various uses
in society.
 discuss the positive and negative effects of technological development on society in an
intelligent manner.
 state the fundamental principles and methods of science to give students a deeper
understanding of the subject.
 Discuss different viewpoints on the origin of man.
 Explain the nature of man, including the various components of the universe in which
man lives and the natural resources available to man.
 Outline and evaluate the natural resources that are available to man.
 recognize the great scientists of Nigerian origin and their contributions to societal
welfare.
Course Materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Text Books
4. Assignment File
5. Presentation Schedule
Study Units
There are 13 study units and 4 Modules in this course. They are:
Man - his origin and Environment
Module one Unit 1 Origin of man

Unit 2 The nature of man
Unit 3 Man, and his cosmic environment
Science and Technology in the society and service of man
Unit 1 Nature and history of science and philosophy

Module Two Unit 2 Science, technology, and inventions
Unit 3 Scientific methodology
Introduction to the various area of science and

Unit 4
technology
Unit 5 Social implications of technological advancement

Man, and his natural resources
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Unit 1 Element of environmental studies
Module Three
Unit 2 Man, and his energy resources
Unit 3 Renewable and non-renewable
Environmental effects of Organic and inorganic wastes
Module Four Unit 1 Effects of chemical plastics
Unit 2 Effects of textiles wastes and radiochemical hazards
Recommended Texts
Menon, R. V. G. (2009). An Introduction to the History and Philosophy of Science. Pearson

Education India. India: Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd
Essien, E. & Egbai, U. O. (2016). History and philosophy of science. Nigeria: Akwa Ibom
State University Press
National Open University of Nigeria (2004). History and philosophy of science. Nigeria: Open
University Press
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Assignment File
The assignment file will be given to you in due course. In this file, you will find all the details of
the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these
assignments will count towards the final mark for the course. Altogether, there are tutor marked
assignments for this course.
Presentation Schedule
The presentation schedule included in this course guide provides you with important dates for
completion of each tutor marked assignment. You should therefore endeavour to meet the
deadlines.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are tutor marked
assignments; and second, the written examination. Therefore, you are expected to take note
of the facts, information and problem solving gathered during the course. The tutor marked
assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment, in accordance to the
deadline given. The work submitted will count for 40% of your total course mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination. This examination
will account for 60% of your total score. You will be required to submit some assignments by
uploading them to EET 121 pages on the u-learn portal.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

There are TMAs in this course. You need to submit all the TMAs. The best 10 will therefore be
counted. When you have completed each assignment, send them to your tutor as soon as
possible and make certain that it gets to your tutor on or before the stipulated deadline. If for
any reason you cannot complete your assignment on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due to discuss the possibility of extension. Extension will not be granted after
the deadline, unless on extraordinary cases.
Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for EET 121 will last for a period of 1 hour and has a value of 60% of the
total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the Self-Assessment
Exercises and tutor marked assignments that you have previously encountered. Furthermore,
all areas of the course will be examined. It would be better to use the time between finishing
the last unit and sitting for the examination, to revise the entire course. You might find it useful
to review your TMAs and comment on them before the examination. The final examination
covers information from all parts of the course.
Practical Strategies for Working Through This Course

1. Read the course guide thoroughly
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more details. Note the time
you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignment relates to the units.
Important details, e.g. details of your tutorials and the date of the first day of the semester
are available. You need to gather together all these information in one place such as a
diary, a wall chart calendar or an organizer. Whatever method you choose, you should
decide on and write in your own dates for working on each unit.
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3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The
major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course works. If you get
into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the learning outcomes for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
table of content at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study
unit you are working on and one of the materials recommended for further readings, on
your desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit, the content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a
sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you will be encouraged to read
from your set books
7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments carefully. They have
been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and will help you pass the
examination.
8. Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them.
9. If you are not certain about any of the objectives, review the study material and consult
your tutor.
10. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can start on the
next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
can keep yourself on schedule.
11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return
before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor marked assignment form
and also written on the assignment. Consult you tutor as soon as possible if you have any
questions or problems.
12. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this course guide).
Tutors and Tutorials

There are few hours of tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the
dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as
you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments,
keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties, you might encounter and provide
assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor marked assignment to your tutor
well before the due date. At least two working days are required for this purpose. They will be
marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone or e-mail if you need help. The following
might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary: contact your tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise.
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 You have questions or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity to have face to face
contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the course
tutorials, have some questions handy before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating actively in discussions.
GOODLUCK!
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Table of Contents
Course Development Team………………………………………………………………iI
Study Guide……………………………………………………………………………….iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………......x
Module One: Man - his origin and Environment ……………………………………..1
Unit 1: Man, and his origin ……...………………………………………………………... .2
Unit 2: The nature of man …………..……………………………………………………..12
Unit 3: Man, and his cosmic environment………….…………………………………….20
Module Two: Science and Technology in the society and service of man …….……28
Unit 1: Nature and history of science and philosophy ……………………………......29
Unit 2: Science, technology, and inventions ………. ……………………………......37
Unit 3: Scientific Methodology …………………………………………………..............45
Unit 4: Social implications of technological advancement…………….……………….51
Module Three: Man, and his natural resources ..…………………………………...56
Unit 1: Element of environmental studies ….……………………………………………57
Unit 2: Man, and his energy resources ...………………………………………............60
Module Four: Environmental effects of wastes…………………………….……...64
Unit 1: Chemical plastics and its effects ….…………………………………………….65
Unit 2: Effects of textiles wastes and other materials …………...............................77
Answer to Self-Assessment Exercises……………………………………………….84
x
Module
Man, his origin and
Environment
Unit 1: Man, and his origin
Unit 2: The nature of man
Unit 3: Man, and his cosmic environment
Unit
Man, and His Origin
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this unit, you will have the ability to:
• engage in discourse regarding the numerous perspectives on the genesis of humanity
• provide an account of the emergence of hominids
• compose concise annotations concerning the catalysts of human evolution
• briefly discuss the proliferation of modern humans.
3.1 Learning Content
3.1 Various views on the origin man
3.2 Origin of hominids
3.3 Factors of human evolution
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
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1.0 Introduction
In this unit, you will learn about the origin of man. Though no theory seems to have gained
general acceptance as relate to topic of the origin of man, this unit will expose you to the theory
of evolution. As we explore this course, we will examine the role of both philosophy and
science in seeking to understand the complexities of our origins. One of the most fundamental
questions we will seek to answer is, "How did this man originate?" It is a query that has puzzled
scholars, scientists, and philosophers for centuries. Through a thorough investigation of the
available evidence, we hope to shed light on the processes and mechanisms that led to our
existence on this planet. We will consider various theories and hypotheses that attempt to
explain the origins of human beings, including evolutionary theory and creationism. Ultimately,
our goal is to gain a deeper understanding of how we came to be and to recognize the
significant contributions of philosophy and science to our understanding of the world around
us. So, buckle up and get ready for an enlightening journey into the mysteries of human
origins.

