Indoor Limits Eng

OSH Research Report
Contents
Preface ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
41
Acknowledgements ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
42
Abbreviations ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
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1. Introduction ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
44
1.1 What is IAQ? 44
1.2 Existing IAQ Guidance Notes 44
1.3 Need for Printing Plant IAQ Guidelines 45
1.4 Objectives 45
1.5 Scope 45
2. Unique Environment in Printing Plants ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 46
3. Indoor Air Pollutants in Printing Plants ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

48
3.1 Common Pollutants Found in Indoor Environment 48
3.2 Gaseous Pollutants in Printing Plants 49
3.2.1 Ammonia 50
3.2.2 Isopropyl Alcohol 50
3.2.3 Ethyl Benzene, Toluene and Xylene 51
3.2.4 White Gasoline 53
3.3 Particulate Pollutants in Printing Plants 53
3.3.1 Paper Dust and Starch Powder 54
3.3.2 Ink Mist 55
3.3.3 Carbon Black 55
4. Engineering Control and Mitigation ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

56
4.1 Mechanical Ventilation 56
4.2 Filtration 57
4.3 Adsorption Air Cleaning 58
4.4 Segregation 58
4.5 Differential Pressure Control 59
4.6 Directional Airflow Control 60
4.7 Local Exhaust Ventilation 61
4.8 Source Control 61
5. Best Practices of Work ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

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6. Management of Programme ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
64
Appendix I Printing Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Questionnaire 66

Appendix II IAQ Checklist 72
Appendix III Data Sheet for Short-Term IAQ Sampling 75
References ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
76
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Indoor Air Quality for Printing Plants
Tables
Table 3.1 : Exposure limits of indoor air pollutants commonly found in offices
and public places 48
Table 3.2 : 8-hour occupational exposure limits of gaseous pollutants 49
Table 3.3 : Active sampling methods for ammonia 50
Table 3.4 : Active sampling methods for isopropyl alcohol 51
Table 3.5 : Active sampling methods for ethyl benzene 51
Table 3.6 : Active sampling methods for toluene 52
Table 3.7 : Active sampling methods for xylene 52
Table 3.8 : Active sampling method for white gasoline 53
Table 3.9 : 8-hour occupational exposure limits of particulate pollutants 53
Table 3.10 : Sampling methods for paper dust and starch (total dust) 54
Table 3.11 : Sampling methods for paper dust and starch (respirable fraction) 54
Table 3.12 : Sampling method for ink mist 55
Table 3.13 : Sampling methods for carbon black 55
Table 4.1 : Ventilation requirements in printing plant 57
Table 4.2 : Filters used in printing plant 58
Table 4.3 : Differential pressure control in printing plant 60
Table 5.1 : Less harmful chemical or process for substitution 62
Table 5.2 : Automatic mechanical devices for handling of chemicals 62
Figures
Figure 2.1 : Commercial offset lithographic printing 46

Figure 4.1 : Ventilation requirements in printing plant 56
Figure 4.2 : Filtration 57
Figure 4.3 : Segregation of facilities in printing plant 59
Figure 4.4 : Differential pressure control in pre-press room 59
Figure 4.5 : Directional airflow in pressroom 60
Figure 4.6 : Local exhaust ventilation 61
Figure 5.1 : Proper position of worker with respect to contaminant source
and airflow direction 63
Figure 6.1 : Organisational structure of IAQ management team 64
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OSH Research Report
Preface
This report attempts to provide a guidance to facilitate the control and management of indoor
air quality in printing plants so as to maintain a safe and healthy working environment. The
indoor air pollution concerns, such as sources of contaminants, adverse health effects, and
exposure limits, are discussed in this report. Effective engineering control and mitigation
measures are recommended. The primary group of audience of this report includes engineers,
employers, workers, and administrative staff who strive to manage and run their printing
plants with good indoor air quality.
41
Acknowledgements
This report is one of the deliverables of the research project entitled Indoor Air Quality Control and
Mitigation Measures for Printing Plants which is fully supported by a grant from the Occupational
Safety and Health Council (Research Grant No. CM/4R/2002-02). The research project is undertaken
jointly by Dr Michael K H Leung, Dr Chun-ho Liu, Department of Mechanical Engineering, the
University of Hong Kong and Dr Alan H S Chan, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and
Engineering Management, City University of Hong Kong. The investigators would like to thank all
individuals who have contributed to the implementation of the project and the preparation of this
report. Special thanks go to the following for their tremendous support:
Mr. Dennis Leung, Mountain Arts Screen Printing Co.
Mr. Philip Leung, Printing Unit, the University of Hong Kong
Mr. John K.F. Ng, Fortune Printing International Limited
Mr. Takeaki Ogino, Toppan Printing Co. (HK) Ltd.
Ms. Sin Wai Han, Catalles, Paramount Printing Company Limited and Apple Daily
Mr. Sun Man Ting, Jansun Printing Co. Ltd.
Mr. Willie Tam, Kin Kwok Printing Press Ltd.
Ms. Wai, Elegance Printing & Book Binding Co. Ltd.
Mr. Paul Yuen, Reprographic Section, City University of Hong Kong Press
Our research team members:
Mr. Oliver K.Y. Chau, Student Research Assistant, The University of Hong Kong
Mr. Keith Y.K. Chung, Student Research Assistant, The City University of Hong Kong
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OSH Research Report
Abbreviations
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

AHU Air-handling Unit
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPD Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong
FID Flame Ionization Detector
IAQMG Indoor Air Quality Management Group, Hong Kong
HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
NIOSH U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
OEL Occupational Exposure Limit
OSHA U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
RSP Respirable Suspended Particulates
TVOC Total Volatile Organic Compounds
USEPA/NAAQS U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/National Ambient Air Quality Standards
WHO World Health Organization
NOHSC National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Australia
OSHS Occupational Safety and Health Service, New Zealand
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
Units
cfm Cubic feet per minute

cfu Colony forming units
pCi pico-curies
ppm Parts per million by volume
ppb Parts per billion by volume
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1. Introduction
1.1 What is IAQ?