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the various views on the origin of man.
2. Describe how hominids originated
3. Discuss briefly the diversification of recent

3.1 Various view on the origin of man
As we delve into the origin of man, we encounter two distinct perspectives - the religious view
and the scientific view. While the former attributes the creation of man to a divine being, the
latter relies on empirical evidence to establish the origins of our species. The religious view
posits that man was created by a deity, with many cultures offering their own interpretation of
the creation story. For example, in Christianity, it is believed that God created man in his own
image on the sixth day of creation. Similarly, in Islam, man is believed to have been created
from clay by Allah. The religious view is often based on faith and spiritual beliefs, and it offers
a sense of purpose and meaning to life. On the other hand, the scientific view seeks to explain
the origins of man through empirical evidence and scientific inquiry. The theory of evolution,
proposed by Charles Darwin in the 19th century, posits that all species, including humans,
have evolved over time through the process of natural selection. This theory is based on
observable facts, such as the fossil record and genetic similarities between species. Despite
their differences, both the religious and scientific views offer valuable insights into the origin
of man. While the religious view offers spiritual and moral guidance, the scientific view
provides a framework for understanding the natural world. Ultimately, the choice of which view
to embrace is a matter of personal belief and individual preference.
3.1.1 The Religious View

Science and religion often agree on some view while they differ on others. Philosophy on the
origin of man need to be study from both angles. Studying the origin of man from both views
makes man appreciate of himself and the supreme being. Einstein‟s asserted that “science
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without religion is blind, religion without science is lame”. So, in this sub-section we will look
at the first of the two primary perspectives that have been put forth to explain this fundamental
question: the religious view. The religious view posits that humanity was created by a divine
being or beings, often referred to as God or gods, as part of a larger divine plan. Many different
religious traditions offer their own unique creation stories, such as the Biblical and Qur’anic
account of Adam and Eve or the creation story from the ancient Babylonian religion of Marduk.
These accounts often emphasize the special status of humans as a result of their divine
origins, and they may involve some form of supernatural intervention. As hitherto mentioned,
religious view is upheld by creationist. This view is upheld by the Christian, Muslim and African
traditionist though with variations. The supreme being responsible for creation of man is
variously called God, Allah, Chukwu, Olodumare etc. Interestingly, some of the prominent
naturalist (e.g., the French Scientist Georges Cuvier) rejected the idea of transmutation of
species claimed under scientific view.
3.1.2 The Scientific View
In contrast, the scientific view holds that humanity is the result of a natural, evolutionary
process. Through the accumulation of genetic mutations and natural selection over millions of
years, humans evolved from simpler organisms and developed the cognitive and physical
characteristics that distinguish us from other animals. This perspective relies on empirical
evidence and the scientific method to support its claims, and it has been subject to rigorous
scrutiny and testing. In other word, this particular view is held by those who believe in the
theory of evolution, known as evolutionists. the theory of evolution proposes that all living
things, including humans, have evolved from simpler forms of life through a gradual process
of change. Scientists in various fields, such as paleontology, comparative anatomy,
embryology, and natural history, have provided evidence supporting this evolutionary account
of the origin of man and other creatures. By studying fossils, ancient animal remains and
skeletons, and various plant forms spread over large areas and over a long period of time,
researchers have come to the conclusion that all forms of life have a common origin and that
each form of life has developed at certain periods in the evolution of the entirety of life forms.
Charles Darwin, who is often credited with giving explicit formulation to the theory of evolution,
proposed that every living thing struggles to exist and that in order to exist, both food and a
favourable environment are essential. Only living things with characteristics that enable them
to feed on available food and survive the effects of the environment can continue their line of
development or evolution to a higher form.
In the struggle for existence, no two living things, such as animals, are exactly alike. As a
result, we find that some are better suited to the environment than others. If the adaptable
variations, traits, or characteristics are inherited, then evolution will proceed through their
natural selection, and the fittest will survive. In other words, evolution involves a struggle for
survival, and only the fittest can survive in that struggle. Overall, the theory of evolution
presents a compelling scientific explanation for the origin of man and other forms of life, and
its continued study and research promises to shed further light on our understanding of the
natural world.
It is remarkable to note that in the struggle for survival, man is aided by his inherent capacity
for physical, psychological, and spiritual change. Through various forms of physical,
intellectual, and spiritual nourishment, man can transform himself and his environment.
Darwin's wealth of information also led him to propose that man and higher primates originated
from Africa. Prior to this, earlier evolutionists believed that man originated from central Asia.
Around 85 years after Darwin's proposal, fossil evidence was discovered to confirm that he
was correct, and that it was in the continent of Africa where the basic stock that eventually
gave rise to apes and humans emerged.
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According to evolution, man evolved from apes, including monkeys, gibbons, gorillas, and
chimpanzees. Among the apes, the pre-human that had tools were the Australopithecus
africanus and Arubustus discovered by Raymond Dart near Kimberly in South Africa. The
main ancestors of man are the Homo habilis, which had small hairs with a small supraorbital
ridge, developed neck and forehead, and jaws. Language and rudimentary culture started with
them, and they also introduced the use of tools.
From Homo habilis, the Homo erectus evolved, which was first discovered in Java in 1893 and
later in Beijing in 1970. Its more developed neck allowed for its head to be held upright. It had
a more elongated forehead and a more developed nose than that of Homo habilis, and it was
capable of fashioning advanced tools and controlling fire.
From Homo erectus evolved the Homo sapiens (Neanderthal), which looked very much like
modern man. The supraorbital ridge and jawbone were smaller than in previous species but
still larger than that of modern man. From Homo sapiens, the Homo sapiens sapien (modern
man) evolved. The brain and other organs were more developed due to extensive usage.
Let's take a break and come back to discuss these groups in more detail in the subsequent
discussion.
Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 1
1. The views on the creation of man are classified as …… and ………….
2. People that uphold the religious view of the origin of man and the scientific view are
called (a) …………. and b) ……respectively.
3. The pre-humans that had tools were the (a) ---------------------- and (b) --------------- and
were discovered by (c) -------------------
4. Homo erectus was discovered first in Java in the year (a)--------------------
5. The main ancestors of man are the……….
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3.2 Origin of hominids
Australopithecus afarensis is the best-known species among these hominids, and the most
famous fossil specimen is the Lucy skeleton, discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. Lucy lived about
3.2 million years ago and is considered an important discovery because of the completeness
of her skeleton. A. africanus, on the other hand, was discovered in South Africa and is believed
to have lived between 3 and 2 million years ago. A. boisei and A. robustus are known for their
large jaw and teeth, which were well-suited for chewing tough plant materials. The emergence
of Homo habilis marks a significant milestone in the evolution of hominids. The fossils of this
species, which lived between 2.3 and 1.4 million years ago, are associated with the earliest
known stone tools. Homo habilis had a brain size that was larger than Australopithecus and a
more human-like body structure. Homo erectus, which lived between 1.9 million and 250,000
years ago, was the first hominid species to migrate out of Africa and colonize other parts of
the world.
Neanderthals, a species of the Homo sapiens group, lived in Europe and Western Asia
between 400,000 and 40,000 years ago. They had a robust build, large nose and braincase,
and a heavy brow ridge. Although they are often depicted as primitive, recent studies have
shown that Neanderthals were capable of using tools, language, and engaging in symbolic
behavior. The modern human, Homo sapiens sapiens, emerged about 200,000 years ago in
Africa and eventually replaced other hominid species, including the Neanderthals, through a
combination of environmental and cultural factors. A number of hominids were discovered
but many three features are common in many, which are:
1. Pedalism - ability to stand on two legs

2. Omnivorous feeding behaviour
3. Brain expansion and elaboration.
These early humans were found only in Eastern and Southern Africa. For simplicity and to
lay more emphasis, each of these is briefly described below.
Fig 3.1: Reconstruction of an adult female Australopithecus
Australopithecus africanus: This species was discovered in 1924 by Raymond Dart in South
Africa. It lived between 3 and 2 million years ago, and was slightly more evolved than the A.
afarensis. The brain was larger, the face was flatter, and the jaw was less protruding. They
had a bipedal posture and walked upright, although they still had some adaptations for
climbing trees. The body size was similar to A. afarensis, but the bones were more robust,
suggesting greater strength.
Australopithecus boisei: This species lived between 2.3 and 1.4 million years ago, and was
first discovered in 1959 by Mary Leakey in Tanzania. They were known for their large, robust
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skulls and powerful jaws, which were adapted for chewing tough, fibrous vegetation. Their
brain size was similar to that of A. afarensis, but their teeth and jaws were much larger and
stronger. They had a bipedal posture, but their legs were shorter and more heavily built than
those of later hominids.
Australopithecus robustus: This species lived between 2 and 1.5 million years ago, and was
discovered in 1938 by Robert Broom in South Africa. They had a skull and jaw that were even
more robust than A. boisei, and were adapted for a similar diet of tough, fibrous vegetation.
They had a bipedal posture, but their legs were shorter and more heavily built than those of
later hominids.
All of these species of Australopithecus were important in the evolution of hominids, as they
exhibited key features of bipedalism, omnivorous feeding behavior, and brain expansion. They
also paved the way for the emergence of the Homo genus and the eventual evolution of
modern humans.
Australopithecus boisei and Australopithecus robustus. These last two

appeared in East Africa. Fossils of s pecimens showed large flat teeth and jaws.
The limb skeleton was like those of the early Australopithecus but their brains and
bodies were slightly bigger. There is evidence to show that a form of A. robustus had
stone tools and fingers and thumbs to use them.
Fig 3.2 Comparison of size and stature of australopiths with modern humans.
Succeeding these groups of hominids is a new type of hominid whose first member is the
genus Homo to which man belongs. There are four species in this genus namely: Homo
habilis, H. erectus, H. sapiens (archaic) and H. sapiens (modern).
1. Homo habilis had a body that was well-adapted for climbing and walking, and it had
a relatively larger brain and smaller teeth than its Australopithecus ancestors. This
combination of physical and cognitive features allowed H. habilis to make and use
stone tools for a range of tasks, from butchering meat to digging up tubers. The
development of tool use and butchering skills likely had a significant impact on H.
habilis' diet and lifestyle, as it allowed them to access new sources of food and live in
a wider range of environments. H. habilis may have also lived in groups, which would
have allowed for more efficient hunting and sharing of resources. Despite its many
advances, H. habilis was still limited in its abilities compared to modern humans. For
example, it lacked the ability to create fire and had limited language skills. However,
H. habilis' legacy lives on in its descendants, as its tool-making abilities paved the
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way for even more advanced tool use in subsequent hominid species.
2. Homo erectus was a significant step in human evolution. They were larger than their
predecessors and had a more developed brain, which enabled them to make advanced
tools and travel long distances. The face and teeth of H. erectus decreased in size and
massiveness, while the brain increased in size. This led to refined tool making,
including the production of carefully fashioned hand axes and scrapers. H. erectus
used these tools for various activities such as food preparation, clearing of bushes,
cutting meat, scrapping hides, digging and cutting wood. They were also the first
humans to have evidence of using fire for cooking and warmth. The discovery of fire
allowed them to live in colder regions and to cook their food, which increased the
nutritional value of their diet.
H. erectus lived for a long period, during which they underwent evolutionary changes,
including the development of refined tools, reduced face and teeth size, and an
increase in brain size. However, they were eventually replaced by our own species,
Homo sapiens, in Africa about 500,000 years ago and in Asia about 250,000 years
ago.
3. Modern human beings (Homo sapiens)
There are two groups of the species:
(a) An early group known as achaic Homo sapiens consisting of
the well-known Neandertals (Neanderthals) among others.
(b) A later group - Homo sapiens which were physically
indistinguishable from modern humans.
Cro-Magnons: H. sapiens - Cro-Magnons were the first anatomically modern humans to

appear in Europe about 40,000 years ago. They were taller and more gracile than the
Neanderthals with less prominent brow ridges, smaller faces and chins. They also had larger
brains than the Neanderthals. Cro-Magnons created a variety of tools for different purposes
such as spear throwers, fish hooks and needles for sewing clothing. They also produced art
and artifacts, such as cave paintings, jewelry and carvings, which were important forms of
expression.
Cro-Magnons (modern homo sapiens) also had complex social structures and lived in groups.
They had an advanced language system, and their communication allowed for the
development of more sophisticated tools and the sharing of knowledge. They had the ability
to adapt to new environments, which allowed them to expand their range beyond Europe and
into Asia, Australia and the Americas. Their art and culture flourished during the Upper
Paleolithic period, which saw the development of more complex tools, weapons and art. They
were successful hunters and gatherers, but also began to domesticate animals and cultivate
crops, leading to the development of agriculture. With their advanced tools and weapons, Cro-
Magnons were able to outcompete the Neanderthals, and eventually became the dominant
human species on the planet.
8
Self-Assessment Exercise(s) 2
1. ……. were the first humans to have evidence of using fire for
cooking and warmth
2. ……….. had complex social structures and lived in groups.
3. ……………… ability to adapt to new environments, which
allowed them to expand their range beyond Europe and into
Asia, Australia and the Americas.
3.3 Factors of human evolution

The evolutionary development of man from an ape-like primate was
marked by four important factors, namely:
1. The growth and elaboration of the brain;

2. The perfection of erect posture;
3. A slowing down of postnatal development; and
4. The growth in human population.
These four factors of human evolution will be considered.
This increase in brain size and development has allowed humans to innovate, communicate,
and cooperate at a level unparalleled by any other animal. Humans have been able to create
complex social structures, invent technology, develop language, and create works of art and
culture. The evolution of the human brain has not only allowed us to survive and thrive in
changing environments but also to explore the universe and unravel the mysteries of the
natural world. As we continue to evolve, it is possible that our mental and physical capabilities
will expand even further, leading to even greater achievements and advancements.
In addition, the growth of intelligence has also led to the development of culture and the ability
to transmit knowledge from one generation to another. This has allowed for the accumulation
of knowledge and the building of civilizations. Man has been able to develop complex social
systems, create art, music, literature, and engage in various forms of religious and
philosophical thought.
Moreover, the growth of intelligence has given man the ability to manipulate his environment
on a grand scale. He has been able to harness the power of fire, invent machines, and develop
technologies that have enabled him to travel beyond the earth's atmosphere. The intellect has
also enabled man to understand the workings of the natural world and to develop theories that
explain the origin and nature of the universe. All these achievements have been made possible
by the remarkable growth of the human brain, which has allowed man to become the dominant
species on earth. However, this growth has also brought with it challenges such as the ability
to use this power responsibly and to avoid the destruction of the very environment that
sustains us.
The changes in the spinal column also brought about other changes in the body of man. For
instance, the rib cage became more flattened from front to back, instead of being deep and
cylindrical as it is in apes. This change allowed the lungs to expand more fully and take in
more air, which in turn increased the supply of oxygen to the brain, enhancing the intellectual
capacity of man. Additionally, the pelvic bone became broader and shorter, providing greater
stability and support for the body while standing upright, walking and running. The legs also
became longer, allowing for faster and more efficient movement on the ground. All these
9
changes in the skeletal system have contributed to the success of man as a tool-making,
curious and adaptable animal.
The extended period of childhood and adolescence in humans also allows for cultural
transmission from generation to generation. Parents can pass down knowledge, skills, and
beliefs to their offspring, leading to the development of complex cultures and societies.
This cultural transmission, along with the ability to communicate through language, has
allowed humans to build upon the knowledge of previous generations and to continually
progress and innovate. This has resulted in the creation of advanced technologies, the
development of agriculture, and the establishment of organized societies with
governments, laws, and economies. The prolonged period of maturation in humans,
therefore, has played a significant role in the evolution of our species and our dominance
over other animals.
Within the last few thousand years, man has increased tremendously population
wise. The progression from family to clan to tribe to nation and continents was in
quick succession as the years rolled by. This trend of human evolution has depended on
the social behaviour of man first developed within the family group. It has been made
possible by man’s capacity for co-operation and by his realisation of the necessity for
restraint in his behaviour. Knowledge of the growth in human population is important for
modern world as well as world of the future. Man’s social relationship together with
other intangible physical aspects of evolution has made him unique among the other
primates, has made him a being with a culture.
Self-Assessment Exercise 4
1. Differentiate between the different types of hominids and mention the period in which
the existed
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit we have discussed the origin of man. Two popular accounts of the origin of
man were discussed and these were the creationist and the evolutionist accounts. The
evolutionist view or account was then discussed in details.
5.0 Summary
You have learnt in this unit the following:
1. Two views on the origin of man are the religious or creationist view and the scientific or
the evolutionist view.
2. The three features that are common in many hominids are Pedalism, Omnivorous
feeding behaviour and Brain expansion and elaboration
3. The earliest known hominids were the members of the genus Australopithecus
4. They were succeeded by the early Homo - H. habilis. These were omnivorous and had larger
brain. These were the first known representative of the human lineage. They used simple tools
and showed some social development.
5. Later on came the Homo erectus, which had larger brain than their predecessors.
6. They lived by gathering, scavenging and sometimes hunting. They were the first humans
to use fire and to live at times in caves. These were replaced by our species, Homo sapiens
10
about 500,000 years ago in Africa and about 250,000 years ago in Asia. Full human forms
that is Homo sapien sapiens evolved about 40,000 years ago and formed societies that
increased greatly in complexity especially with the development of agriculture.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