The indoor air quality (IAQ) of an indoor environment can be reflected by the degree of satisfaction
of the occupants. Alternatively, in order to facilitate effective management, IAQ is commonly
quantified by more objective measurements combining the concentration of pollutants and thermal
conditions. There are various types of indoor air pollutants found in buildings, namely, inorganic
gases, volatile organic compounds (VOC), particulate matters, airborne micro-organisms, and radon.
Without proper control and management, poor IAQ may cause sick building syndrome (SBS). The
symptoms of SBS include headaches, dizziness, fatigue, irritations of eyes and skin, and so on. The
SBS symptoms disappear soon after the victim leaves the building. Although SBS is neither life-
threatening nor permanently damaging, it may seriously affect our comfort and productivity. Worse
IAQ will lead to building related illnesses (BRI) which are clinically diagnosed illnesses, such as
hypersensitivity pneumonitis, Legionnaires’ disease, cancer, etc. The IAQ problems cause considerable
threat and concern to the community.
In 1995, the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) of Hong Kong commissioned a study to
assess the IAQ in office premises and other selected public places (EHS 1997). The questionnaire
survey showed that 32% of the respondents were not satisfied with the IAQ in their workplace.
The study also concluded that the estimated annual medical costs and productivity losses due to
poor IAQ amounted to economic losses of HK$12.2 billion, which was about 1% of the gross domestic
product (GDP) in Hong Kong.
1.2 Existing IAQ Guidance Notes

In response to the abovementioned substantial losses, the Indoor Air Quality Management Group
(IAQMG) of the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) issued the first
draft of Guidance Notes for the Management of Indoor Air Quality in Offices and Public Places in
1999 and later revised it to the final draft in 2003 (IAQMG 2003). In that Guidance Note, the
background information and practical guidelines for control and management of IAQ are discussed.
It sets out IAQ objectives and assesses the IAQ based on 12 parameters which include :
1. carbon dioxide (CO2)
2. carbon monoxide (CO)
3. respirable suspended particulates (RSP)
4. nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
5. ozone (O3)
6. formaldehyde (HCHO)
7. total volatile organic compounds (TVOC)
8. radon
9. airborne bacteria
10. room temperature
11. relative humidity, and
12. air movement
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OSH Research Report
1.3 Need for Printing Plant IAQ Guidelines

The existing IAQ Guidance Notes (IAQMG, 2003), which are intended for offices and public places
where no significant amount of chemicals are used in the vicnity, are not adequate for applying to
printing plants. It is because the unique processes and operations of printing facilities cause IAQ
problems very different from those commonly encountered in offices and public places. The HKSAR
Labour Department has published the Code of Practice on Control of Air Impurities (Chemical
Substances) in the Workplace (Occupational Safety and Health Branch, HKSAR Labour Department
2002). The Code of Practice is a useful reference as it provides the occupational exposure limits of
most industrial chemical substances, including those frequently used in the printing industry.
Moreover, the HKSAR Labour Department has issued the booklet The Protection of Workers’ Health
Series – Solvent (Occupational Safety and Health Branch, HKSAR Labour Department 2000) to provide
practical guidance for the control of the major airborne hazard in the trade. Still, both books lack
in provision of engineering methods for effect of control of the emissions.
1.4 Objectives
The main purpose of this report is to provide useful information to facilitate the control and
management of IAQ to better safeguard the health of workers in printing plants. All information
is based on thorough reviews of relevant references and IAQ assessments of various printing plants.
The report contains the following contents :
1. Sources, adverse health effects and exposure limits of indoor air pollutants of considerable
concern for the printing industry
2. Effective engineering control and mitigation measures
3. Management programme suitable for typical organizational structure of printing companies.
1.5 Scope
This report is written for all, whose works directly or indirectly involve IAQ control and management
in printing plants. The target audiences include the employers, workers, engineers, occupational
health officers, administrative staff and so on. Other professionals working closely with the printing
industry, such as architects, environmental officers and engineering consultants, will also find this
report useful.
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2. Unique Environment in Printing Plants
Printing is one of the biggest industries in Hong Kong. There are about 45,000 employees. Most
printing companies in Hong Kong are small-scale companies. The average number of employees
per company is 9. A wide range of printing services are available, such as business cards, posters,
books, newspapers, magazines and others. In Hong Kong, offset lithography is the most popular
printing method while other methods include rotogravure, flexographic, letterpress, screen and
plateless types. The major work processes and materials involved in commercial offset lithographic
printing are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2.1 Commercial offset lithographic printing
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OSH Research Report
The major sources of indoor air pollutants in printing plants are the uses of solvents, inks, fountain
solutions and cleaning agents. Xylene, ketones and alcohols are common VOC vapours found. The
chemical composition depends on the printing method and substrate used. In offset lithographic
printing, the inks used in sheet-fed presses are dried by oxidative polymerization. Inks used in non-
heat-set web presses are dried by absorption onto the substrate. The amount of VOC emissions
from sheet-fed and non-heat-set web presses is insignificant. However, heat-set presses, in which
the inks are dried by evaporating aliphatic ink oils, emit considerable VOC. Hence, local exhaust
ventilation, catalytic and thermal incineration are usually implemented to mitigate the pollution
problems. Other printing processes and operations that may cause serious VOC emissions include
proofing, ink mixing, cleaning, binding, laminating and storage of chemicals.
There are also special airborne particulate pollutants found in the printing plants. The paper dust
generated in paper folding and cutting processes can be suspended in the air. The starch powder
used to separate printed paper sheets is also an airborne particulate pollutant. Ink, apart of its
presence in a form of vapour, can be found in a form of droplets suspended in the air. All of the
above particulate pollutants are known to cause occupational health problems.
The use of gasoline- and LPG-powered trolleys and fork lifts for in-plant transportation is one of
the sources of combustion gases accumulating in the indoor environment. Combustion of fuels
generates carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Any incomplete combustion produces carbon
monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide is of particular concern as it is a poisonous
gas that may cause permanent neurological damage and even death.
47
48
Table 3.1 Exposure limits of indoor air pollutants commonly found in offices and public places
Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Dioxide Ozone Formaldehyde Total Volatile Respirable Suspended Radon
(CO2) (CO) (NO2) (O3) (HCHO) Organic Compounds Particulates
(TVOC) RSP (PM10)✝
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ␮g/m3 ␮g/m3 pCi/L
800 (8 hr, E)* 1.7 (8 hr, E) 0.02 (8 hr, E) 0.03 (8 hr, E) 0.025 (8 hr, E) 200 (8 hr, E) 20 (8 hr, E) 4 (8 hr, E)
HKSAR/IAQMG a 180 (8 hr, G)
1,000 (8 hr, G) 8.7 (8 hr, G) 0.08 (8 hr, G) 0.06 (8 hr, G) 0.081 (8 hr, G) 600 (8 hr, G) 5.4 (8 hr, G)
5,000 (8 hr) 25 (8 hr) 3 (8 hr) 0.05 (8hr; heavy work) 0.3 (Ceiling) 3 (8 hr)
HKSAR/Labour 30,000 (15 min) 5 (15 min) 0.08 (8 hr; moderate work)
Department b 0.1 (8 hr; light work)
0.2 (⭐ 2 hours)
China c 1,000 - 0.05 0.05 (1 hr) 0.065 (ceiling) - - -
d 9 (8 hr) 0.08 (8 hr)
ASHRAE
- - 0.1 - 150 (24 hr) -
USEPA/NAAQS e 35 (1 hr) 0.12 (1 hr)
8.6 (8 hr)
0.08 (24 hr)
f
25 (1 hr) 0.08 (8 hr)
WHO/Europe - 0.2 (1 hr) 0.081 (30 min) - - -
50 (30 min) 0.1 (1 hr)
1 (15 min)
86 (15 min)
5,000 (8 hr) 0.1 (8 hr) 0.75 (8 hr)
OSHA g 50 (8 hr) 1 (15 min) - - -
30,000 (1 hr) 0.3 (15 min) 2 (15 min)
3.1 Common Pollutants Found in Indoor Environment
5,000 (8 hr) 0.016 (8 hr)

NIOSH REL h 35 (8 hr) 1 (15 min) 0.1 (15 min) - - -
30,000 (15 min) 0.1 (15 min)
5,000 (8 hr) 3 (8 hr) 0.05 (8 hr)
ACGIH i 25 (8 hr) 0.3 (ceiling) - - -
30,000 (15 min) 5 (15 min) 0.2 (15 min)
5,000
MAK (Germany) d 30 5 0.1 0.3 - - -
9,000 (15 min)
3. Indoor Air Pollutants in Printing Plants
5,000 (8 hr) 3 (8 hr) 1 (8 hr)

NOHSC (Australia) j 30 (8 hr) 0.1 (ceiling) - - -
30,000 (15 min) 5 (15 min) 2 (15 min)
50 (1 hr)
OSHS 5,000 (8 hr) 3 (8 hr)
100 (30 min) 0.1 (ceiling) 1 (ceiling) - - -
(New Zealand) k 30,000 (15 min) 5 (15 min)
200 (15 min)
of these pollutants adopted by different professional organizations are summarized in Table 3.1.
Note: Please refer to the References for full citations.

a. HKSAR/IAQMG 2003 b. HKSAR Labour Department c. !"#$$%&'()* 2000 d. ASHRAE 2001 e. USEPA/NAAQS 2001 f. WHO 1999
In a general work environment, the common indoor air pollutants emitted from furniture, office
equipment, occupants etc. are described in the IAQ Guidance Notes (IAQMG 2003). The exposure limits
g. OSHA 2002 h. NIOSH 1988 i. ACGIH 2001 j. NOHSC 1995 k. OSHS 2002
✝
* E and G denote “Excellent” class and “Good” class, respectively. Particulates (PM10) refer to suspended particles having diameters of 10 (m or less.
OSH Research Report
3.2 Gaseous Pollutants in Printing Plants

In printing plants, there are more chemical vapours present in the indoor environment causing
occupational health risk. These air contaminants and recommended exposure limits are summarized
in Table 3.2. In the following subsections, particularly important contaminants are discussed in
more details, including the sources, adverse health effects and measurement methods.
Table 3.2 8-hour occupational exposure limits of gaseous pollutants
Pollutant HKSAR Labour Department a NIOSH RELb OSHA PELc

ppm ppm ppm
Ammonia 25 25 50
Benzene 0.5 0.1 1
Carbon dioxide 5,000 5,000 5,000
Carbon monoxide 25 35 50
Chlorobenzene 10 - 75
Chloroform 10 - 50
Chloromethane (methyl chloride) 50 - 100
p-Dichlorobenzene 10 - 75
Dichlorodifluoromethane 1,000 1,000 1,000
cis-1,2-Dichloroethene 10 1 50
1,2-Dichloroethane 10 1 100
Ethylbenzene 100 100 100
Formaldehyde 0.3 0.016 0.75
Methylene chloride 50 - 25
Nitrogen dioxide 3 1 -
Ozone 0.1 0.1 0.1
Styrene 20 50 100
1,1,2,2-Tetracholoroethane 1 1 5
Toluene 50 100 200
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 350 - 350
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 25 25 -
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 25 25 -
m-Xylene 100 100 100
o-Xylene 100 100 100
p-Xylene 100 100 100
a. HKSAR Labour Department (2002)

b. NIOSH REL - recommended exposure limits (NIOSH 2003)
c. OSHA PEL - permissible exposure limits (OSHA 1991)
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3.2.1 Ammonia
Sources and health effects
Ammonia (NH3) is commonly used in plate making processes for developing solution in offset
lithographic printing. Ammonia gas is colourless with a pungent, suffocating odour. It is also a
flammable gas. Over exposure to ammonia causes irritation of eyes and throat, dyspnea (breathing
difficulty), wheezing, chest pain and pulmonary edema.
Measurement methods
Ammonia can be measured by active sampling methods in which air samples are collected for
laboratory analysis. These methods are summarized in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Active sampling methods for ammonia
Method Description
• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (sulfuric acid-treated silica gel)

NIOSH 6015 a • Technique: visible absorption spectrophotometry using indophenol blue dye
• Working range: 0.2 to 400 ppm (0.15 to 300 mg/m3) for a 10-litre air sample
• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (sulfuric acid-treated silica gel)

a
NIOSH 6016 • Technique: ion chromatography conductivity detection
• Working range: 24 to 98 ppm (17 to 68 mg/m3) for a 30-litre sample
• Sampler: glass tube containing carbon beads impregnated with sulfuric acid (CISA)
b
OSHA ID188 • Technique: samples are analyzed by ion chromatography after resorption in deionised water
• Validation range: 30.7 to 101.8 ppm
Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
3.2.2 Isopropyl Alcohol

Isopropyl alcohol (C3H8O) is an aqueous solution commonly used to dampen the nonimage area on
the plate. It is also known as fountain or dampen solution in offset lithographic printing. The
fountain solution commonly contains 15 - 30% alcohol. The adverse health effects due to exposure
to isopropyl alcohol include irritation of eyes, nose and throat, drowsiness, dizziness and headache.
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OSH Research Report
Measurement methods
Isopropyl alcohol can be measured by active sampling methods as summarized in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Active sampling methods for isopropyl alcohol
Method Description
• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (coconut shell charcoal)

NIOSH 1400 a • Technique: gas chromatography, FID
• Working range: 4 to 400 ppm (10 to 1,000 mg/m3) for a 3-litre air sample
• Sampler: anasorb747 tube containing adsorbent

OSHA ID109 b
• Technique: gas chromatography, FID

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
3.2.3 Ethyl benzene, Toluene and Xylene

Organic solvents, such as ethyl benzene (CH3CH2C6H5), toluene (C6H5CH3) and xylene (C6H4(CH3)2),
are mainly used as the volatile component of ink. Toluene has a sweet, pungent and benzene-like
odour, while ethyl benzene and xylene have an aromatic odour. Excessive exposure may damage
the central nervous system, eyes, skin, respiratory system, liver and kidneys.
Measurement methods
The vapour content of ethyl benzene, toluene and xylene, can be measured by portable direct-
reading instrument or gas chromatography. More details can be found in Tables 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7.
Table 3.5 Sampling methods for ethyl benzene
Method Description