1. Write short notes on (a) Homo Habilis (b) Cro-Magnons
2. Discuss the growth and elaboration of the brain as a factor in human evolution

Modern human origin retrieved at https://www.modernhumanorigins.com/sapiens.html
University Press
11
Unit
The Nature of Man
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.1 Man’s nature
3.2 Reproductive cell
3.3 Chromosomes
3.4 Sex determination
3.5 Twins
3.6 Heredity and environment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
12
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will delve into the intriguing topic of the nature of man. As you may recall
from our previous unit, there were two contrasting views on the origin of man - religious
and scientific. In this unit, we will shift our focus to exploring the inherent characteristics
and qualities that make us human. Throughout history, philosophers and scientists have
tried to uncover the mysteries of human nature. This unit aims to provide you with a deeper
understanding of human nature, its complexities, and its defining features.

1. Describe the essential characteristics of man
2. Identify the innate qualities of human beings
3. Compare and contrast different theories on human nature
4. Analyze how human nature influences behavior, thoughts, and emotions
5.
6. Discuss how twins are produced and how the environment modifies inherited traits

3.1 Man’s Nature
Man like any other living things has life. He exhibits the characteristics of living things and
dies. In addition, man reasons, communicates with his fellow men through speech and
other forms of communication and produces the means of his subsistence in a
manner far beyond what any other animal can do. Man has attained the highest level
of cultural and intellectual development unthinkable for any other living being. These
have enabled man to become master of the created beings in the universe. Thus, what
distinguishes man and places him high above all other earthly and visible creatures is
his infinite capacity to create. The abundance of his creative capacity is seen in the
massive and profound systems of thought art, technology, morals, religion, law, society,
e.t.c, which he has created. It is also seen in the wonders of the interplanetary
intercourse he has initiated, the invisible forms of communication of the computer age,
his destructive capacity, i.e., ability to destroy himself, all forms of life and all that man
has created, within a split second.
All living beings, including man, are composed of cells, i.e., the basic unit of life. Man
is made up of the most complex type of cell structure. There are six kinds of
specialized cells in man.
Each of these cell types plays a crucial role in the functioning of the human body, and
they work together to enable the various bodily processes that keep us alive and
healthy. In addition to these specialized cells, man also has a highly developed brain,
which is responsible for our ability to think, reason, and create. The combination of our
complex cell structure and advanced brain function sets us apart from all other living
beings on earth, and enables us to achieve incredible feats of creativity and innovation.
The specialised cells are:
(a) Bone or connective tissues cells
These include all supportive structures of the body including the bones and cartilages. It
is responsible for supporting and connecting different parts of the body, such as bone,
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cartilage, and blood vessels.
(b) Muscle cells

Muscle cells are the fleshy parts of the body which expand and contract and thereby
enable other parts of the body to function or move. In other word, they are responsible for
movement and contraction in the body.
(c) Nerve cells:
The nerve system is responsible for transmitting signals between different parts of the
body. The body's nervous system can be likened to a complex web of telephone wires, with
each nerve acting as a conductor of vital information. Just like how phone lines connect
different parts of a city, nerves connect various parts of the body, enabling communication
and coordination. Think of the brain as the nerve center, the hub that controls and
coordinates all the functions of the body. The brain sends out signals to the muscles through
one set of nerves, while another set of nerves transmit sensory information from the body
back to the brain. Each nerve cell, also known as a neuron, acts like a miniature telephone
exchange, receiving and transmitting messages to its neighboring cells. The cell body of a
neuron contains the nucleus and other vital organelles, while the long filaments called axons
and dendrites extend outwards to connect with other neurons.In essence, the nervous
system is like a massive communication network that enables our body to react to external
stimuli, regulate internal functions, and interact with the world around us. Without it, we
would be unable to move, think, or even fee
(d) Blood cells:

These cells are responsible for carrying oxygen, nutrients, and immune cells
throughout the body.
(e) Germ cells, sex cells or reproductive cells:

These cells are responsible for reproduction and passing genetic information to
offspring. The two cells involved in this are the male gamete (or sperm) and the female
gamete (the egg or ovum)
(f) Epithelial cells or skin cells:

This is responsible for lining the surfaces of the body, such as the skin and internal
organs. This consist of three types namely: epithelium, endothelium and mesothelium.
The cells are also known as the "first line of defense," which play a crucial role in protecting
the body from harmful outside elements. They act as a barrier against bacteria, viruses,
and other pathogens, preventing them from entering the body and causing harm. In
addition to their protective function, epithelial tissues are also responsible for regulating
the exchange of substances between the body and the environment. For example, in the
lungs, epithelial cells help to transfer oxygen from the air we breathe into the bloodstream,
while also removing carbon dioxide. But perhaps one of the most fascinating roles of
epithelial tissues is their involvement in the body's metabolic processes. In the liver, for
example, specialized epithelial cells called hepatocytes work tirelessly to break down and
metabolize a wide range of substances, including toxins and drugs, as well as excess
hormones and cholesterol.
The liver can be thought of as a complex chemical factory, where hepatocytes work
together to produce energy, synthesize new proteins, and detoxify harmful substances.
This remarkable ability to transform and process a wide range of substances is what
makes the liver such a vital organ, and underscores the importance of epithelial tissues in
maintaining overall health and well-being.
14
The kidneys are truly remarkable organs, responsible for maintaining the body's delicate
balance of fluids and electrolytes, while also filtering out waste products and toxins from
the blood. Like tiny filtering plants, the kidneys are made up of millions of microscopic units
called nephrons, each of which contains a specialized filter known as the glomerulus. As
blood flows through the glomerulus, waste products and excess fluids are filtered out, while
important nutrients and electrolytes are retained. The filtered waste products and excess
fluids then travel through a series of tubes and collecting ducts, where they are
concentrated into urine and ultimately excreted from the body. But the kidneys do much
more than just filter out waste products. They also play a crucial role in regulating blood
pressure, producing hormones that stimulate the production of red blood cells, and
maintaining the body's acid-base balance. In fact, the kidneys are so important to overall
health and well-being that the body has not one, but two of these vital organs, located on
either side of the spine, just below the ribcage. So, the next time you think of the kidneys
as just simple filtering plants, remember their incredible complexity and the vital role they
play in keeping the body functioning properly.
1. Outline four characteristics which man has in common with other animals.
2. Mention the six kinds of specialized cells in man.
3.2 Reproductive cell

The seed or egg of reproduction is a remarkable cell, responsible for the birth of new
organisms. When combined with the father's spermatozoa, a new life begins. Dr. William
Harvey was the first to show that every living thing comes from the union of the sperm and
egg. Anton Van Leeuwenhoe (1632 - 1723), was a Dutch naturalist who made a detailed study
of the spermatozoa. He showed that the meeting of the male sperm and the female egg is a
critical stage in the starting of a new life. The nucleus of the father's sperm must hit the nucleus
of the mother's ovum for fertilization to occur. Embryologists study the development of life from
the point of fertilization. They have shown that the development of an individual creature
appears to resemble that of its ancestors in the long course of evolution. Thus, the study of
embryology provides valuable insights into the origins and development of life on Earth.
The embryo of man is first a single cell, like a protozon, then a cluster of cells together,
like some of the little water creatures, then a folded-in ball, like a jelly - fish, and
so on, until a backbone appears and four limbs borne out well- developed tail. It
never looks like an actual fish, but goes through a stage of looking like the embryo of
a fish, and another stage of looking like the embryo of a quadriped.
3.3 Chromosomes (Carriers of Hereditary Materials)

Within the nucleus of each reproductive cell lies a group of 46 chromosomes. These
chromosomes, each containing several genes, play a crucial role in the process of heredity,
which determines the mental and physical traits, abilities, and illnesses that are passed down
from parents to children. At the heart of this process lies deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which
is responsible for controlling the form and function of cells and tissues in each individual.
Composed of giant molecules with unique characteristics, DNA transmits hereditary
characteristics and builds proteins, allowing for the regulation of cell function and cooperation
among different cells.
As cells multiply, they form an exact copy of the original chromosomes, enabling the correct
development of each part of the body. The 46 chromosomes are arranged in pairs of 23, with
15
each pair containing one chromosome from the father and one from the mother. Thus, a
person's traits and characteristics are influenced equally by their father and mother.
Ultimately, the intricate interplay between chromosomes, DNA, and cell function determines
the physical and mental makeup of each individual, highlighting the importance of heredity in
shaping the unique qualities that make us who we are.
The other major influence on a person’s character is the society and its culture.
Imagine if every person on Earth had a unique genetic code, just like a fingerprint. That's
essentially what happens when sex cells combine to create a new life. Even though each
person has 46 chromosomes, the way they're paired up is totally random. This means
that there are billions of possible combinations of chromosomes that can occur, making it
extremely unlikely that any two siblings will have the exact same genetic makeup, except
for identical twins.
This process of random chromosome selection happens in both males and females, so it
is not just a matter of one parent's genes dominating over the other's. The result is that
every child is a unique individual, with their own set of strengths, weaknesses, and traits.
It is truly amazing to think about the incredible complexity and diversity of life that results
from such a seemingly simple process. The next time you look at your siblings, or your
own children, take a moment to appreciate the incredible uniqueness of each and every
one of us.
1. The cell responsible for the birth of new organisms is called (a)----------and it has (b)
number of chromosomes.
2. The father’s reproductive or sex cell is called (a) ------------ while the mother’s
cell is called (b) --.
3. Why are brothers and sisters from the same family never exactly alike?
3.4 Sex determination

Are you a male or female? How do you think your sex was determined?
Read on and you will get the answer.
One chromosome in each pair of chromosomes is sex chromosome while the rest of
the 22 cells are autosomes. In a female, this pair chromosomes are alike and may be
designed as x and x chromosomes (i.e., xx). In the case of male they are different, designed
as x and y (i.e.-y). At conception one pair is eliminated. In the case of the female, the one
that - is retained will always be x while in the case of the male it could be x y. If x female
unites with x male (xx) then a girl results. If x female unites with male (x y) then a boy results.
So the sex of a child from this union is a matter of chance, it is the father’s sex cell, which
determines the sex of the child. This is illustrated in figure 3.1.
16
Fig. 3.1 Source: Robert (1971)
This shows that it is the man who determines the sex of the child. The woman always
produces x - type gametes whereas the man produces the equal numbers of x- and y-
type gametes. If an x-type sperm fuses with the egg, the child is female xx whereas if y-
type sperm fuses with the egg, the child is male xy. Our culture tends to criticize a
woman who produces no sons. It is clear this criticism I totally unjustified as it is the
man who in the main determines the sex of the child.
3.5 Twins
Have you ever wondered about the science behind twins? How is it that two individuals
can look so similar or be born at the same time? Well, it all comes down to the way in
which they are formed.
Twins can be classified as fraternal or identical, depending on the way in which they are
conceived. In the case of fraternal twins, it means that the mother released two female sex
cells at one time for the month in which conception occurred. Each egg was joined or
fertilized by separate male sex cells, resulting in two separate fertilized eggs. And so, two
lives were initiated at the same time, both of whom have their own placenta.
Fraternal twins are no closer to each other than any two brothers or sisters. Hereditary
characteristics of fraternal offspring are different, which means they may be both boys or
both girls, or one boy and one girl. Recent studies show the possibilities of fraternal twins
having different father. Superfecundation is the process of two or more ova from the same
cycle by sperm from separate acts of sexual intercourse and can lead to twin babies from
two separate biological father and the scientific term for such anomaly is heteropaternal
superfecundation. Though, it is a very rare case and not up to 20 cases have been reported
worldwide.
On the other hand, identical twins are formed when a single fertilized egg divides at the
blastocyst stage, creating two separate embryos that develop within a single placenta.
Identical twins are mirror images of each other and have very similar hereditary
characteristics. They are always the same sex, both boys or both girls. It is interesting to
note that fraternal twins are more common than identical ones. In fact, fraternal twins make
up 75% of all twin pregnancies while identical ones constitute 25%. So, the next time you
see a set of twins, you'll know a little more about how they came to be
3.6 Heredity and Environment

A child is like a canvas, with genetics as the paintbrush that creates the basic features,
17
but it is the environment and societal culture that adds colour, texture, and depth to the
canvas. Before birth, the environment and home surroundings create the background,
setting the tone for the child's upbringing. As the child grows and develops, the home,
school, parents, peers, church, and other influences continue to add to the canvas,
shaping the character and personality of the child.
Heredity lays the foundation for the canvas, providing the basic physical features that are
inherited from the parents. These include the colour of hair, the shape of the face, the
general body build, and the colour of the eyes. However, these traits are not set in stone,
and can still be modified by the environment and societal culture. As the child matures,
the canvas takes on a life of its own, with the offspring making mature decisions and
choices that ultimately determine their personality. The canvas becomes a masterpiece,
with the influence of the environment and societal culture adding depth and complexity to
the child's character. In the end, it is not just genetics that shapes who we are, but the
combination of both nature and nurture. Genetics may lay the foundation, but it is the
environment and societal culture that add the finishing touches to the canvas, creating a
unique masterpiece that is each individual person.
1. The female and male sex chromosomes can be designated as (a) ----------and(b)
respectively.
2. Which sex cell determines the sex of the child?
3. Two types of twins are (a) ------------ and (b) --------------
4. Characteristics which a child may inherit from the parents include (a)…………….
(b)………………and (c)…………….
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit we have discussed the general characteristic of man. The unit has given us
information on the cell responsible for the birth of new organisms, the material responsible
for whatever we inherit from our parents. It has also given us information on how sex is
determined, how twins are produced and finally the interrelationship between the environment
and the characters we inherit from our parents.
5.0 Summary
1. What distinguishes man and places him high above all other earthly and visible
creatures is his infinite capacity to create.
2. Six kinds of specialised cells in man which are
(a) skin cells called epithelium tissues
(a) bone or connective tissue cells
(c) muscle cells
(d) blood cells
(e) nervous tissue cells
(f) reproductive cells
3. Reproductive cell which is responsible for the birth of new organisms and it has 46
chromosomes.
4. The chromosomes are the carriers of the hereditary materials. The hereditary
18
materials or determinants of heredity are called the genes.
5. The father’s sex cell determines the sex of the child
6. Twins may be fraternal or identical
7. Inherited traits may be modified by the environment and societal Culture
.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Write short notes on the following (a) Reproductive cell (b) Chromosomes (c) Sex
determination