• Working range: 222 to 884 mg/m3 for a 1-litre air sample
• Sampler: charcoal tubes (coconut shell charcoal)

OSHA 7 b
• Sampler: charcoal tubes (coconut shell charcoal)

OSHA 1002 b

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
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Table 3.6 Sampling methods for toluene

Method Description
• Working range: 548 to 2,190 mg/m3 for a 2- to 8-litre air sample
• Working range: 548 to 2,190 mg/m3 for a 1-litre air sample
• Sampler: portable direct-reading instrument
• Technique: extractive Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry
NIOSH 3800 a
• Working range and the limit of detection: may vary from laboratory to laboratory,
analyst to analyst, instrument to instrument,
and day to day
• Sampler: diffusive sampler (activated carbon)
a
NIOSH 4000 • Technique: gas chromatography (FID)
• Working range: 13 to 660 ppm (50 to 2,500 mg/m3) for a 4-hour sample
• Sampler: adsorbent tube, Anasorb® 747 tubes, or diffusive samplers
b
OSHA 111 • Technique: gas chromatography (FID)
• Working range: vary from sampling methods

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
Table 3.7 Sampling methods for xylene
Method Description

a
NIOSH 1501 • Technique: gas chromatography, FID
• Sampler: portable direct-reading instrument

• Technique: extractive Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry
NIOSH 3800 a
• Working range and the limit of detection: may vary from laboratory to laboratory,
analyst to analyst, instrument to instrument, and day to day
• Sampler: active sampling through coconut shell charcoal sampling tubes or passive
OSHA 1002 b samplers SKC 575-002
• Techniques: gas chromatography, FID

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
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OSH Research Report
3.2.4 White Gasoline

White gasoline, also known as petrol, is used in a variety of applications, such as fuel, metal
degreasing, cleaning of printing plates and rubber blankets. It is a complex mixture of volatile
hydrocarbons containing paraffins, cycloparaffins and aromatics. The major health effects are
irritation of eyes, skin, mucous membrane; dermatitis; headache, lassitude, blurred vision, dizziness,
slurred speech, confusion and convulsion.
Measurement method
The measurement method of white oil is presented in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Sampling method for white oil
Method Description
• Sampler: charcoal tube

OSHA PV2028 a • Technique: samples are desorbed with carbon disulfide and analyzed by gas
chromatography using a flame ionization detector

a. OSHA (2001)
3.3 Particulate Pollutants in Printing Plants

Apart from gaseous pollutants, there are important particulate pollutants in printing plants. These
pollutants and their 8-hour occupational exposure limits are presented in Table 3.9.
Table 3.9 8-hour occupational exposure limits of particulate pollutants
Pollutant HKSAR Labour Department a NIOSH RELb OSHA PELc

mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
Carbon black 3.5 3.5 3.5

Cellulose (paper fiber/dust) 10 5 5 (respirable)
15 (total)
d
Ink mist 5 5 5
Respirable particulate (insoluble) 3 - -
Starch (respirable) 4 5 5
Starch (inhalable) 10 - -
a. HKSAR Labour Department (2002)

b. NIOSH REL - recommended exposure limits (NIOSH 2003)
c. OSHA PEL - permissible exposure limits (OSHA 1991)
d. Exposure limit of oil mist employed
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3.3.1 Paper Dust and Starch Powder

The fundamental molecular formula of paper dust and starch is (C6H10O5)n. Paper dust is a unique
indoor air pollutant in paper-product-related industry. The dust often generated from paper cutting
can be suspended in the air. Besides, starch powder which is used to separate printed paper sheets
is another airborne particulate pollutant in offset lithographic printing. The symptoms of over
exposure include irritation of eyes, skin and mucous membrane; cough, chest pain; dermatitis;
rhinorrhea (discharge of thin mucus).
Measurement method
Airborne paper dust and starch powder can be measured by portable direct-reading instrument
employing laser-photometer. More detailed measurement methods suggested by NIOSH and OSHA
are tabulated in Tables 3.10 and 3.11.
Table 3.10 Sampling methods for paper dust and starch (total dust)
Method Description
• Sampler: tared polyvinyl chloride 5 ␮m filter

NIOSH 0500 a • Technique: gravimetric
OSHA Particulates • Sampler: tared low ash polyvinyl chloride (LAPVC) filter 5 ␮m. Do not use a
“not otherwise regulated” cyclone
(total dust) b
• Technique: gravimetric

a. NIOSH (1998)
b. OSHA (2004)
Table 3.11 Sampling methods for paper dust and starch (respirable fraction)
Method Description
• Sampler: tared polyvinyl chloride 5 ␮m filter and 10 mm nylon cyclone

NIOSH 0600 a • Technique: gravimetric
• Working range: 0.5 to 10 mg/m3 for a 200-litre air sample
OSHA Particulates • Sampler: tared low ash polyvinyl chloride (LAPVC) filter 5 ␮m preceded by
“not otherwise regulated” a 10 ␮m nylon cyclone
(respirable fraction) b • Technique: gravimetric

a. NIOSH (1998)
b. OSHA (2004)
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OSH Research Report
3.3.2 Ink Mist

Ink mist or ink fly is often encountered in pressrooms. The major sources are ink rollers rotating in
opposite direction and dispersing minute ink droplets ranging from 5 to 10 ␮m in diameter. The
major substances of ink mist include oil vehicle (usually mineral oil), varnishes, wetting agents,
carbon black and colored pigments. The mineral oil is a complex mixture of aromatic, naphthenic
and straight- or branched-chain paraffinic hydrocarbons. The polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) are potential carcinogens. As the cloud of ink droplets is electrostatically charged, local
control by charged suppressors can repel the ink back to the ink rollers to reduce the emission.
Measurement method
The ink mist can be collected by the methods described in Table 3.11. The ink mist content of the
sample collected can be subsequently analyzed by infrared spectrophotometry in accordance with
NIOSH 5026 as described in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12 Sampling method for ink mist
Method Description
• Sampler: membrane filter

a
NIOSH 5026 • Technique: infrared spectrophotometry

a. NIOSH (1994)
3.3.3 Carbon Black

Carbon black or colored pigment contained in ink can also cause indoor air pollution. As carbon
black absorbs polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), it becomes a potential carcinogen.
Measurement methods
Carbon black can be measured by filtering and gravimetric methods described in Table 3.13.
Table 3.13 Active sampling methods for carbon black
Method Description
• Sampler: tared 5 mm polyvinyl chloride (PVC) membrane filter

NIOSH 5000 a • Technique: Gravimetric (filter weight)
• Working range: 0.5 to 10 mg/m3 for a 200-litre air sample
• Sampler: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) filters