Nwala, T. U. (1997) ‘Man: His origin and Nature’ in: Nwala, T. U. (ed.) History and
philosophy of science, Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, Nsukka.
Roberts, M.B. V. (1971) Biology - A Functional Approach. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd,
Middlesex.
19
Unit
Man, and His Cosmic
Environment
Contents
1.0 Introduction
3.1 Man and his cosmic environment
3.2 Theories of cosmology and cosmology
3.3 The cosmic environment
3.4 The earth
3.5 The solar system
3.6 Galaxies and measurement of distances in space
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
20
1.0 Introduction
In unit 2, where we discussed the nature of man, we mentioned that man reasons, and
that what distinguishes him and places him high above all other earthly and visible
creatures is his infinite capacity to create. This creative ability is seen in the massive
and profound systems of thought, a n Module 3, Unit 5, we explored the nature of man
and how his infinite capacity to create distinguishes him from all other earthly
creatures. This creative ability is evident in the vast systems of thought, art,
technology, and more that he has developed. It is also evident in his ability to explore
and connect with the wider universe through interplanetary communication and travel.
This unit will delve deeper into this aspect of man's creative ability and explore the
intricate relationship between man and the universe surrounding him. By achieving
these objectives, you will gain a deeper appreciation for the significance of man's
creative ability and his ability to connect with and explore the wider universe. art,
technology etc. which he has created. It can also be seen in the wonders of
interplanetary intercourse he has initiated. This last fact is what this unit will explain
fully among other things. It will explain to us the between man and the entire universe
surrounding him. After studying this unit, you are expected to have achieved the
objectives listed below.

1. Explain the cosmos and the cosmic environment
2. Describe the theory of cosmology
3. Discuss about the rotation and revolution of the earth
4. Identify the components of the solar system and its relations to Galaxies
5. discuss measurement of distance in space

3.1 Man and His Cosmic Environment
It may interest you to know that the cosmos is the world or the universe, regarded
as one orderly system with a structure, whose parts are linked together in an orderly
manner. Both philosophy and astronomy study the structure of the universe.
Cosmology is the area of study (in both disciplines) concerned with the structure
of the universe.
Cosmology therefore is,
1. The branch of philosophy, which studies the structure of the universe. It deals with
its origin and general structure, its parts, elements, laws. It focuses on such
characteristics of the universe as space, time, causality and freedom.
2. Also, the branch of astronomy, which deals with the general structure and evolution
of the universe. It studies the composition extent and origins of the universe and
its various components.
The branch of philosophy which deals with the evolution and origin of the universe
is called cosmogony
21
3.2 The Theories of Cosmology and Cosmology
Charles Darwin's natural selection theory, first introduced in his ground breaking books "On
the Origin of Species" and "The Descent of Man," remains one of the most influential scientific
theories of all time. Darwin's observations of competition and survival among species led him
to reason that weaker and diseased life forms die off, allowing stronger and more virulent
organisms to evolve over time.
In "The Descent of Man," Darwin postulated that humans must have evolved from a single-
celled organism through a long process of evolution. However, the theory of evolution does
not provide a clear explanation for the origin of the first single-celled organism or the
emergence of life from non-living matter.
Furthermore, the theory of evolution cannot explain the transition from the plant world to the
animal world or the emergence of human beings. It also does not account for the future
evolution of human beings or why other apes and monkeys have not evolved into human
beings.
Despite these limitations, Darwin's theory of natural selection remains a cornerstone of
modern biology and continues to shape our understanding of the natural world
Besides the Big Bang theory, there is a multitude of other scientific and cosmological theories
The account of creation of the universe and man in the Christian bible, called “Creationism”,
came from the Hebrew-Jewish background and culture; Evolutionism, the Big Bang theory
and other theories in modern physics and astronomy come from the Euro-American
background and culture. We also present here cosmogonies (stories of creation) from the
African background and culture. The plethora of accounts of creation of the universe increases
the problematic question regarding the correct or true theory of how the universe and man
began. Christians maintain the theory of creationism based on belief in the Bible. Some others
do not subscribe to any of these theories.
3.2.1 The Big Bang Theory
The universe as we know it is a product of a cosmic explosion, the big bang. This theory,
which suggests that the universe started from a single point and has been expanding ever
since, was first proposed by Belgian astronomer George Lemaitre in 1927. The big bang is
said to have occurred around 12-15 billion years ago and created everything we see today -
from galaxies and stars to black holes and quasars. At the beginning of the universe, all matter
and energy were compressed into a singularity, a point of infinite density and temperature in
zero space. This singularity was so dense that it created infinite gravity, causing space to
curve around it completely. Then, the singularity exploded, resulting in a rapid expansion and
cooling of the universe. Over time, the universe continued to expand and cool, allowing for the
formation of stars and galaxies. The big bang theory remains the most widely accepted
scientific explanation for the origin and evolution of the universe. However, it is still an area of
active research, with scientists exploring new theories and ideas to better understand the
mysteries of the cosmos.
Astronomers assumed that on a sufficiently large scale the universe is homogenous and
isotropic.
22
Homogenous means that the distribution of mass in galaxies or density is uniform throughout
the universe. The universe would appear the same to all observers, regardless of their
location. Isotropic means that it looks the same from all directions.
The Big Bang Theory has been the subject of intense scientific and philosophical debate for
decades. While it is widely accepted that the universe began with a cosmic explosion, there
are still many unanswered questions about what happened before and after this event. Recent
discoveries, such as the "great wall" and clusters of quasars, have cast doubt on the
assumption that the universe is isotropic and homogeneous. One possibility for the fate of the
universe is that it will continue to expand indefinitely, known as an open universe. This would
mean that the universe is infinite, and there would be no end to its expansion. Another
possibility is that the universe will eventually stop expanding and begin to contract, leading to
a "big crunch" scenario. In a closed universe, where the universe is finite, this would be the
inevitable outcome. However, the Big Bang Theory still leaves many questions unanswered.
What was present before the Big Bang? Was there a center of the universe from which
everything expanded? And where did the enormous amount of energy required to create all
the particles of matter in the universe come from? Moreover, how did all the matter and
radiation in the universe get into the singularity in the first place? And how could the universe
have started isotropically and uniformly everywhere? These questions remain a mystery, and
the Big Bang Theory remains more speculative than scientific. Despite these uncertainties,
the Big Bang Theory is still an essential part of our understanding of the universe. It has
provided a framework for explaining the evolution of the universe, from its birth to its current
state. And while there may be gaps in our knowledge, scientists continue to explore and study
the universe, uncovering new mysteries and discovering new insights into the nature of
existence.
3.2.2 The Steady-State Theory The steady-state theory may seem appealing at first glance,
as it suggests a universe that is eternal and unchanging. However, it faces a number of
challenges. One of the key issues with the theory is the fact that it requires new matter to be
created continuously in order to maintain a constant density. This idea is difficult to reconcile
with our current understanding of the laws of physics, which suggest that matter cannot be
created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another. Additionally, observations of
the cosmic microwave background radiation have provided strong evidence in support of the
big bang theory, as they show a pattern of radiation consistent with a universe that started
with a hot, dense state and has been expanding and cooling ever since. While the steady-
state theory may have had some merit as an alternative to the big bang theory at one point in
time, it has largely fallen out of favour among astronomers and cosmologists today.
3.2.3 The Inflation Theory: The theory of inflation proposes that during this short period of
rapid expansion, the universe grew exponentially, increasing its size by a factor of at least
10^26 in a fraction of a second. This expansion was driven by a field called the inflation field,
which was initially stuck in a high-energy state. As the universe cooled down, the inflation field
decayed, releasing a tremendous amount of energy and causing the universe to rapidly
expand. This theory solves some of the problems with the standard Big Bang theory, such as
the horizon problem and the flatness problem. The horizon problem arises because, according
to the Big Bang theory, different regions of the universe should not be able to communicate
with each other due to their large distances, yet the universe appears to be homogenous and
isotropic on a large scale. Inflation solves this problem by allowing different regions of the
universe to expand and come into contact with each other during the rapid expansion. The
23
flatness problem arises from the observation that the universe appears to be flat on a large
scale, which is difficult to explain within the standard Big Bang theory. Inflation solves this
problem by stretching out the curvature of space-time, making it appear flat. While the theory
of inflation has gained significant support from observations, some scientists still question its
validity and continue to explore alternative theories.
3.2.4 The Free Lunch Theory of Creation: Whereas in the big bang theory the vacuum of
space did not exist but was created simultaneously with the expansion of the universe after
the explosion, the Free Lunch theory, advanced by Zeldovich, Starobinsky, and Tryon, claims
that the universe was created from a vacuum fluctuation. This theory, claiming that the
universe emerged from vacuum fluctuations does not identify the source of energy required to
sustain the emerging virtual particles from the vacuum.
Other cosmological and cosmogony theories which include the theory of Everything or
Superstring Theory, The Twistor Theory, theory of Quantum Cosmology, Annang Cosmogony
and Yoruba Cosmogony.
3.3 The cosmic environment