OSHA ID196 b • Technique: Gravimetric (filter weight)
• Validation range: 30.7 to 101.8 ppm

a. NIOSH 1994
b. OSHA 2001
55
4. Engineering Control and Mitigation
Although there are many sources of air contaminants in a printing plant, the work environment
can be safe and comfortable if proper engineering control and mitigation measures are implemented.
4.1 Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation is an essential IAQ control. Indoor air contaminants are diluted when the
contaminated indoor air is exhausted and clean outdoor air is introduced into the air-conditioned
environment, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. Ventilation can be measured by the volumetric flow rate
of outdoor air. Alternatively, ventilation can be quantified by the number of air changes per hour
(ACH), referring to the number of times a volume of air, equivalent to the space volume, driven
into that space in one hour.
An outdoor air supply of 5 to 10 L/s • m2 (about 6 to 12 ACH) should be adequate for most industrial
facilities (ACGIH 2001). In the production areas of printing plants, it is recommended that the
outdoor air supply should be at least 2.5 L/s • m2 (about 3 ACH) to provide minimal dilution of VOC
generated (ASHRAE 2003). The ventilation in storage and bindery areas should be maintained at
about 0.5 and 1 ACH, respectively. For general-purpose warehouses, the recommended ventilation
should be between 1 and 4 ACH. In the office areas, the outdoor supply air should be at least 10 L/s
per person (ASHRAE 2001). A summary is provided in Table 4.1. More ventilation requirements for
printing plants can be found in ASHRAE Applications Handbook (2003).
Figure 4.1 Mechanical ventilation
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OSH Research Report
Table 4.1 Ventilation requirements in printing plant
Area Minimum outdoor air intake
General Production Area 5 to 10 L/s • m2 (about 6 to 12 ACH)

Pressroom 2.5 L/s • m2 (about 3 ACH)a
5 ACH b
Pre-Press Room (Film and Plate Developers) 5 ACH
Storage Area 0.5 ACH
Bindery Area 1 ACH
General-Purpose Warehouse 1 to 4 ACH
Office 10 L/s per person
Canteen 10 L/s per person
a. ASHRAE 2003
b. HSE (2004)
4.2 Filtration
Filters can effectively collect particulate contaminants by means of straining (sieving), direct
interception, inertial deposition, diffusion and electrostatic effect. Filters are normally installed
inside air-handling units and fan-coil units. The configuration is shown in Figure 4.2. In printing
plants, the particulate contaminants are mostly starch powder and paper dust suspended in the air.
The proper use of filters depends on the level of cleanliness required in individual facilities as
shown in Table 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Filtration
57
Table 4.2 Filters used in printing plant
Area Filter Type
Common Production Area 80 to 90% mass arrestance

Sheetfed Pressroom Final filter: 85% dust-spot efficiency
Film Processing (dust free requirement) Final filter: 90 to 95% dust-spot efficiency
Office 50 to 60% dust spot efficiency
Ref. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2 - 1999
4.3 Adsorption Air Cleaning

Adsorption is a surface phenomenon that gaseous contaminant molecules are diffused into the
macropores and micropores of adsorbent material. The net flow of the pollutant molecules is toward
the adsorbent surface when the concentration of the contaminant in the gas flow is greater than
that at the adsorbent surface. Activated carbon and molecular sieves are popular adsorbents.
4.4 Segregation
Effective segregation of workplaces helps prevent the spread of pollutants from the sources to
other clean areas of a plant. The general guidelines for segregation are:
1. Printing processes that emit considerable hazardous pollutants should be isolated in rooms
that are well-sealed except the door gaps. Such printing processes include film processing, plate
making and chemical storage. The air in isolated rooms is not allowed to freely mix with the air
in the remaining printing plant areas. Each isolated room should be served by a separate
mechanical ventilation system. Normally, the ventilation operates at 100% discharge to the
exhaust without recirculation of return air unless proper air treatment is available. Additional
local exhaust ventilation may be applied as appropriate.
2. On the contrary, offices, control rooms and canteen are relatively clean areas. They should be
separated from the majority production areas in order to prevent contamination. Separate
mechanical ventilation systems should be implemented. The use of recirculated air from the
production areas should not be allowed.
3. The loading area of a printing plant is usually polluted by combustion gases emitted from
delivery trucks during loading and unloading. The use of air curtain at the entrance is
recommended to minimize the transport of pollutants into the indoor environment. Moreover,
the indoor area adjacent to the loading area should be maintained at a positive pressure to
prevent infiltration. Ground-level local exhaust ventilation can remove vehicle exhaust from
the loading bay. Drivers are encouraged to turn off the engines while waiting.
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OSH Research Report
Figure 4.3 Segregation of facilities in printing plant
4.5 Differential Pressure Control

In conjunction with segregation of workplaces, the differential pressure between two adjacent,
separated areas should be regulated to restrict the air leakage through the door undercut to a
single direction in compliance with the clean-to-less-clean principle. A negative pressure can be
obtained by providing an air flow rate of the supply lower than that of the exhaust, as illustrated
in Figure 4.3. Oppositely, a positive pressure can be obtained by providing an air flow rate of the
supply higher than that of the exhaust. A summary of differential pressure control in printing
plants is presented in Table 4.3.
Figure 4.4 Differential pressure control in pre-press room
59
Table 4.3 Differential pressure control in printing plant
Area Differential Pressure
Chemical Storage Negative

Plate Making Negative
Pressroom Equal
Binding Equal
Office Positive
Canteen Positive
4.6 Directional Airflow Control

The clean-to-less-clean airflow principle is also applicable to the ductwork design of an air-
conditioning system. The air movement should be from clean areas to areas of progressively higher
pollutant concentration. Figure 4.4 illustrates an example of a pressroom. Clean conditioned air
should be supplied to the zone occupied by workers while the exhaust should be placed near the
printing machine to remove the emissions. It is noted that the ceiling exhaust can encourage
stratification for effective removal of the hot, rising VOC emissions.
Figure 4.5 Directional airflow in pressroom
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OSH Research Report
4.7 Local Exhaust Ventilation

Some sources may emit considerable pollutants that, practically, the abovementioned engineering
methods are not effective to control the indoor air quality. Examples in a printing plant include
sizable offset printing machines, photocopiers, film developers, plate makers etc. Under these
circumstances, local exhaust ventilation, as shown in Figure 4.6, may become the most cost-effective
method to capture the pollutants in the vicinity of the source immediately after emissions. The
polluted exhaust are then discharged to the outdoor environment, or treated before discharge.
The exhaust fan should be located at the discharge end of the duct system so that leakage into the
indoor environment is avoided.
Figure 4.6 Local exhaust ventilation
There are a number of conventional exhaust treatment options depending on the types of pollutants,
i.e. HEPA filtration for particulates, absorption and electric/gas-fired incineration for VOC. When
local exhaust ventilation is operating, the general supply air should be increased to provide make-
up air to replace the discharge air. Thus, the designed differential pressure can be maintained.
4.8 Source Control