Have you ever stopped to consider the incredible interconnectedness of the cosmic
environment? From the tiniest subatomic particles to the largest galaxies, everything in the
universe is linked in some way. And at the center of it all is the earth and the sun - two
celestial bodies that are essential to human life. The earth is our home, a planet teeming
with life and diversity. It provides us with air to breathe, water to drink, and food to eat. But
the earth doesn't exist in a vacuum - it's part of a vast cosmic ecosystem that includes the
sun, other planets, and even distant galaxies.
The sun is a vital component of our cosmic environment. It provides the heat and light we
need to survive, driving the processes that sustain life on earth. But it's not just about
warmth and light - the sun also influences our planet's climate, weather patterns, and even
our moods and behaviour. And it's not just humans that depend on the cosmic environment
for survival. All living things, from the tiniest microbes to the largest whales, are
interconnected in a delicate web of life that spans the universe. When one part of that web
is disrupted, it can have far-reaching consequences for the entire ecosystem. So as we
look up at the stars and contemplate the vastness of the cosmic environment, let's not forget
our place within it. We are but one small part of a larger whole, and our survival depends
on our ability to live in harmony with the natural world around us.
.
Let’s take a break. You may wish to test yourself with the following exercise.
3.4 The Earth

The earth on which man lives is a planet or satellite of the sun. We do not as yet have
evidence of human habitation in any other celestial body. The earth is one of the nine
planets, which rotate on their axis and revolve around the sun. The earth is spherical in
shape and moves around the sun in space.
3.4.1 Rotation and revolution of the earth

The earth is a fascinating and dynamic planet, constantly in motion as it rotates and
revolves around the sun. Its rotation on its axis gives us the cycle of day and night, while
its revolution around the sun gives us the changing seasons and year-long cycles.
At the equator, the earth completes one full rotation in approximately 24 hours, giving us
24
the familiar rhythm of day and night. As the earth rotates, different parts of it face the sun
at different times, creating the variations in light and darkness that we experience every
day. But the earth's motion doesn't stop there - it also revolves around the sun, completing
one full orbit every 365 days. This orbit determines the changing seasons, as the earth's
tilt and position relative to the sun create different amounts of sunlight and warmth
throughout the year. Despite its vast size, the earth is a relatively small planet in the grand
scheme of the universe. Its distance from the sun - 93 million miles - is just a tiny fraction
of the vast distances that separate stars and galaxies from each other.
And yet, despite its size, the earth is home to an incredible diversity of life and ecosystems.
From the highest mountains to the deepest oceans, the planet is filled with wonders and
mysteries waiting to be discovered and explored.
As we continue to study and learn about the earth, we gain a deeper appreciation for the
complexity and interconnectedness of our world. And as we work to protect and preserve
this fragile planet, we ensure that future generations can continue to marvel at its wonders
and beauty.
3.4.2 Spheres of the earth

The most important spheres of the earth are the following:
The biosphere: This is the part of the earth’s crust, water and atmosphere here living
organisms can subsist.
The atmosphere: This is the gaseous envelope (or air) surrounding the earth. It is of
mixed gases consisting of: Nitrogen (75,54.9) Oxygen (23-14 %) Argon (1.2%) and
Carbon Dioxide (0.05%).
The three sub-layers of the atmosphere are:
The troposphere: - the layer from the sea level to about 5 miles high at the North Pole
and 11 miles at the equator.
The stratosphere - up to 50 miles. Within the stratosphere is the region of gas called
ozone (a special form of oxygen). The ozone gas is being continually formed and
destroyed due to radiation from the sun. Ozone is a powerful oxidising agent used in
water purification. The ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs the most energetic
ultra-violet radiation from the sun. Radiation is dangerous to life, so the ozone layer in
the atmosphere is a protective layer important for the sustenance of life on earth.
The ionosphere - from 50 miles to 300 miles. Above this, the gases become very rare.
The ionosphere has two sub-layers - the mesosphere and the thermosphere.
The various layers of the atmosphere differ mainly in their temperature. For the
troposphere, temperature drops to about 30F for every 100 feet height. For stratosphere,
it rises to 900 F in the ozone layer and falls to about 1000 F at the top of the layer.
For the ionosphere, it rises to about 4,0000 F at the 300 miles up.
3.5 The Solar system

The solar system is a vast astronomical system that consists of the Sun and all celestial
objects that are gravitationally bound to it. The entire solar system is indeed held together by
the gravitational force of the Sun, as explained by Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation.
The gravitational force of the Sun that holds all the celestial bodies in the solar system in their
relative positions and keeps them in orbit around the Sun. The Sun is the primary source of
energy (solar energy) for the entire solar system. Solar energy, in the form of light and heat,
is generated by nuclear fusion reactions within the Sun's core. This energy powers the
planetary atmospheres, drives weather systems, and provides the energy necessary for life
on Earth.
This system includes:
25
1. The Sun: The central and most massive component of the solar system, primarily
composed of hydrogen and helium, and it emits light and heat through nuclear fusion.
2. Planets: There are eight major planets in the solar system, not nine as mentioned in
some of your secondary school textbooks. However, let us assume nine since that
seems to be more convincing to you. These planets, in order of their distance from the
Sun, are Mercury (no satellite), Venus (most brilliant planet, no satellite), Earth (one
satellite or moon), Mars (2 satellites), Jupiter (largest in solar system has 12 satellites),
Saturn (10 satellites), Uranus (5 satellites), and Neptune (2 satellites). To make it nine,
Pluto needs to be added. Each planet orbits the Sun in an elliptical path.
3. Satellites (Moons): Many of the planets have natural satellites or moons that orbit
around them. Mercury which is the smallest has no planet, Earth has the Moon, and
Jupiter has numerous moons, including Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
4. Asteroids: Asteroids are small rocky objects that orbit the Sun, primarily found in the
asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
5. Comets: Comets are icy objects that also orbit the Sun, and they have distinct orbits
that can take them far from the Sun and then back closer to it, producing visible tails
when they approach.
6. Kuiper Belt Objects: Beyond the orbit of Neptune, there is a region known as the
Kuiper Belt, which contains many smaller objects, including dwarf planets like Pluto.
7. Oort Cloud: The Oort Cloud is a hypothetical region even farther from the Sun, where
it is believed that long-period comets originate.
3.6 The Galaxies and measurement of distance in space