As forklifts powered by gasoline, propane or LPG are commonly used in production areas and
warehouses, the combustion gas emissions may cause poor indoor air quality. Toxic carbon monoxide
due to incomplete combustion is of particular concern. Instead of increasing the outdoor air intake
for dilution, a better solution is to eliminate the source by replacement with electric forklifts.
61
5. Best Practices of Work
Besides the engineering control and mitigation measures, IAQ in printing plants can be effectively
improved by implementing proper practice of work in normal operation. The workers being aware
of IAQ should be capable of taking appropriate actions to lower the emissions of pollutants or
even remove the sources. The following useful practices are recommended:
i The use of automatic blanket wash systems should be considered wherever practicable (HSE
2004).
ii Only necessary amount of solvent or cleaning agent is used. Excessive use of chemicals causes
extra emissions of the vapours. Adopting cleaning rags would help reduce the consumption of
cleaning agent.
iii Containers of solvents, cleaning agents, fountain solutions, and inks should be tightly closed
after use to minimize the emissions.
iv Less harmful chemicals or processes available are preferred to substitute conventional ones. A
candidate substitute for existing chemical used may have the attributes that it can be function
effectively at lower concentration or it has lower vapour pressure. Moreover, it should not
cause any other hazards, such as flammability and corrosion. Probable substitutes available in
the industry are presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Less harmful chemical or process for substitution
Conventional Chemical/Process Substitute Use
Heat-set ink Ultraviolet (UV) ink Printing process

Photographic chemicals Diazo, vesicular, photopolymer, Film Development
electrostatic films, and agents
without hydroquinone
Presensitized plate Computer-to-plate Plate making
v In handling of chemicals, the use of automatic mechanical devices is recommended. For example,
pumps can be used to facilitate the filling of solvent containers. This can avoid unnecessary
spillage and direct contact of the chemical. More devices are presented in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Automatic mechanical devices for handling of chemicals

Device Function/Use
Automatic processor Direct pumping of replenishment solutions and drainage of spent

solvents to container
Automatic cleaner Cleaning of offset press
Pump Transferring fountain solution
Carousels mixing system Formulating ink
62
OSH Research Report
vi During an operation in which the worker has to stay close to the source of contaminant, such as
cleaning of printing presses, the worker should stand in a position so that the air flows through
him before the contaminant source, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Proper position of worker with respect to contaminant source and airflow direction
vii Personal protection by respiratory protective equipment in general is not required in normal
operations of printing facilities. It may be needed for some emergency cleaning and maintenance
activities, e.g. dealing with spills. Routine maintenance of respirators is essential.
viii For dust-generating printing procedures, such as paper cutting (paper dust) and wed-fed printing
(starch powder), printing workers should wear filtering facepiece particulate respirators.
Particulate respirators meeting the NIOSH 42 CFR 84 N95 Standard should be used.
ix Waste ink, solvent and rags become unattended indoor VOC sources. Therefore, the waste
should be properly handled and removed from the indoor environment as soon as possible.
x Vacuum cleaning of dusty surfaces should be used instead of compressed air cleaning as the
latter will cause settled particulates to aerosolize again.
63
6. Management Programme
Good indoor air quality in a printing plant relies on the joint efforts of the employer, workers,
engineers and administrative staff. An IAQ management programme can best facilitate the
coordination of necessary activities to identify, correct and prevent IAQ problems. The
implementation of a management programme can also raise awareness in all staff for achieving
good IAQ. IAQMG (2003) has outlined the IAQ management strategies for offices and public places.
With appropriate modifications, the strategies can be applied to most printing plants.
Step 1: Allocation of responsibilities

• Appoint an IAQ manager responsible for the overall development and implementation of the
IAQ management programme. The ideal candidate will be someone in the senior management
level. The IAQ manager may directly report to the highest hierarchy of Safety and Health
Committee.
• Set up an IAQ management team comprising IAQ officers from different staff to assist the IAQ
manager. A desirable organisational structure for an IAQ management team is shown in Figure
6.1.
Figure 6.1 Organisational structure of IAQ management team
Step 2: Preparation performed by the IAQ manager

• Study the literature on IAQ in the printing industry to gain a basic understanding of the problems,
control strategies, mitigation measures and preventive actions.
• Be aware of new and existing legislative requirements, standards and guidelines; ensure that
these are fully understood by all staff members.
• Develop an IAQ Policy endorsed by the senior management; alternatively, the commitment to
good IAQ can be defined in either the Environmental Policy or the Safety and Health Policy.
• Organize IAQ Training Programme to help staff understand the sources and adverse health
effects of IAQ pollutants, and acquire knowledge and skill to control the pollutants below the
occupational exposure limits.
64
OSH Research Report
• Identify the potential IAQ problems that could be caused by the printing processes and chemicals
used.
• Identify poor engineering design and operation of the ventilation and filtration systems that
may cause IAQ problems.
Step 3: Review of staff activities

• Ensure that printing facilities and areas occupied by staff are properly placed so that air generally
flows though the workers before the printing machines (clean-to-less-clean principle).
• Assist IAQ assessment and investigation activities when required.
Step 4: Communication
• Document and communicate with all staff for issues relating to air pollutants in the printing
industry, i.e. chemical spillage and leakage incidents, reported SHS, reported outbreaks of
infection, IAQ assessment and investigation results, recommended guidelines etc.
• Provide a platform for receiving and responding to IAQ complaints.
Step 5: Investigation
• Use the questionnaire form (Appendix I) designed for IAQ in printing plants to conduct
questionnaire surveys to collect information from the staff.
• Analyse the data/information collected to identify potential IAQ problems.
• Conduct periodic walk-through inspections with the checklists provided in Appendix II.
• Conduct comprehensive IAQ assessments with detailed measurements. The data sheet provided
in Appendix III suggests the information needed to complete an assessment.
• Analyse the measurements, identify appropriate mitigation measures and implement them.
Step 6: Record keeping

• Keep records of IAQ-related complaints and follow-up actions.
• Keep records of IAQ questionnaire surveys to monitor progress, as indicators of IAQ performance.
• Keep records of walk-through inspections and comprehensive IAQ assessments conducted.
• Register all IAQ-related symptoms and illnesses reported by the occupants.
• Update Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the materials used and stored in the printing
plants.
65
Appendix I : Printing Plant Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Questionnaire
Name (optional): Date:
Telephone (optional):
Part 1: IAQ-related information about your workplace