i. Galaxies: Yes, galaxies are indeed large systems of stars, along with other
celestial objects like planets, asteroids, and comets. These galaxies are held
together by their mutual gravitational attraction. The Milky Way Galaxy is the
galaxy to which our solar system belongs.
ii. The Milky Way Galaxy: The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, and it is
estimated to contain hundreds of billions of stars. It is a vast and complex system
with a central bar-shaped region, spiral arms, and a supermassive black hole at
its center.
iii. Other Galaxies: The universe contains numerous other galaxies, not just
nebulae. These galaxies come in various shapes, including elliptical, spiral, and
irregular. Some well-known galaxies other than the Milky Way include the
Andromeda Galaxy and the Triangulum Galaxy, among many others.
Light-years are indeed used to express vast distances in the universe. In other word, use of
light-years as a unit of measurement is a practical way to grasp the colossal distances and
timescales involved in astronomical observations and cosmology.
Distances and their measurement in the space:
i. Light-Year: A light-year is defined as the distance that light travels in one year through
a vacuum. Since light is the fastest thing in the universe, it serves as a convenient way
to express extremely large distances. One light-year is approximately equal to 5.88
trillion miles (or about 9.46 trillion kilometers).
ii. Stellar Distances: The use of light-years is particularly helpful when dealing with
distances between stars, planets, and other objects in space. Given the enormous
scale of the universe, it is much more practical to use light-years than to express these
distances in regular miles or kilometers.
iii. Quasars and Black Holes: Quasars are incredibly bright and powerful objects found
at the centers of galaxies. They emit intense radio waves and other forms of energy.
26
Black holes are extremely massive objects with such strong gravitational forces that
nothing, not even light, can escape their grasp. They are often associated with quasars
because of their powerful energy emissions.
iv. Cosmic Distances: Indeed, some objects in the universe, such as distant galaxies
and quasars, are located at vast distances from us. When astronomers observe these
objects, they are effectively looking back in time because the light they detect has
taken billions of years to reach us. The statement that some quasars are as far as 14
billion light-years away highlights the immense size and age of the observable
universe.
It is worth noting that while the Sun may appear larger and brighter to us than any other star
because of its proximity to Earth, it is, in fact, an average-sized star in the context of the entire
universe. There are many stars in our galaxy, and the universe as a whole, that are
significantly larger and more massive than the Sun (note than the sun is about 109 times wider
than the Earth). There are supergiant stars (such as Mu Cephei, Betelgeuse, Antares, and
Deneb) which are indeed much larger than our Sun.
To put it into perspective:
i. Mu Cephei (also known as Herschel's Garnet Star) is approximately 1,500 times

the size of the Sun.
ii. Betelgeuse is roughly 900 times the size of the Sun.
iii. Antares is about 530 times the size of the Sun.
iv. Deneb is approximately 145 times the size of the Sun.
These supergiant stars are not only larger but also significantly more massive and luminous
than the Sun. They play important roles in the lifecycle of stars, often ending their existence
in dramatic supernova explosions. The variety of star sizes and characteristics in the universe
is a testament to the complexity and diversity of stellar evolution. The fundamental question
some philosophers and creationist asked here is “can all these stars be without a creator?”
You may wish to test yourself with the following exercise.
1. Differentiate between cosmology and cosmogony
2. The earth is a satellite of (a) --------------------. It takes it approximately
(b) hours to rotate on its axis while it takes it about (c)
- ------- days to complete one revolution around the sun.
3. The three sub-layers of the atmosphere are (a) ------------- (b) -------------
-------------
4. The nine planets according to their proximity to the sun are -----------, ------
---------, -----------------, ---------------, -------------, -------------, --------------, ---------
------, --------------
4.0 Conclusion
From the Big Bang to the present day, we have followed the evolution of the universe and
the birth of the countless celestial objects that populate it. We have come to appreciate
the vastness and complexity of the universe, and the incredible beauty and wonder that it
27
holds.
5.0 Summary
1. Charles Darwin's natural selection theory "On the Origin of
Species" and "The Descent of Man," remains one of the most
influential scientific theories of all time.
2. Darwin postulated that humans must have evolved from a single-
celled organism through a long process of evolution
3. Theory of evolution cannot explain the transition from the plant
world to the animal world or the emergence of human being
4. The big bang theory suggests that the universe started from a
single point and has been expanding ever since\
5. Cosmology is the area of study concerned with the structure
of the universe while cosmogony deals with the evolution and
origin of the universe.
6. The structure of the cosmos is made up of (a) the earth (and
other planets) (b) their satellites (c) the sun and other stars (d)
the groups of stars called galaxies.
7. Man depends, for his survival, on air, heat, water and other
natural resources from the entire cosmos, particularly his own
earth and the sun.
8. Spheres of the earth are (a) the biosphere (b) the atmosphere
The 3 sub-layers of the atmosphere are
(i) the troposphere
(ii) the stratosphere and
(iii) the thermosphere.
9. The solar system is composed of the sun and the 9 planets. Each
of some of the planets have its own moon(s) or satellite(s) which
rotate round it.
Galaxies are a large system of stars held together by mutual gravitation and isolated by similar
systems by vast regions of
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. Define cosmology
2. Mention seven cosmology theories and discuss two
3. What is the difference between solar system and galaxy
4. What are the consequences of the rotation and revolution of the earth

Nwala, T. U. (1997) ‘Man and His Cosmic Environment’ in: Nwala, T. U. (ed.) History
and philosophy of science, Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, Nsukka.
University Press.
28

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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA,

MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

Subject Matter Experts Prof N. A. Egharevba

Course Coordinator Prof. Nosa Anthony Egharevba

Instructional System Designers Dr. Murtala Iyanda Animashaun

ODL Experts Prof. Amosa Isiaka Gambari

Language Editors (Names of Editors)

Centre Director Prof. Zinash Delebo OSUNDE

Recommended Study Time

What You Are About to Learn in This Course

(i) broaden your understanding of various disciplines and their interrelationships.

(vii) awaken in you a sense of waste management and environmental sanitation

Man - his origin and Environment

Module one Unit 1 Origin of man

Unit 1 Nature and history of science and philosophy

Unit 3 Scientific methodology

Introduction to the various area of science and

Unit 5 Social implications of technological advancement

Unit 2 Effects of textiles wastes and radiochemical hazards

Menon, R. V. G. (2009). An Introduction to the History and Philosophy of Science. Pearson

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

Final Examination and Grading

Practical Strategies for Working Through This Course

Tutors and Tutorials

2.0 Learning Outcomes

3.0 Learning Content

3.1.1 The Religious View

3.1.2 The Scientific View

1. Pedalism - ability to stand on two legs

Fig 3.1: Reconstruction of an adult female Australopithecus

Australopithecus boisei and Australopithecus robustus. These last two

Cro-Magnons: H. sapiens - Cro-Magnons were the first anatomically modern humans to

3.3 Factors of human evolution

1. The growth and elaboration of the brain;

These four factors of human evolution will be considered.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Learning Outcomes

3.0 Learning Content

(b) Muscle cells

(d) Blood cells:

(e) Germ cells, sex cells or reproductive cells:

(f) Epithelial cells or skin cells:

3.2 Reproductive cell

3.3 Chromosomes (Carriers of Hereditary Materials)

3.4 Sex determination

3.6 Heredity and Environment

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments

7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Learning Outcomes

3.0 Learning Content

3.3 The cosmic environment

3.4 The Earth

3.4.1 Rotation and revolution of the earth

3.4.2 Spheres of the earth

3.5 The Solar system

3.6 The Galaxies and measurement of distance in space

Distances and their measurement in the space:

To put it into perspective:

i. Mu Cephei (also known as Herschel's Garnet Star) is approximately 1,500 times

You may wish to test yourself with the following exercise.