1.1 Please rate the present condition of each of the following items (Circle one number between 1 and 7,
inclusive)
Item Very Poor Very Good
a Air quality 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b Air freshness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c Air ventilation/circulation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d Air temperature 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e Air humidity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.2 During the past three months, have you experienced any of the following items? (Circle Y or N)
Item Yes No
a Unpleasant odours Y N
b Stuffy air Y N
c Too warm Y N
d Too cold Y N
e Too humid Y N
f Too dry Y N
1.3 During the past three months, have any of the following changes been made in your workplace?
(Circle Y or N)
Change Yes No
a New carpeting Y N
b New flooring Y N
c New furnishing Y N
d New painted wall Y N
e New partition Y N
If you circle all N’s, please go to Q1.5.
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OSH Research Report
1.4 Do any of the above changes cause the following pollutants? (Circle Y or N)
Pollutants Yes No
a Dust Y N
b Irritant fumes Y N
c Unpleasant odours Y N
1.5 Are there any air cleaning devices installed in your workplace? (Circle 1, 2 or 3)
1 Yes
2 No → Go to Q 1.7
3 Do not know → Go to Q 1.7
1.6 Do the air cleaning devices significantly improve the indoor air quality? (Circle a number)
1 Yes
2 No
1.7 For each of the following factors, do you believe that it has adversely affected the indoor air quality in
your workplace during the past three months? (Circle one number between 1 and 7, inclusive)
Factor Strongly Strongly

Agree Disagree
a Chemical pollutants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b Microbiological pollutants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c Unpleasant odours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d Tobacco smoke 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e Outdoor pollutants entering the building 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f Poor air conditioning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
g Insufficient ventilation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h Renovation works 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
i Overcrowding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
j New furnishings/carpets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
k Other factors (please specify) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.8 Overall, how satisfied are you with the indoor air quality in your workplace? (Circle one number between
1 and 7, inclusive)
Very Dissatisfied Very Satisfied
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
67
Part 2: IAQ-related information about your health

2.1 During the past three months, have you had the following symptoms? (Circle one number between 1 and
7, inclusive)
Symptoms Always Never

a Dryness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Eye symptoms b Redness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c Watering 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d Dry nose 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e Running nose 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nasal symptoms
f Sneezing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
g Stuffy nose or congestion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h Dry cough 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Throat symptoms
i Sore or dry throat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
j Dryness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Skin problems k Itching skin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
l Rash 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
m Difficulty in concentrating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
n Dizziness 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
o Fever 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other symptoms p Headache 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
q Nausea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
r Shortness of breath 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
s Unusual fatigue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Others (please specify):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
If you never have any of the above symptoms (i.e. circle all 7’s), please go to Part 3.
2.2 Do the symptoms usually improve when you temporarily leave your workplace? (Circle a number)
1 Yes, become less severe
2 No. stay the same
3 No, become worse
2.3 Do the symptoms lower your working performance/productivity? (Circle a number)

1 Yes
2 No
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OSH Research Report
2.4 Did the symptoms cause you to take sick leave during the past three months? (Circle a number)
1 Yes
2 No → Go to Q 2.6
2.5 How long (in total) was the sick leave? (Circle a number)
1 Less than 1/2 day
2 1/2 to 1 day
3 2 to 4 days
4 5 to 7 days
5 More than 7 days
2.6 Select atmost three serious symptoms that frequently cause you to take sick leave? (Circle at most three
alphabets from a - l)
Symptoms
a Eye symptoms
b Nasal symptoms
c Throat symptoms
d Skin problems
e Difficulty in concentrating
f Dizziness
g Fever
h Headache
i Nausea
j Shortness of breath
k Unusual fatigue
l Others (please specify):
2.7 Have you sought medical treatment for your symptoms? (Circle a number)
1 Yes
2 No
2.8 Does anyone around you suffer from the same symptoms as you? (Circle a number)
1 Yes
2 No
69
2.9 For each of the following factors, do you believe that it has been a major factor causing the symptoms as
mentioned in Q 2.1 during the past three months? (Circle one number between 1 and 7, inclusive)
Factor Strongly Strongly

Agree Disagree
a Chemical pollutants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b Microbiological pollutants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c Unpleasant odours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d Tobacco smoke 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e Outdoor pollutants entering the building 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f Poor air conditioning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
g Insufficient ventilation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h Renovation works 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
i Overcrowding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
j New furnishings/carpets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
k Other factors (please specify): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Part 3: IAQ-related information about you and your specific job

3.1 Your gender?
1 Female
2 Male
3.2 Your age?

1 Under 25
2 25 to 34
3 35 to 44
4 45 to 54
5 55 or above
3.3 What is your occupation? (Circle the most appropriate number)

1 Managerial/Executive
2 Professional
3 Technician
4 Clerical/Secretarial
5 Manual worker/Blue collar
6 Others (please specify):
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OSH Research Report
3.4 How long have you been working in the printing industry?
1 Less than 1 year
2 1 to 5 years
3 6 to 10 years
4 11 to 20 years
5 More than 20 years
3.5 How long have you been working in this printing company?
1 Less than 1 year
2 1 to 5 years
3 6 to 10 years
4 11 to 20 years
5 More than 20 years
3.6 How many hours per day do you spend in your workplace?
1 Fewer than 4 hours
2 4 to 6 hours
3 7 to 9 hours
4 10 to 12 hours
5 More than 12 hours
Thank you very much for completing this questionnaire.
71
Appendix II : IAQ Checklist
Conducted by: Date:
Building: Floor/Room:
Part 1: Printing Plant
Yes No Remark
1 Is indoor environment too hot or too cold?
2 Is indoor environment too humid or too dry?
3 Any unpleasant odours?
4 Any odours of ammonia?
5 Is supply air weak?
6 Is supply or return airflow obstructed?
7 Are any windows open in mechanically

ventilated area?
8 Any chemical waste/storage room doors
opened?
9 Any signs of poor or reverse differential
pressure in chemical waste/storage rooms?
10 Are ceiling tiles near supply air diffusers
stained?
11 Any unsealed chemicals, such as ink, solvent,
and cleaning agent, containers?
12 Any spills of chemical agents?
13 Any baths of ink, solvent, and cleaning agent
left exposed to indoor air without a local
exhaust system?
14 Any mould or mildew growth on shower
heads/taps?
15 Any other signs of mould or mildew growth?
16 Any visible surfaces dusty?
17 Any special sources of pollutants other than
printing machines? (e.g. forklift, cigarette
smoking etc.)
72
OSH Research Report
Part 2: Engineering Facilities
AHU Room Yes No Remark

1 Any sign of water damage or standing water
in AHU?
2 Any mould or mildew growth inside at AHU?
3 Any mould or mildew growth on cooling coil?
4 Any sources of pollutants in AHU room? (e.g.

paint and lubricant etc.)
5 Are air filters overloaded?
Outdoor Air Intake Yes No Remark

6 Is outdoor air intake close to any building
exhausts, including those of chemical fume
hoods?
7 Is outdoor air intake close to cooling tower?
8 Is outdoor air intake close to other source of

pollutants, i.e. vehicle exhaust and nearby
construction work etc.?
9 Is outdoor air intake contaminated by standing

water and bird droppings etc.?
10 Is outdoor air intake obstructed by leaves and

debris etc.?
Cooling Tower Yes No Remark

11 Any serious growth of slime or algae on
surfaces of cooling tower?
12 Is emission of water mist high?
13 Is cooling tower located near the outdoor air

intake?
73
Construction/Renovation Areas Yes No Remark

14 Any air leakage through construction barrier
used to isolate the indoor construction/
renovation area?
15 Any air leakage from sealing of ventilation

system in construction/renovation area?
16 Is outlet of temporary local exhaust located

near outdoor air intake or windows?
17 Are any containers of paint, solvent, adhesive

or cleaning agent left unsealed while not in use?
18 Is outdoor air intake contaminated by emission

from nearby construction works?
74
Conducted by: Date:
Building: Floor/Room:
Type of facility: Air-conditioned area (m2):
Number of occupants: Ceiling height (m):
Start time: Finished time:
IAQ parameters
CO2 CO NO2 O3 TVOC Formaldehyde RSP Bacteria Radon Temperature RH

Sampling Point
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (mg/m3) (ppm) (mg/m3) (cfu/m3) (pCi/L) (oC) (%)
AHU operations
Supply Air Return Air Outdoor Air
AHU No.
Air Speed Duct Size Temperature Air Speed Duct Size Temperature Air Speed Duct Size Temperature
(m/s) L (m) x W (m) (oC) (m/s) L (m) x W (m) (oC) (m/s) L (m) x W (m) (oC)
Appendix III : Data Sheet for Short-Term IAQ Sampling
Any Observation/suggestions:
OSH Research Report
75
References
1. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.) 1999. Chapter 3
- Commercial and Public Buildings, ASHRAE Handbooks: Applications, SI Edition, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia.
2. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.) 2003. Chapter
18 - Printing Plants, ASHRAE Handbooks: Applications, SI Edition, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia.
3. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.) 1999. ANSI/
ASHRAE Standard 52.2-1999, Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal
Efficiency by Particle Size, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia.
4. ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 .........
5. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.) 2001b. Chapter
9 - Indoor Environment Health, ASHRAE Handbooks: Fundamentals, SI Edition, ASHRAE, Atlanta, Georgia.
6. EHS 1997. Consultancy study on indoor air pollution in offices and public places in Hong Kong, EHS
Consultants Limited.
7. IAQMG (Indoor Air Quality Management Group) 2003. Guidance Notes for the Management of Indoor Air
Quality in Offices and Public Places, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
8. Health & Safety Executive 2004. Printing - Control guidance sheets, http://www.hse.gov.uk/printing/
coshhessentials.htm#guidance.
9. Leung, M. and Chan, A. Better Hospital Indoor Air Quality, Proceedings of the Symposium on Legionnaires’
Disease and other Respiratory Infections and their Prevention, Hong Kong, 12 December 2003, pp. 41-49.
10. NIOSH 1994. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Publication 94-113. 4th edition.
11. NIOSH 2000. NIOSH Hazard Review, Carbonless Copy Paper, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2001-107.
12. NIOSH 2003. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (NPG), NIOSH Publication No. 97-140, 3rd Printing.
13. Occupational Safety and Health Branch, HKSAR Labour Department 2000. The Protection of Workers’ Health
Series - Solvent.
14. Occupational Safety and Health Branch, HKSAR Labour Department 2002. Code of Practice on Control of
Air Impurities (Chemical Substances) in the Workplace, 1st edition.
15. OSHA 1991. Chemical Information Manual, OSHA Instruction CPL 2-2.43A.
16. OSHA 2001. Sampling and Analytical Methods. (http://www.osha-slc.gov/dts/sltc/methods/index.html).
17. WHO (World Health Organization) 2000. Guidelines for Air Quality, WHO, Geneva.
76

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2. Unique Environment in Printing Plants ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 46

3. Indoor Air Pollutants in Printing Plants ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

4. Engineering Control and Mitigation ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

5. Best Practices of Work ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Appendix I Printing Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Questionnaire 66

Figure 2.1 : Commercial offset lithographic printing 46

Mr. Dennis Leung, Mountain Arts Screen Printing Co.

Mr. Philip Leung, Printing Unit, the University of Hong Kong

Mr. John K.F. Ng, Fortune Printing International Limited

Mr. Takeaki Ogino, Toppan Printing Co. (HK) Ltd.

Mr. Sun Man Ting, Jansun Printing Co. Ltd.

Mr. Willie Tam, Kin Kwok Printing Press Ltd.

Ms. Wai, Elegance Printing & Book Binding Co. Ltd.

Our research team members:

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

cfm Cubic feet per minute

1.1 What is IAQ?

1.2 Existing IAQ Guidance Notes

1.3 Need for Printing Plant IAQ Guidelines

2. Effective engineering control and mitigation measures

3. Management programme suitable for typical organizational structure of printing companies.

2. Unique Environment in Printing Plants

Figure 2.1 Commercial offset lithographic printing

5,000 (8 hr) 0.016 (8 hr)

5,000 (8 hr) 3 (8 hr) 1 (8 hr)

Note: Please refer to the References for full citations.

3.2 Gaseous Pollutants in Printing Plants

Table 3.2 8-hour occupational exposure limits of gaseous pollutants

Pollutant HKSAR Labour Department a NIOSH RELb OSHA PELc

a. HKSAR Labour Department (2002)

Table 3.3 Active sampling methods for ammonia

• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (sulfuric acid-treated silica gel)

• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (sulfuric acid-treated silica gel)

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

3.2.2 Isopropyl Alcohol

Table 3.4 Active sampling methods for isopropyl alcohol

• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (coconut shell charcoal)

• Sampler: anasorb747 tube containing adsorbent

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

3.2.3 Ethyl benzene, Toluene and Xylene

Table 3.5 Sampling methods for ethyl benzene

• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (coconut shell charcoal)

• Sampler: charcoal tubes (coconut shell charcoal)

• Sampler: charcoal tubes (coconut shell charcoal)

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

Table 3.6 Sampling methods for toluene

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

Table 3.7 Sampling methods for xylene

• Sampler: solid sorbent tube (coconut shell charcoal)

• Sampler: portable direct-reading instrument

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

3.2.4 White Gasoline

Table 3.8 Sampling method for white oil

• Sampler: charcoal tube

Note: please refer to the References for full citations.

3.3 Particulate Pollutants in Printing Plants

Table 3.9 8-hour occupational exposure limits of particulate pollutants

Pollutant HKSAR Labour Department a NIOSH RELb OSHA PELc

Carbon black 3.5 3.5 3.5

a. HKSAR Labour Department (2002)

3.3.1 Paper Dust and Starch Powder

• Sampler: tared polyvinyl chloride 5 ␮m filter